Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.25 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 0 54718 2417371 2416489 2022-08-22T11:33:26Z Huz and Buz 2928717 /* Chapter 26 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} <[[Bible, English, King James, According to the documentary hypothesis]] According to the [[w:documentary hypothesis|documentary hypothesis]], [[w:Numbers|Numbers]] is composed from a number of originally independant sources joined by a [[w:redaction|redactor]]. There follows the text of Numbers in the [[w:King James Version|King James Version]], with sources highlighted according to the documentary hypothesis *The [[w:Priestly source|"Priestly source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#888800|olive yellow}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Jahwist|"Jahwist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#000088|navy blue}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Jahwist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Elohist|"Elohist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#008888|teal blueish grey}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Elohist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Torah redactor|"Additions by the redactor"]] are highlighted in {{font|color=#880000|maroon red}} ==Chapter 1== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tabernacle of the congregation, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, after their families, by the house of their fathers, with the number of their names, every male by their polls;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From twenty years old and upward, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel: thou and Aaron shall number them by their armies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And with you there shall be a man of every tribe; every one head of the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the men that shall stand with you: of the tribe of Reuben; Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Simeon; Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Judah; Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Issachar; Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zebulun; Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph: of Ephraim; Elishama the son of Ammihud: of Manasseh; Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Benjamin; Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Dan; Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Asher; Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gad; Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Naphtali; Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the renowned of the congregation, princes of the tribes of their fathers, heads of thousands in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron took these men which are expressed by their names:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they assembled all the congregation together on the first day of the second month, and they declared their pedigrees after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, by their polls.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As the LORD commanded Moses, so he numbered them in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Reuben, Israel's eldest son, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Reuben, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Simeon, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, those that were numbered of them, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Simeon, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Gad, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Gad, were forty and five thousand six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Judah, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Judah, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Issachar, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Issachar, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Zebulun, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Zebulun, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph, namely, of the children of Ephraim, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Ephraim, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Manasseh, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Manasseh, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Benjamin, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Benjamin, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Dan, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Dan, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Asher, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Naphtali, throughout their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Naphtali, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those that were numbered, which Moses and Aaron numbered, and the princes of Israel, being twelve men: each one was for the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So were all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all they that were numbered were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites after the tribe of their fathers were not numbered among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had spoken unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only thou shalt not number the tribe of Levi, neither take the sum of them among the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thou shalt appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of testimony, and over all the vessels thereof, and over all things that belong to it: they shall bear the tabernacle, and all the vessels thereof; and they shall minister unto it, and shall encamp round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the tabernacle setteth forward, the Levites shall take it down: and when the tabernacle is to be pitched, the Levites shall set it up: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel shall pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and every man by his own standard, throughout their hosts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall pitch round about the tabernacle of testimony, that there be no wrath upon the congregation of the children of Israel: and the Levites shall keep the charge of the tabernacle of testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did they.}} ==Chapter 2== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house: far off about the tabernacle of the congregation shall they pitch.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the east side toward the rising of the sun shall they of the standard of the camp of Judah pitch throughout their armies: and Nahshon the son of Amminadab shall be captain of the children of Judah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that do pitch next unto him shall be the tribe of Issachar: and Nethaneel the son of Zuar shall be captain of the children of Issachar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Zebulun: and Eliab the son of Helon shall be captain of the children of Zebulun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Judah were an hundred thousand and fourscore thousand and six thousand and four hundred, throughout their armies. These shall first set forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the south side shall be the standard of the camp of Reuben according to their armies: and the captain of the children of Reuben shall be Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those which pitch by him shall be the tribe of Simeon: and the captain of the children of Simeon shall be Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Gad: and the captain of the sons of Gad shall be Eliasaph the son of Reuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and five thousand and six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Reuben were an hundred thousand and fifty and one thousand and four hundred and fifty, throughout their armies. And they shall set forth in the second rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tabernacle of the congregation shall set forward with the camp of the Levites in the midst of the camp: as they encamp, so shall they set forward, every man in his place by their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the west side shall be the standard of the camp of Ephraim according to their armies: and the captain of the sons of Ephraim shall be Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And by him shall be the tribe of Manasseh: and the captain of the children of Manasseh shall be Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Benjamin: and the captain of the sons of Benjamin shall be Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the camp of Ephraim were an hundred thousand and eight thousand and an hundred, throughout their armies. And they shall go forward in the third rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The standard of the camp of Dan shall be on the north side by their armies: and the captain of the children of Dan shall be Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that encamp by him shall be the tribe of Asher: and the captain of the children of Asher shall be Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Naphtali: and the captain of the children of Naphtali shall be Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All they that were numbered in the camp of Dan were an hundred thousand and fifty and seven thousand and six hundred. They shall go hindmost with their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those which were numbered of the children of Israel by the house of their fathers: all those that were numbered of the camps throughout their hosts were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites were not numbered among the children of Israel; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses: so they pitched by their standards, and so they set forward, every one after their families, according to the house of their fathers.}} ==Chapter 3== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These also are the generations of Aaron and Moses in the day that the LORD spake with Moses in mount Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Aaron; Nadab the firstborn, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the sons of Aaron, the priests which were anointed, whom he consecrated to minister in the priest's office.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died before the LORD, when they offered strange fire before the LORD, in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children: and Eleazar and Ithamar ministered in the priest's office in the sight of Aaron their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Bring the tribe of Levi near, and present them before Aaron the priest, that they may minister unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep his charge, and the charge of the whole congregation before the tabernacle of the congregation, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep all the instruments of the tabernacle of the congregation, and the charge of the children of Israel, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the Levites unto Aaron and to his sons: they are wholly given unto him out of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt appoint Aaron and his sons, and they shall wait on their priest's office: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken the Levites from among the children of Israel instead of all the firstborn that openeth the matrix among the children of Israel: therefore the Levites shall be mine;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because all the firstborn are mine; for on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and beast: mine shall they be: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Number the children of Levi after the house of their fathers, by their families: every male from a month old and upward shalt thou number them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered them according to the word of the LORD, as he was commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were the sons of Levi by their names; Gershon, and Kohath, and Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Gershon by their families; Libni, and Shimei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Kohath by their families; Amram, and Izehar, Hebron, and Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Merari by their families; Mahli, and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites according to the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gershon was the family of the Libnites, and the family of the Shimites: these are the families of the Gershonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, even those that were numbered of them were seven thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the Gershonites shall pitch behind the tabernacle westward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the Gershonites shall be Eliasaph the son of Lael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the charge of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation shall be the tabernacle, and the tent, the covering thereof, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the curtain for the door of the court, which is by the tabernacle, and by the altar round about, and the cords of it for all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Kohath was the family of the Amramites, and the family of the Izeharites, and the family of the Hebronites, and the family of the Uzzielites: these are the families of the Kohathites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were eight thousand and six hundred, keeping the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the sons of Kohath shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle southward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of the Kohathites shall be Elizaphan the son of Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And their charge shall be the ark, and the table, and the candlestick, and the altars, and the vessels of the sanctuary wherewith they minister, and the hanging, and all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest shall be chief over the chief of the Levites, and have the oversight of them that keep the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Merari was the family of the Mahlites, and the family of the Mushites: these are the families of Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were six thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of Merari was Zuriel the son of Abihail: these shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle northward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And under the custody and charge of the sons of Merari shall be the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof, and all the vessels thereof, and all that serveth thereto,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But those that encamp before the tabernacle toward the east, even before the tabernacle of the congregation eastward, shall be Moses, and Aaron and his sons, keeping the charge of the sanctuary for the charge of the children of Israel; and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the Levites, which Moses and Aaron numbered at the commandment of the LORD, throughout their families, all the males from a month old and upward, were twenty and two thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Number all the firstborn of the males of the children of Israel from a month old and upward, and take the number of their names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt take the Levites for me (I am the LORD) instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel; and the cattle of the Levites instead of all the firstlings among the cattle of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered, as the LORD commanded him, all the firstborn among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the firstborn males by the number of names, from a month old and upward, of those that were numbered of them, were twenty and two thousand two hundred and threescore and thirteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel, and the cattle of the Levites instead of their cattle; and the Levites shall be mine: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for those that are to be redeemed of the two hundred and threescore and thirteen of the firstborn of the children of Israel, which are more than the Levites;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thou shalt even take five shekels apiece by the poll, after the shekel of the sanctuary shalt thou take them: (the shekel is twenty gerahs:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the money, wherewith the odd number of them is to be redeemed, unto Aaron and to his sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the redemption money of them that were over and above them that were redeemed by the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the firstborn of the children of Israel took he the money; a thousand three hundred and threescore and five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the money of them that were redeemed unto Aaron and to his sons, according to the word of the LORD, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 4== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the sons of Kohath from among the sons of Levi, after their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even until fifty years old, all that enter into the host, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be the service of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation, about the most holy things:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the camp setteth forward, Aaron shall come, and his sons, and they shall take down the covering vail, and cover the ark of testimony with it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And shall put thereon the covering of badgers' skins, and shall spread over it a cloth wholly of blue, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the table of shewbread they shall spread a cloth of blue, and put thereon the dishes, and the spoons, and the bowls, and covers to cover withal: and the continual bread shall be thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall spread upon them a cloth of scarlet, and cover the same with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take a cloth of blue, and cover the candlestick of the light, and his lamps, and his tongs, and his snuffdishes, and all the oil vessels thereof, wherewith they minister unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put it and all the vessels thereof within a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put it upon a bar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the golden altar they shall spread a cloth of blue, and cover it with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put to the staves thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take all the instruments of ministry, wherewith they minister in the sanctuary, and put them in a cloth of blue, and cover them with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put them on a bar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take away the ashes from the altar, and spread a purple cloth thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put upon it all the vessels thereof, wherewith they minister about it, even the censers, the fleshhooks, and the shovels, and the basons, all the vessels of the altar; and they shall spread upon it a covering of badgers' skins, and put to the staves of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Aaron and his sons have made an end of covering the sanctuary, and all the vessels of the sanctuary, as the camp is to set forward; after that, the sons of Kohath shall come to bear it: but they shall not touch any holy thing, lest they die. These things are the burden of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And to the office of Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest pertaineth the oil for the light, and the sweet incense, and the daily meat offering, and the anointing oil, and the oversight of all the tabernacle, and of all that therein is, in the sanctuary, and in the vessels thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Cut ye not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thus do unto them, that they may live, and not die, when they approach unto the most holy things: Aaron and his sons shall go in, and appoint them every one to his service and to his burden:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But they shall not go in to see when the holy things are covered, lest they die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take also the sum of the sons of Gershon, throughout the houses of their fathers, by their families;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward until fifty years old shalt thou number them; all that enter in to perform the service, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the Gershonites, to serve, and for burdens:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall bear the curtains of the tabernacle, and the tabernacle of the congregation, his covering, and the covering of the badgers' skins that is above upon it, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the hanging for the door of the gate of the court, which is by the tabernacle and by the altar round about, and their cords, and all the instruments of their service, and all that is made for them: so shall they serve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the appointment of Aaron and his sons shall be all the service of the sons of the Gershonites, in all their burdens, and in all their service: and ye shall appoint unto them in charge all their burdens.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation: and their charge shall be under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As for the sons of Merari, thou shalt number them after their families, by the house of their fathers;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old shalt thou number them, every one that entereth into the service, to do the work of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the charge of their burden, according to all their service in the tabernacle of the congregation; the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and sockets thereof,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords, with all their instruments, and with all their service: and by name ye shall reckon the instruments of the charge of their burden.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Merari, according to all their service, in the tabernacle of the congregation, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron and the chief of the congregation numbered the sons of the Kohathites after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them by their families were two thousand seven hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were they that were numbered of the families of the Kohathites, all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, which Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the sons of Gershon, throughout their families, and by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers, were two thousand and six hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered of the families of the sons of Gershon, of all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, whom Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them after their families, were three thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These be those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, whom Moses and Aaron numbered according to the word of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All those that were numbered of the Levites, whom Moses and Aaron and the chief of Israel numbered, after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that came to do the service of the ministry, and the service of the burden in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, were eight thousand and five hundred and fourscore,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the commandment of the LORD they were numbered by the hand of Moses, every one according to his service, and according to his burden: thus were they numbered of him, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 5== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they put out of the camp every leper, and every one that hath an issue, and whosoever is defiled by the dead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Both male and female shall ye put out, without the camp shall ye put them; that they defile not their camps, in the midst whereof I dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did so, and put them out without the camp: as the LORD spake unto Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, When a man or woman shall commit any sin that men commit, to do a trespass against the LORD, and that person be guilty;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then they shall confess their sin which they have done: and he shall recompense his trespass with the principal thereof, and add unto it the fifth part thereof, and give it unto him against whom he hath trespassed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the man have no kinsman to recompense the trespass unto, let the trespass be recompensed unto the LORD, even to the priest; beside the ram of the atonement, whereby an atonement shall be made for him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every offering of all the holy things of the children of Israel, which they bring unto the priest, shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every man's hallowed things shall be his: whatsoever any man giveth the priest, it shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, If any man's wife go aside, and commit a trespass against him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man lie with her carnally, and it be hid from the eyes of her husband, and be kept close, and she be defiled, and there be no witness against her, neither she be taken with the manner;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be defiled: or if the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be not defiled:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man bring his wife unto the priest, and he shall bring her offering for her, the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal; he shall pour no oil upon it, nor put frankincense thereon; for it is an offering of jealousy, an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring her near, and set her before the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest shall take, and put it into the water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall set the woman before the LORD, and uncover the woman's head, and put the offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy offering: and the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from this bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if thou hast gone aside to another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man have lain with thee beside thine husband:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall charge the woman with an oath of cursing, and the priest shall say unto the woman, The LORD make thee a curse and an oath among thy people, when the LORD doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot: And the woman shall say, Amen, amen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall write these curses in a book, and he shall blot them out with the bitter water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall cause the woman to drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall take the jealousy offering out of the woman's hand, and shall wave the offering before the LORD, and offer it upon the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take an handful of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when he hath made her to drink the water, then it shall come to pass, that, if she be defiled, and have done trespass against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if the woman be not defiled, but be clean; then she shall be free, and shall conceive seed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside to another instead of her husband, and is defiled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or when the spirit of jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous over his wife, and shall set the woman before the LORD, and the priest shall execute upon her all this law.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man be guiltless from iniquity, and this woman shall bear her iniquity.}} ==Chapter 6== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate themselves unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head: until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the LORD, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days that he separateth himself unto the LORD he shall come at no dead body.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall not make himself unclean for his father, or for his mother, for his brother, or for his sister, when they die: because the consecration of his God is upon his head.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation he is holy unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any man die very suddenly by him, and he hath defiled the head of his consecration; then he shall shave his head in the day of his cleansing, on the seventh day shall he shave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the eighth day he shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, to the priest, to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, and make an atonement for him, for that he sinned by the dead, and shall hallow his head that same day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall consecrate unto the LORD the days of his separation, and shall bring a lamb of the first year for a trespass offering: but the days that were before shall be lost, because his separation was defiled.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer his offering unto the LORD, one he lamb of the first year without blemish for a burnt offering, and one ewe lamb of the first year without blemish for a sin offering, and one ram without blemish for peace offerings,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their meat offering, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring them before the LORD, and shall offer his sin offering, and his burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings unto the LORD, with the basket of unleavened bread: the priest shall offer also his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite, after the hair of his separation is shaven:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall wave them for a wave offering before the LORD: this is holy for the priest, with the wave breast and heave shoulder: and after that the Nazarite may drink wine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of the Nazarite who hath vowed, and of his offering unto the LORD for his separation, beside that that his hand shall get: according to the vow which he vowed, so he must do after the law of his separation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons, saying, On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel, saying unto them,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD bless thee, and keep thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them.}} ==Chapter 7== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the day that Moses had fully set up the tabernacle, and had anointed it, and sanctified it, and all the instruments thereof, both the altar and all the vessels thereof, and had anointed them, and sanctified them;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That the princes of Israel, heads of the house of their fathers, who were the princes of the tribes, and were over them that were numbered, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought their offering before the LORD, six covered wagons, and twelve oxen; a wagon for two of the princes, and for each one an ox: and they brought them before the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of them, that they may be to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; and thou shalt give them unto the Levites, to every man according to his service.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the wagons and the oxen, and gave them unto the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Two wagons and four oxen he gave unto the sons of Gershon, according to their service:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And four wagons and eight oxen he gave unto the sons of Merari, according unto their service, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But unto the sons of Kohath he gave none: because the service of the sanctuary belonging unto them was that they should bear upon their shoulders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar in the day that it was anointed, even the princes offered their offering before the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, They shall offer their offering, each prince on his day, for the dedicating of the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that offered his offering the first day was Nahshon the son of Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his offering was one silver charger, the weight thereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them were full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of ten shekels of gold, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the second day Nethaneel the son of Zuar, prince of Issachar, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He offered for his offering one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of gold of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the third day Eliab the son of Helon, prince of the children of Zebulun, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fourth day Elizur the son of Shedeur, prince of the children of Reuben, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fifth day Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai, prince of the children of Simeon, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the sixth day Eliasaph the son of Deuel, prince of the children of Gad, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, a silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the seventh day Elishama the son of Ammihud, prince of the children of Ephraim, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eighth day offered Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur, prince of the children of Manasseh:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the ninth day Abidan the son of Gideoni, prince of the children of Benjamin, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|66}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the tenth day Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai, prince of the children of Dan, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|67}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|68}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|69}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|70}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|71}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|72}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eleventh day Pagiel the son of Ocran, prince of the children of Asher, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|73}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|74}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|75}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|76}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|77}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|78}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the twelfth day Ahira the son of Enan, prince of the children of Naphtali, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|79}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|80}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|81}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|82}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|83}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|84}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This was the dedication of the altar, in the day when it was anointed, by the princes of Israel: twelve chargers of silver, twelve silver bowls, twelve spoons of gold:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|85}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Each charger of silver weighing an hundred and thirty shekels, each bowl seventy: all the silver vessels weighed two thousand and four hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|86}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The golden spoons were twelve, full of incense, weighing ten shekels apiece, after the shekel of the sanctuary: all the gold of the spoons was an hundred and twenty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|87}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the oxen for the burnt offering were twelve bullocks, the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin offering twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|88}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the oxen for the sacrifice of the peace offerings were twenty and four bullocks, the rams sixty, the he goats sixty, the lambs of the first year sixty. This was the dedication of the altar, after that it was anointed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|89}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses was gone into the tabernacle of the congregation to speak with him, then he heard the voice of one speaking unto him from off the mercy seat that was upon the ark of testimony, from between the two cherubims: and he spake unto him.}} ==Chapter 8== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and say unto him, When thou lightest the lamps, the seven lamps shall give light over against the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron did so; he lighted the lamps thereof over against the candlestick, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this work of the candlestick was of beaten gold, unto the shaft thereof, unto the flowers thereof, was beaten work: according unto the pattern which the LORD had shewed Moses, so he made the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites from among the children of Israel, and cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thus shalt thou do unto them, to cleanse them: Sprinkle water of purifying upon them, and let them shave all their flesh, and let them wash their clothes, and so make themselves clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then let them take a young bullock with his meat offering, even fine flour mingled with oil, and another young bullock shalt thou take for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt gather the whole assembly of the children of Israel together:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the LORD: and the children of Israel shall put their hands upon the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron shall offer the Levites before the LORD for an offering of the children of Israel, that they may execute the service of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites shall lay their hands upon the heads of the bullocks: and thou shalt offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, unto the LORD, to make an atonement for the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt set the Levites before Aaron, and before his sons, and offer them for an offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shalt thou separate the Levites from among the children of Israel: and the Levites shall be mine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that shall the Levites go in to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt cleanse them, and offer them for an offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For they are wholly given unto me from among the children of Israel; instead of such as open every womb, even instead of the firstborn of all the children of Israel, have I taken them unto me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For all the firstborn of the children of Israel are mine, both man and beast: on the day that I smote every firstborn in the land of Egypt I sanctified them for myself.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have taken the Levites for all the firstborn of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have given the Levites as a gift to Aaron and to his sons from among the children of Israel, to do the service of the children of Israel in the tabernacle of the congregation, and to make an atonement for the children of Israel: that there be no plague among the children of Israel, when the children of Israel come nigh unto the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Aaron, and all the congregation of the children of Israel, did to the Levites according unto all that the LORD commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did the children of Israel unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites were purified, and they washed their clothes; and Aaron offered them as an offering before the LORD; and Aaron made an atonement for them to cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that went the Levites in to do their service in the tabernacle of the congregation before Aaron, and before his sons: as the LORD had commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did they unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is it that belongeth unto the Levites: from twenty and five years old and upward they shall go in to wait upon the service of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And from the age of fifty years they shall cease waiting upon the service thereof, and shall serve no more:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But shall minister with their brethren in the tabernacle of the congregation, to keep the charge, and shall do no service. Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites touching their charge.}} ==Chapter 9== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the first month of the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the children of Israel also keep the passover at his appointed season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the fourteenth day of this month, at even, ye shall keep it in his appointed season: according to all the rites of it, and according to all the ceremonies thereof, shall ye keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, that they should keep the passover.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they kept the passover on the fourteenth day of the first month at even in the wilderness of Sinai: according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there were certain men, who were defiled by the dead body of a man, that they could not keep the passover on that day: and they came before Moses and before Aaron on that day:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those men said unto him, We are defiled by the dead body of a man: wherefore are we kept back, that we may not offer an offering of the LORD in his appointed season among the children of Israel?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Stand still, and I will hear what the LORD will command concerning you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If any man of you or of your posterity shall be unclean by reason of a dead body, or be in a journey afar off, yet he shall keep the passover unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| They shall leave none of it unto the morning, nor break any bone of it: according to all the ordinances of the passover they shall keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that is clean, and is not in a journey, and forbeareth to keep the passover, even the same soul shall be cut off from among his people: because he brought not the offering of the LORD in his appointed season, that man shall bear his sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger shall sojourn among you, and will keep the passover unto the LORD; according to the ordinance of the passover, and according to the manner thereof, so shall he do: ye shall have one ordinance, both for the stranger, and for him that was born in the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up the cloud covered the tabernacle, namely, the tent of the testimony: and at even there was upon the tabernacle as it were the appearance of fire, until the morning.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So it was alway: the cloud covered it by day, and the appearance of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, then after that the children of Israel journeyed: and in the place where the cloud abode, there the children of Israel pitched their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of the LORD they pitched: as long as the cloud abode upon the tabernacle they rested in their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud tarried long upon the tabernacle many days, then the children of Israel kept the charge of the LORD, and journeyed not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud was a few days upon the tabernacle; according to the commandment of the LORD they abode in their tents, and according to the commandment of the LORD they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud abode from even unto the morning, and that the cloud was taken up in the morning, then they journeyed: whether it was by day or by night that the cloud was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or whether it were two days, or a month, or a year, that the cloud tarried upon the tabernacle, remaining thereon, the children of Israel abode in their tents, and journeyed not: but when it was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD they rested in the tents, and at the commandment of the LORD they journeyed: they kept the charge of the LORD, at the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 10== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Make thee two trumpets of silver; of a whole piece shalt thou make them: that thou mayest use them for the calling of the assembly, and for the journeying of the camps.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when they shall blow with them, all the assembly shall assemble themselves to thee at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they blow but with one trumpet, then the princes, which are heads of the thousands of Israel, shall gather themselves unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm, then the camps that lie on the east parts shall go forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm the second time, then the camps that lie on the south side shall take their journey: they shall blow an alarm for their journeys.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But when the congregation is to be gathered together, ye shall blow, but ye shall not sound an alarm.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall blow with the trumpets; and they shall be to you for an ordinance for ever throughout your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye go to war in your land against the enemy that oppresseth you, then ye shall blow an alarm with the trumpets; and ye shall be remembered before the LORD your God, and ye shall be saved from your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Also in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings; that they may be to you for a memorial before your God: I am the LORD your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the twentieth day of the second month, in the second year, that the cloud was taken up from off the tabernacle of the testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took their journeys out of the wilderness of Sinai; and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they first took their journey according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the first place went the standard of the camp of the children of Judah according to their armies: and over his host was Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Issachar was Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Zebulun was Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the tabernacle was taken down; and the sons of Gershon and the sons of Merari set forward, bearing the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of Reuben set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Simeon was Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Gad was Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Kohathites set forward, bearing the sanctuary: and the other did set up the tabernacle against they came.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Ephraim set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Manasseh was Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Benjamin was Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Dan set forward, which was the rereward of all the camps throughout their hosts: and over his host was Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Asher was Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Naphtali was Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus were the journeyings of the children of Israel according to their armies, when they set forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto Hobab, the son of Raguel the Midianite, Moses' father in law, We are journeying unto the place of which the LORD said, I will give it you: come thou with us, and we will do thee good: for the LORD hath spoken good concerning Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto him, I will not go; but I will depart to mine own land, and to my kindred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said, Leave us not, I pray thee; forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to us instead of eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it shall be, if thou go with us, yea, it shall be, that what goodness the LORD shall do unto us, the same will we do unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they departed from the mount of the LORD three days' journey: and the ark of the covenant of the LORD went before them in the three days' journey, to search out a resting place for them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the cloud of the LORD was upon them by day, when they went out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass, when the ark set forward, that Moses said, Rise up, LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered; and let them that hate thee flee before thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when it rested, he said, Return, O LORD, unto the many thousands of Israel.}} ==Chapter 11== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the people complained, it displeased the LORD: and the LORD heard it; and his anger was kindled; and the fire of the LORD burnt among them, and consumed them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people cried unto Moses; and when Moses prayed unto the LORD, the fire was quenched.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of the place Taberah: because the fire of the LORD burnt among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the mixt multitude that was among them fell a lusting: and the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But now our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside this manna, before our eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the manna was as coriander seed, and the colour thereof as the colour of bdellium.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people went about, and gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a mortar, and baked it in pans, and made cakes of it: and the taste of it was as the taste of fresh oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when the dew fell upon the camp in the night, the manna fell upon it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Moses heard the people weep throughout their families, every man in the door of his tent: and the anger of the LORD was kindled greatly; Moses also was displeased.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the LORD, Wherefore hast thou afflicted thy servant? and wherefore have I not found favour in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Have I conceived all this people? have I begotten them, that thou shouldest say unto me, Carry them in thy bosom, as a nursing father beareth the sucking child, unto the land which thou swarest unto their fathers?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Whence should I have flesh to give unto all this people? for they weep unto me, saying, Give us flesh, that we may eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is too heavy for me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And if thou deal thus with me, kill me, I pray thee, out of hand, if I have found favour in thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be the elders of the people, and officers over them; and bring them unto the tabernacle of the congregation, that they may stand there with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And I will come down and talk with thee there: and I will take of the spirit which is upon thee, and will put it upon them; and they shall bear the burden of the people with thee, that thou bear it not thyself alone.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And say thou unto the people, Sanctify yourselves against to morrow, and ye shall eat flesh: for ye have wept in the ears of the LORD, saying, Who shall give us flesh to eat? for it was well with us in Egypt: therefore the LORD will give you flesh, and ye shall eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Ye shall not eat one day, nor two days, nor five days, neither ten days, nor twenty days;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But even a whole month, until it come out at your nostrils, and it be loathsome unto you: because that ye have despised the LORD which is among you, and have wept before him, saying, Why came we forth out of Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, The people, among whom I am, are six hundred thousand footmen; and thou hast said, I will give them flesh, that they may eat a whole month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Shall the flocks and the herds be slain for them, to suffice them? or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, to suffice them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Is the LORD's hand waxed short? thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass unto thee or not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses went out, and told the people the words of the LORD, }} {{font|color=#880000|and}} {{font|color=#008888|gathered the seventy men of the elders of the people, and set them round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in a cloud, and spake unto him, and took of the spirit that was upon him, and gave it unto the seventy elders: and it came to pass, that, when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied, and did not cease.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But there remained two of the men in the camp, the name of the one was Eldad, and the name of the other Medad: and the spirit rested upon them; and they were of them that were written, but went not out unto the tabernacle: and they prophesied in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And there ran a young man, and told Moses, and said, Eldad and Medad do prophesy in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Joshua the son of Nun, the servant of Moses, one of his young men, answered and said, My lord Moses, forbid them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto him, Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all the LORD's people were prophets, and that the LORD would put his spirit upon them!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gat him into the camp, he and the elders of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there went forth a wind from the LORD, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And while the flesh was yet between their teeth, ere it was chewed, the wrath of the LORD was kindled against the people, and the LORD smote the people with a very great plague.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of that place Kibrothhattaavah: because there they buried the people that lusted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people journeyed from Kibrothhattaavah unto Hazeroth; and abode at Hazeroth.}} ==Chapter 12== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam and Aaron spake against Moses}} {{font|color=#880000| because of the Ethiopian woman whom he had married: for he had married an Ethiopian woman.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they said, Hath the LORD indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us? And the LORD heard it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| (Now the man Moses was very meek, above all the men which were upon the face of the earth.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD spake suddenly unto Moses, and unto Aaron, and unto Miriam, Come out ye three unto the tabernacle of the congregation. And they three came out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in the pillar of the cloud, and stood in the door of the tabernacle, and called Aaron and Miriam: and they both came forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Hear now my words: If there be a prophet among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak unto him in a dream.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| My servant Moses is not so, who is faithful in all mine house. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the LORD shall he behold: wherefore then were ye not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the anger of the LORD was kindled against them; and he departed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the cloud departed from off the tabernacle; and, behold, Miriam became leprous, white as snow: and Aaron looked upon Miriam, and, behold, she was leprous.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Aaron said unto Moses, Alas, my lord, I beseech thee, lay not the sin upon us, wherein we have done foolishly, and wherein we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let her not be as one dead, of whom the flesh is half consumed when he cometh out of his mother's womb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses cried unto the LORD, saying, Heal her now, O God, I beseech thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, If her father had but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven days? let her be shut out from the camp seven days, and after that let her be received in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam was shut out from the camp seven days: and the people journeyed not till Miriam was brought in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And afterward the people removed from Hazeroth, and pitched in the wilderness of Paran.}} ==Chapter 13== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Send thou men, that they may search the land of Canaan, which I give unto the children of Israel: of every tribe of their fathers shall ye send a man, every one a ruler among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses by the commandment of the LORD sent them from the wilderness of Paran: all those men were heads of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were their names: of the tribe of Reuben, Shammua the son of Zaccur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Issachar, Igal the son of Joseph.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Ephraim, Oshea the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Palti the son of Raphu.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Zebulun, Gaddiel the son of Sodi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Joseph, namely, of the tribe of Manasseh, Gaddi the son of Susi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Dan, Ammiel the son of Gemalli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Asher, Sethur the son of Michael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Naphtali, Nahbi the son of Vophsi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Gad, Geuel the son of Machi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which Moses sent to spy out the land. And Moses called Oshea the son of Nun Jehoshua.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan, }} {{font|color=#000088|and said unto them, Get you up this way southward, and go up into the mountain:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And see the land, what it is, and the people that dwelleth therein, whether they be strong or weak, few or many;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is that they dwell in, whether it be good or bad; and what cities they be that they dwell in, whether in tents, or in strong holds;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is, whether it be fat or lean, whether there be wood therein, or not. And be ye of good courage, and bring of the fruit of the land. Now the time was the time of the firstripe grapes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|So they went up, and searched the land from the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, as men come to Hamath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they ascended by the south, and came unto Hebron; where Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak, were. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they returned from searching of the land after forty days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they went and came to Moses, and to Aaron, and to all the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the wilderness of Paran,}} {{font|color=#000088|to Kadesh; and brought back word unto them, and unto all the congregation, and shewed them the fruit of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they told him, and said, We came unto the land whither thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and honey; and this is the fruit of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Nevertheless the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great: and moreover we saw the children of Anak there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The Amalekites dwell in the land of the south: and the Hittites, and the Jebusites, and the Amorites, dwell in the mountains: and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast of Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the men that went up with him said, We be not able to go up against the people; for they are stronger than we.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great stature.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight.}} ==Chapter 14== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation lifted up their voice, and cried;}} {{font|color=#000088| and the people wept that night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron: and the whole congregation said unto them, Would God that we had died in the land of Egypt! or would God we had died in this wilderness!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And wherefore hath the LORD brought us unto this land, to fall by the sword, that our wives and our children should be a prey? were it not better for us to return into Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said one to another, Let us make a captain, and let us return into Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then Moses and Aaron fell on their faces before all the assembly of the congregation of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of them that searched the land, rent their clothes:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|And they spake unto all the company of the children of Israel, saying, The land, which we passed through to search it, is an exceeding good land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If the LORD delight in us, then he will bring us into this land, and give it us; a land which floweth with milk and honey.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only rebel not ye against the LORD, neither fear ye the people of the land; for they are bread for us: their defence is departed from them, and the LORD is with us: fear them not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the congregation bade stone them with stones. And the glory of the LORD appeared in the tabernacle of the congregation before all the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, How long will this people provoke me? and how long will it be ere they believe me, for all the signs which I have shewed among them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| I will smite them with the pestilence, and disinherit them, and will make of thee a greater nation and mightier than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the LORD, Then the Egyptians shall hear it, (for thou broughtest up this people in thy might from among them;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land: for they have heard that thou LORD art among this people, that thou LORD art seen face to face, and that thy cloud standeth over them, and that thou goest before them, by day time in a pillar of a cloud, and in a pillar of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now if thou shalt kill all this people as one man, then the nations which have heard the fame of thee will speak, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because the LORD was not able to bring this people into the land which he sware unto them, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And now, I beseech thee, let the power of my Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The LORD is longsuffering, and of great mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression, and by no means clearing the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Pardon, I beseech thee, the iniquity of this people according unto the greatness of thy mercy, and as thou hast forgiven this people, from Egypt even until now.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said, I have pardoned according to thy word: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But as truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because all those men which have seen my glory, and my miracles, which I did in Egypt and in the wilderness, and have tempted me now these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely they shall not see the land which I sware unto their fathers, neither shall any of them that provoked me see it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit with him, and hath followed me fully, him will I bring into the land whereinto he went; and his seed shall possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| (Now the Amalekites and the Canaanites dwelt in the valley.) Tomorrow turn you, and get you into the wilderness by the way of the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| How long shall I bear with this evil congregation, which murmur against me? I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel, which they murmur against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Say unto them, As truly as I live, saith the LORD, as ye have spoken in mine ears, so will I do to you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Your carcases shall fall in this wilderness; and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from twenty years old and upward which have murmured against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Doubtless ye shall not come into the land, concerning which I sware to make you dwell therein, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But your little ones, which ye said should be a prey, them will I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have despised.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But as for you, your carcases, they shall fall in this wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your children shall wander in the wilderness forty years, and bear your whoredoms, until your carcases be wasted in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years, and ye shall know my breach of promise.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I the LORD have said, I will surely do it unto all this evil congregation, that are gathered together against me: in this wilderness they shall be consumed, and there they shall die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the men, which Moses sent to search the land, who returned, and made all the congregation to murmur against him, by bringing up a slander upon the land,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those men that did bring up the evil report upon the land, died by the plague before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of the men that went to search the land, lived still.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses told these sayings unto all the children of Israel: and the people mourned greatly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they rose up early in the morning, and gat them up into the top of the mountain, saying, Lo, we be here, and will go up unto the place which the LORD hath promised: for we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, Wherefore now do ye transgress the commandment of the LORD? but it shall not prosper.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Go not up, for the LORD is not among you; that ye be not smitten before your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For the Amalekites and the Canaanites are there before you, and ye shall fall by the sword: because ye are turned away from the LORD, therefore the LORD will not be with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But they presumed to go up unto the hill top: nevertheless the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and Moses, departed not out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the Amalekites came down, and the Canaanites which dwelt in that hill, and smote them, and discomfited them, even unto Hormah.}} ==Chapter 15== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And will make an offering by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the LORD, of the herd or of the flock:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he that offereth his offering unto the LORD bring a meat offering of a tenth deal of flour mingled with the fourth part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink offering shalt thou prepare with the burnt offering or sacrifice, for one lamb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or for a ram, thou shalt prepare for a meat offering two tenth deals of flour mingled with the third part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a drink offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of wine, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou preparest a bullock for a burnt offering, or for a sacrifice in performing a vow, or peace offerings unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he bring with a bullock a meat offering of three tenth deals of flour mingled with half an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring for a drink offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shall it be done for one bullock, or for one ram, or for a lamb, or a kid.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the number that ye shall prepare, so shall ye do to every one according to their number.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that are born of the country shall do these things after this manner, in offering an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger sojourn with you, or whosoever be among you in your generations, and will offer an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; as ye do, so he shall do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourneth with you, an ordinance for ever in your generations: as ye are, so shall the stranger be before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One law and one manner shall be for you, and for the stranger that sojourneth with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land whither I bring you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, that, when ye eat of the bread of the land, ye shall offer up an heave offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall offer up a cake of the first of your dough for an heave offering: as ye do the heave offering of the threshingfloor, so shall ye heave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the first of your dough ye shall give unto the LORD an heave offering in your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye have erred, and not observed all these commandments, which the LORD hath spoken unto Moses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all that the LORD hath commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the LORD commanded Moses, and henceforward among your generations;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, if ought be committed by ignorance without the knowledge of the congregation, that all the congregation shall offer one young bullock for a burnt offering, for a sweet savour unto the LORD, with his meat offering, and his drink offering, according to the manner, and one kid of the goats for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for all the congregation of the children of Israel, and it shall be forgiven them; for it is ignorance: and they shall bring their offering, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD, and their sin offering before the LORD, for their ignorance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any soul sin through ignorance, then he shall bring a she goat of the first year for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for the soul that sinneth ignorantly, when he sinneth by ignorance before the LORD, to make an atonement for him; and it shall be forgiven him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall have one law for him that sinneth through ignorance, both for him that is born among the children of Israel, and for the stranger that sojourneth among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the soul that doeth ought presumptuously, whether he be born in the land, or a stranger, the same reproacheth the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from among his people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he hath despised the word of the LORD, and hath broken his commandment, that soul shall utterly be cut off; his iniquity shall be upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And while the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon the sabbath day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they that found him gathering sticks brought him unto Moses and Aaron, and unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they put him in ward, because it was not declared what should be done to him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, The man shall be surely put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a ribband of blue:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That ye may remember, and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I am the LORD your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: I am the LORD your God.}} ==Chapter 16== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi,}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab,}} {{font|color=#880000|and On, the son of Peleth,}} {{font|color=#008888| son}}{{font|color=#888800|s}} {{font|color=#008888|of Reuben, took men:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they rose up before Moses, with certain of the children of Israel, two hundred and fifty princes of the assembly, famous in the congregation, men of renown:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron, and said unto them, Ye take too much upon you, seeing all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is among them: wherefore then lift ye up yourselves above the congregation of the LORD?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses heard it, he fell upon his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto Korah and unto all his company, saying, Even to morrow the LORD will shew who are his, and who is holy; and will cause him to come near unto him: even him whom he hath chosen will he cause to come near unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This do; Take you censers, Korah, and all his company;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And put fire therein, and put incense in them before the LORD to morrow: and it shall be that the man whom the LORD doth choose, he shall be holy: ye take too much upon you, ye sons of Levi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Hear, I pray you, ye sons of Levi:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Seemeth it but a small thing unto you, that the God of Israel hath separated you from the congregation of Israel, to bring you near to himself to do the service of the tabernacle of the LORD, and to stand before the congregation to minister unto them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he hath brought thee near to him, and all thy brethren the sons of Levi with thee: and seek ye the priesthood also?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For which cause both thou and all thy company are gathered together against the LORD: and what is Aaron, that ye murmur against him?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to call Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab: which said, We will not come up:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Is it a small thing that thou hast brought us up out of a land that floweth with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, except thou make thyself altogether a prince over us?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards: wilt thou put out the eyes of these men? we will not come up.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses was very wroth, and said unto the LORD, Respect not thou their offering: I have not taken one ass from them, neither have I hurt one of them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Be thou and all thy company before the LORD, thou, and they, and Aaron, to morrow:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And take every man his censer, and put incense in them, and bring ye before the LORD every man his censer, two hundred and fifty censers; thou also, and Aaron, each of you his censer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took every man his censer, and put fire in them, and laid incense thereon, and stood in the door of the tabernacle of the congregation with Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Korah gathered all the congregation against them unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Separate yourselves from among this congregation, that I may consume them in a moment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they fell upon their faces, and said, O God, the God of the spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, and wilt thou be wroth with all the congregation?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the congregation, saying, Get you up from about the tabernacle}} {{font|color=#880000|of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses rose up and went unto Dathan and Abiram; and the elders of Israel followed him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto the congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888| saying, Depart, I pray you, from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of their's, lest ye be consumed in all their sins.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So they gat up from the tabernacle }} {{font|color=#880000| of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,}} {{font|color=#888800| on every side:}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram came out, and stood in the door of their tents, and their wives, and their sons, and their little children.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that the LORD hath sent me to do all these works; for I have not done them of mine own mind.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| If these men die the common death of all men, or if they be visited after the visitation of all men; then the LORD hath not sent me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But if the LORD make a new thing, and the earth open her mouth, and swallow them up, with all that appertain unto them, and they go down quick into the pit; then ye shall understand that these men have provoked the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And it came to pass, as he had made an end of speaking all these words, that the ground clave asunder that was under them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up, and their houses,}} {{font|color=#880000| and all the men that appertained unto Korah,}} {{font|color=#008888| and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| They, and all that appertained to them, went down alive into the pit, and the earth closed upon them: and they perished from among the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And all Israel that were round about them fled at the cry of them: for they said, Lest the earth swallow us up also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there came out a fire from the LORD, and consumed the two hundred and fifty men that offered incense.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, that he take up the censers out of the burning, and scatter thou the fire yonder; for they are hallowed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The censers of these sinners against their own souls, let them make them broad plates for a covering of the altar: for they offered them before the LORD, therefore they are hallowed: and they shall be a sign unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest took the brasen censers, wherewith they that were burnt had offered; and they were made broad plates for a covering of the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To be a memorial unto the children of Israel, that no stranger, which is not of the seed of Aaron, come near to offer incense before the LORD; that he be not as Korah, and as his company: as the LORD said to him by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But on the morrow all the congregation of the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron, saying, Ye have killed the people of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, when the congregation was gathered against Moses and against Aaron, that they looked toward the tabernacle of the congregation: and, behold, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD appeared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron came before the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Get you up from among this congregation, that I may consume them as in a moment. And they fell upon their faces. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Aaron, Take a censer, and put fire therein from off the altar, and put on incense, and go quickly unto the congregation, and make an atonement for them: for there is wrath gone out from the LORD; the plague is begun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron took as Moses commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation; and, behold, the plague was begun among the people: and he put on incense, and made an atonement for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now they that died in the plague were fourteen thousand and seven hundred, beside them that died about the matter of Korah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron returned unto Moses unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the plague was stayed.}} ==Chapter 17== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods: write thou every man's name upon his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt write Aaron's name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt lay them up in the tabernacle of the congregation before the testimony, where I will meet with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall come to pass, that the man's rod, whom I shall choose, shall blossom: and I will make to cease from me the murmurings of the children of Israel, whereby they murmur against you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers' houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses laid up the rods before the LORD in the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and, behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought out all the rods from before the LORD unto all the children of Israel: and they looked, and took every man his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Bring Aaron's rod again before the testimony, to be kept for a token against the rebels; and thou shalt quite take away their murmurings from me, that they die not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did so: as the LORD commanded him, so did he. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel spake unto Moses, saying, Behold, we die, we perish, we all perish.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle of the LORD shall die: shall we be consumed with dying?}} ==Chapter 18== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Aaron, Thou and thy sons and thy father's house with thee shall bear the iniquity of the sanctuary: and thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thy brethren also of the tribe of Levi, the tribe of thy father, bring thou with thee, that they may be joined unto thee, and minister unto thee: but thou and thy sons with thee shall minister before the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep thy charge, and the charge of all the tabernacle: only they shall not come nigh the vessels of the sanctuary and the altar, that neither they, nor ye also, die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be joined unto thee, and keep the charge of the tabernacle of the congregation, for all the service of the tabernacle: and a stranger shall not come nigh unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall keep the charge of the sanctuary, and the charge of the altar: that there be no wrath any more upon the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken your brethren the Levites from among the children of Israel: to you they are given as a gift for the LORD, to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou and thy sons with thee shall keep your priest's office for everything of the altar, and within the vail; and ye shall serve: I have given your priest's office unto you as a service of gift: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Behold, I also have given thee the charge of mine heave offerings of all the hallowed things of the children of Israel; unto thee have I given them by reason of the anointing, and to thy sons, by an ordinance for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be thine of the most holy things, reserved from the fire: every oblation of their's, every meat offering of their's, and every sin offering of their's, and every trespass offering of their's which they shall render unto me, shall be most holy for thee and for thy sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the most holy place shalt thou eat it; every male shall eat it: it shall be holy unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is thine; the heave offering of their gift, with all the wave offerings of the children of Israel: I have given them unto thee, and to thy sons and to thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: every one that is clean in thy house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them have I given thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever is first ripe in the land, which they shall bring unto the LORD, shall be thine; every one that is clean in thine house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing devoted in Israel shall be thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that openeth the matrix in all flesh, which they bring unto the LORD, whether it be of men or beasts, shall be thine: nevertheless the firstborn of man shalt thou surely redeem, and the firstling of unclean beasts shalt thou redeem.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that are to be redeemed from a month old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, for the money of five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, which is twenty gerahs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the firstling of a cow, or the firstling of a sheep, or the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they are holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the altar, and shalt burn their fat for an offering made by fire, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the flesh of them shall be thine, as the wave breast and as the right shoulder are thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the heave offerings of the holy things, which the children of Israel offer unto the LORD, have I given thee, and thy sons and thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: it is a covenant of salt for ever before the LORD unto thee and to thy seed with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Thou shalt have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part among them: I am thy part and thine inheritance among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, I have given the children of Levi all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance, for their service which they serve, even the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither must the children of Israel henceforth come nigh the tabernacle of the congregation, lest they bear sin, and die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they shall bear their iniquity: it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations, that among the children of Israel they have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the tithes of the children of Israel, which they offer as an heave offering unto the LORD, I have given to the Levites to inherit: therefore I have said unto them, Among the children of Israel they shall have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus speak unto the Levites, and say unto them, When ye take of the children of Israel the tithes which I have given you from them for your inheritance, then ye shall offer up an heave offering of it for the LORD, even a tenth part of the tithe.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this your heave offering shall be reckoned unto you, as though it were the corn of the threshingfloor, and as the fulness of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus ye also shall offer an heave offering unto the LORD of all your tithes, which ye receive of the children of Israel; and ye shall give thereof the LORD's heave offering to Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Out of all your gifts ye shall offer every heave offering of the LORD, of all the best thereof, even the hallowed part thereof out of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the increase of the threshingfloor, and as the increase of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall eat it in every place, ye and your households: for it is your reward for your service in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall bear no sin by reason of it, when ye have heaved from it the best of it: neither shall ye pollute the holy things of the children of Israel, lest ye die.}} ==Chapter 19== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD hath commanded, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee a red heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish, and upon which never came yoke:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall give her unto Eleazar the priest, that he may bring her forth without the camp, and one shall slay her before his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest shall take of her blood with his finger, and sprinkle of her blood directly before the tabernacle of the congregation seven times:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And one shall burn the heifer in his sight; her skin, and her flesh, and her blood, with her dung, shall he burn:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall wash his clothes, and he shall bathe his flesh in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp, and the priest shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that burneth her shall wash his clothes in water, and bathe his flesh in water, and shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp in a clean place, and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of Israel for a water of separation: it is a purification for sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that gathereth the ashes of the heifer shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: and it shall be unto the children of Israel, and unto the stranger that sojourneth among them, for a statute for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall purify himself with it on the third day, and on the seventh day he shall be clean: but if he purify not himself the third day, then the seventh day he shall not be clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever toucheth the dead body of any man that is dead, and purifieth not himself, defileth the tabernacle of the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from Israel: because the water of separation was not sprinkled upon him, he shall be unclean; his uncleanness is yet upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law, when a man dieth in a tent: all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every open vessel, which hath no covering bound upon it, is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with a sword in the open fields, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for an unclean person they shall take of the ashes of the burnt heifer of purification for sin, and running water shall be put thereto in a vessel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the clean person shall sprinkle upon the unclean on the third day, and on the seventh day: and on the seventh day he shall purify himself, and wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and shall be clean at even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that shall be unclean, and shall not purify himself, that soul shall be cut off from among the congregation, because he hath defiled the sanctuary of the LORD: the water of separation hath not been sprinkled upon him; he is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be a perpetual statute unto them, that he that sprinkleth the water of separation shall wash his clothes; and he that toucheth the water of separation shall be unclean until even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever the unclean person toucheth shall be unclean; and the soul that toucheth it shall be unclean until even.}} ==Chapter 20== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the children of Israel, even the whole congregation, into the desert of Zin in the first month:}} {{font|color=#008888| and the people abode in Kadesh; and Miriam died there, and was buried there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there was no water for the congregation: and they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people chode with Moses, and spake, }} {{font|color=#888800|saying, Would God that we had died when our brethren died before the LORD!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And why have ye brought up the congregation of the LORD into this wilderness, that we and our cattle should die there?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron went from the presence of the assembly unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they fell upon their faces: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the rod, and gather thou the assembly together, thou, and Aaron thy brother, and speak ye unto the rock before their eyes; and it shall give forth his water, and thou shalt bring forth to them water out of the rock: so thou shalt give the congregation and their beasts drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the rod from before the LORD, as he commanded him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron gathered the congregation together before the rock, and he said unto them, Hear now, ye rebels; must we fetch you water out of this rock?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their beasts also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron, Because ye believed me not, to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which I have given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the water of Meribah; because the children of Israel strove with the LORD, and he was sanctified in them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent messengers from Kadesh unto the king of Edom, Thus saith thy brother Israel, Thou knowest all the travail that hath befallen us:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| How our fathers went down into Egypt, and we have dwelt in Egypt a long time; and the Egyptians vexed us, and our fathers:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And when we cried unto the LORD, he heard our voice, and sent an angel, and hath brought us forth out of Egypt: and, behold, we are in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of thy border:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells: we will go by the king's high way, we will not turn to the right hand nor to the left, until we have passed thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Edom said unto him, Thou shalt not pass by me, lest I come out against thee with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Israel said unto him, We will go by the high way: and if I and my cattle drink of thy water, then I will pay for it: I will only, without doing anything else, go through on my feet.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Thou shalt not go through. And Edom came out against him with much people, and with a strong hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Edom refused to give Israel passage through his border: wherefore Israel turned away from him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel, even the whole congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888|journeyed from Kadesh, and}} {{font|color=#888800|came unto mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron in mount Hor, by the coast of the land of Edom, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Aaron shall be gathered unto his people: for he shall not enter into the land which I have given unto the children of Israel, because ye rebelled against my word at the water of Meribah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take Aaron and Eleazar his son, and bring them up unto mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son: and Aaron shall be gathered unto his people, and shall die there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded: and they went up into mount Hor in the sight of all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son; and Aaron died there in the top of the mount: and Moses and Eleazar came down from the mount.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when all the congregation saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for Aaron thirty days, even all the house of Israel.}} ==Chapter 21== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south, heard tell that Israel came by the way of the spies; then he fought against Israel, and took some of them prisoners.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Israel vowed a vow unto the LORD, and said, If thou wilt indeed deliver this people into my hand, then I will utterly destroy their cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD hearkened to the voice of Israel, and delivered up the Canaanites; and they utterly destroyed them and their cities: and he called the name of the place Hormah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from mount Hor by the way of the Red sea,}} {{font|color=#008888| to compass the land of Edom: and the soul of the people was much discouraged because of the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people spake against God, and against Moses, Wherefore have ye brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there is no bread, neither is there any water;}} {{font|color=#880000|and our soul loatheth this light bread.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against the LORD, and against thee; pray unto the LORD, that he take away the serpents from us. And Moses prayed for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in Oboth. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from Oboth, and pitched at Ijeabarim, in the wilderness which is before Moab, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched in the valley of Zared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched on the other side of Arnon, which is in the wilderness that cometh out of the coasts of the Amorites: for Arnon is the border of Moab, between Moab and the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore it is said in the book of the wars of the LORD, What he did in the Red sea, and in the brooks of Arnon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And at the stream of the brooks that goeth down to the dwelling of Ar, and lieth upon the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give them water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well; sing ye unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves. And from the wilderness they went to Mattanah: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Mattanah to Nahaliel: and from Nahaliel to Bamoth:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Bamoth in the valley, that is in the country of Moab, to the top of Pisgah, which looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel sent messengers unto Sihon king of the Amorites, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let me pass through thy land: we will not turn into the fields, or into the vineyards; we will not drink of the waters of the well: but we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Sihon would not suffer Israel to pass through his border: but Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out against Israel into the wilderness: and he came to Jahaz, and fought against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel smote him with the edge of the sword, and possessed his land from Arnon unto Jabbok, even unto the children of Ammon: for the border of the children of Ammon was strong.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel took all these cities: and Israel dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites, in Heshbon, and in all the villages thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For Heshbon was the city of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab, and taken all his land out of his hand, even unto Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say, Come into Heshbon, let the city of Sihon be built and prepared:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For there is a fire gone out of Heshbon, a flame from the city of Sihon: it hath consumed Ar of Moab, and the lords of the high places of Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity unto Sihon king of the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We have shot at them; Heshbon is perished even unto Dibon, and we have laid them waste even unto Nophah, which reacheth unto Medeba.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Israel dwelt in the land of the Amorites. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to spy out Jaazer, and they took the villages thereof, and drove out the Amorites that were there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And they turned and went up by the way of Bashan: and Og the king of Bashan went out against them, he, and all his people, to the battle at Edrei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Fear him not: for I have delivered him into thy hand, and all his people, and his land; and thou shalt do to him as thou didst unto Sihon king of the Amorites, which dwelt at Heshbon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| So they smote him, and his sons, and all his people, until there was none left him alive: and they possessed his land.}} ==Chapter 22== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in the plains of Moab on this side Jordan by Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Balak the son of Zippor saw all that Israel had done to the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab was sore afraid of the people, because they were many: and Moab was distressed because of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab said}} {{font|color=#880000| unto the elders of Midian,}} {{font|color=#000088|Now shall this company lick up all that are round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was king of the Moabites at that time.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He sent messengers therefore unto Balaam the son of Beor to Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the children of his people, to call him, saying, Behold, there is a people come out from Egypt: behold, they cover the face of the earth, and they abide over against me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Come now therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people; for they are too mighty for me: peradventure I shall prevail, that we may smite them, and that I may drive them out of the land: for I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the elders of Moab}} {{font|color=#880000|and the elders of Midian}} {{font|color=#000088|departed with the rewards of divination in their hand; and they came unto Balaam, and spake unto him the words of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto them, Lodge here this night, and I will bring you word again, as the LORD shall speak unto me: and the princes of Moab abode with Balaam.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam, and said, What men are these with thee?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto God, Balak the son of Zippor, king of Moab, hath sent unto me saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, there is a people come out of Egypt, which covereth the face of the earth: come now, curse me them; peradventure I shall be able to overcome them, and drive them out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God said unto Balaam, Thou shalt not go with them; thou shalt not curse the people: for they are blessed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and said unto the princes of Balak, Get you into your land: for the LORD refuseth to give me leave to go with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the princes of Moab rose up, and they went unto Balak, and said, Balaam refuseth to come with us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak sent yet again princes, more, and more honourable than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came to Balaam, and said to him, Thus saith Balak the son of Zippor, Let nothing, I pray thee, hinder thee from coming unto me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For I will promote thee unto very great honour, and I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me: come therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam answered and said unto the servants of Balak, If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the word of the LORD my God, to do less or more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now therefore, I pray you, tarry ye also here this night, that I may know what the LORD will say unto me more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam at night, and said unto him, If the men come to call thee, rise up, and go with them; but yet the word which I shall say unto thee, that shalt thou do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and saddled his ass, and went with the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And God's anger was kindled because he went:}} {{font|color=#000088|and the angel of the LORD stood in the way for an adversary against him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into the field: and Balaam smote the ass, to turn her into the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she thrust herself unto the wall, and crushed Balaam's foot against the wall: and he smote her again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD went further, and stood in a narrow place, where was no way to turn either to the right hand or to the left.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she fell down under Balaam: and Balaam's anger was kindled, and he smote the ass with a staff.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD opened the mouth of the ass, and she said unto Balaam, What have I done unto thee, that thou hast smitten me these three times?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the ass, Because thou hast mocked me: I would there were a sword in mine hand, for now would I kill thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass said unto Balaam, Am not I thine ass, upon which thou hast ridden ever since I was thine unto this day? was I ever wont to do so unto thee? And he said, Nay.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the LORD opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and he bowed down his head, and fell flat on his face.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto him, Wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass these three times? behold, I went out to withstand thee, because thy way is perverse before me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw me, and turned from me these three times: unless she had turned from me, surely now also I had slain thee, and saved her alive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the angel of the LORD, I have sinned; for I knew not that thou stoodest in the way against me: now therefore, if it displease thee, I will get me back again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto Balaam, Go with the men: but only the word that I shall speak unto thee, that thou shalt speak. So Balaam went with the princes of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balak heard that Balaam was come, he went out to meet him unto a city of Moab, which is in the border of Arnon, which is in the utmost coast.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Did I not earnestly send unto thee to call thee? wherefore camest thou not unto me? am I not able indeed to promote thee to honour?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Lo, I am come unto thee: have I now any power at all to say any thing? the word that God putteth in my mouth, that shall I speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam went with Balak, and they came unto Kirjathhuzoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak offered oxen and sheep, and sent to Balaam, and to the princes that were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass on the morrow, that Balak took Balaam, and brought him up into the high places of Baal, that thence he might see the utmost part of the people.}} ==Chapter 23== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven oxen and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had spoken; and Balak and Balaam offered on every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Stand by thy burnt offering, and I will go: peradventure the LORD will come to meet me: and whatsoever he sheweth me I will tell thee. And he went to an high place.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God met Balaam: and he said unto him, I have prepared seven altars, and I have offered upon every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD put a word in Balaam's mouth, and said, Return unto Balak, and thus thou shalt speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he returned unto him, and, lo, he stood by his burnt sacrifice, he, and all the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balak the king of Moab hath brought me from Aram, out of the mountains of the east, saying, Come, curse me Jacob, and come, defy Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed? or how shall I defy, whom the LORD hath not defied?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills I behold him: lo, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be reckoned among the nations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Who can count the dust of Jacob, and the number of the fourth part of Israel? Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, What hast thou done unto me? I took thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast blessed them altogether.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he answered and said, Must I not take heed to speak that which the LORD hath put in my mouth?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto him, Come, I pray thee, with me unto another place, from whence thou mayest see them: thou shalt see but the utmost part of them, and shalt not see them all: and curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he brought him into the field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah, and built seven altars, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto Balak, Stand here by thy burnt offering, while I meet the LORD yonder.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD met Balaam, and put a word in his mouth, and said, Go again unto Balak, and say thus.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when he came to him, behold, he stood by his burnt offering, and the princes of Moab with him. And Balak said unto him, What hath the LORD spoken?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Rise up, Balak, and hear; hearken unto me, thou son of Zippor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, I have received commandment to bless: and he hath blessed; and I cannot reverse it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the LORD his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion: he shall not lie down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Neither curse them at all, nor bless them at all.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But Balaam answered and said unto Balak, Told not I thee, saying, All that the LORD speaketh, that I must do?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Come, I pray thee, I will bring thee unto another place; peradventure it will please God that thou mayest curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak brought Balaam unto the top of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven bullocks and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had said, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} ==Chapter 24== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balaam saw that it pleased the LORD to bless Israel, he went not, as at other times, to seek for enchantments, but he set his face toward the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam lifted up his eyes, and he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes; and the spirit of God came upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees of lign aloes which the LORD hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He shall pour the water out of his buckets, and his seed shall be in many waters, and his king shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shall be exalted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought him forth out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn: he shall eat up the nations his enemies, and shall break their bones, and pierce them through with his arrows.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion: who shall stir him up? Blessed is he that blesseth thee, and cursed is he that curseth thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he smote his hands together: and Balak said unto Balaam, I called thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast altogether blessed them these three times.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Therefore now flee thou to thy place: I thought to promote thee unto great honour; but, lo, the LORD hath kept thee back from honour.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Spake I not also to thy messengers which thou sentest unto me, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the LORD, to do either good or bad of mine own mind; but what the LORD saith, that will I speak?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And now, behold, I go unto my people: come therefore, and I will advertise thee what this people shall do to thy people in the latter days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| He hath said, which heard the words of God, and knew the knowledge of the most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold him, but not nigh: there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Edom shall be a possession, Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies; and Israel shall do valiantly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion, and shall destroy him that remaineth of the city.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable, and said, Amalek was the first of the nations; but his latter end shall be that he perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he looked on the Kenites, and took up his parable, and said, Strong is thy dwellingplace, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Nevertheless the Kenite shall be wasted, until Asshur shall carry thee away captive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Alas, who shall live when God doeth this!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and shall afflict Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up, and went and returned to his place: and Balak also went his way.}} ==Chapter 25== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel abode in Shittim, }} {{font|color=#000088|and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods: and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel joined himself unto Baalpeor: }} {{font|color=#000088|and the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people, and hang them up before the LORD against the sun, that the fierce anger of the LORD may be turned away from Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the judges of Israel, Slay ye every one his men that were joined unto Baalpeor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, one of the children of Israel came and brought unto his brethren a Midianitish woman in the sight of Moses, and in the sight of all the congregation of the children of Israel, who were weeping before the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation, and took a javelin in his hand;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust both of them through, the man of Israel, and the woman through her belly.}} {{font|color=#880000| So the plague was stayed from the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And those that died in the plague were twenty and four thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, hath turned my wrath away from the children of Israel, while he was zealous for my sake among them, that I consumed not the children of Israel in my jealousy.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Wherefore say, Behold, I give unto him my covenant of peace:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall have it, and his seed after him, even the covenant of an everlasting priesthood; because he was zealous for his God, and made an atonement for the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now the name of the Israelite that was slain, even that was slain with the Midianitish woman, was Zimri, the son of Salu, a prince of a chief house among the Simeonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the Midianitish woman that was slain was Cozbi, the daughter of Zur; he was head over a people, and of a chief house in Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Vex the Midianites, and smite them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|For they vex you with their wiles,}} {{font|color=#880000| wherewith they have beguiled you in the matter of Peor, and}} {{font|color=#888800| in the matter of Cozbi, the daughter of a prince of Midian, their sister, which was slain}} {{font|color=#880000| in the day of the plague for Peor's sake.}} ==Chapter 26== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass}} {{font|color=#880000| after the plague,}} {{font|color=#888800| that the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, from twenty years old and upward, throughout their fathers' house, all that are able to go to war in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest spake with them in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the people, from twenty years old and upward; as the LORD commanded Moses and the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Reuben, the eldest son of Israel: the children of Reuben; Hanoch, of whom cometh the family of the Hanochites: of Pallu, the family of the Palluites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Carmi, the family of the Carmites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Reubenites: and they that were numbered of them were forty and three thousand and seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pallu; Eliab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the sons of Eliab; Nemuel, and Dathan, and Abiram. This is that Dathan and Abiram, which were famous in the congregation, who strove against Moses and against Aaron in the company of Korah, when they strove against the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up together with Korah, when that company died, what time the fire devoured two hundred and fifty men: and they became a sign.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Notwithstanding the children of Korah died not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Simeon after their families: of Nemuel, the family of the Nemuelites: of Jamin, the family of the Jaminites: of Jachin, the family of the Jachinites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites: of Shaul, the family of the Shaulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Simeonites, twenty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad after their families: of Zephon, the family of the Zephonites: of Haggi, the family of the Haggites: of Shuni, the family of the Shunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Ozni, the family of the Oznites: of Eri, the family of the Erites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Arod, the family of the Arodites: of Areli, the family of the Arelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the children of Gad according to those that were numbered of them, forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The sons of Judah were Er and Onan: and Er and Onan died in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Judah after their families were; of Shelah, the family of the Shelanites: of Pharez, the family of the Pharzites: of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pharez were; of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Hamul, the family of the Hamulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Judah according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and sixteen thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Issachar after their families: of Tola, the family of the Tolaites: of Pua, the family of the Punites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites: of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Issachar according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and four thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Zebulun after their families: of Sered, the family of the Sardites: of Elon, the family of the Elonites: of Jahleel, the family of the Jahleelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Zebulunites according to those that were numbered of them, threescore thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Joseph after their families were Manasseh and Ephraim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Manasseh: of Machir, the family of the Machirites: and Machir begat Gilead: of Gilead come the family of the Gileadites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Gilead: of Jeezer, the family of the Jeezerites: of Helek, the family of the Helekites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Asriel, the family of the Asrielites: and of Shechem, the family of the Shechemites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Shemida, the family of the Shemidaites: and of Hepher, the family of the Hepherites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Zelophehad the son of Hepher had no sons, but daughters: and the names of the daughters of Zelophehad were Mahlah, and Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Manasseh, and those that were numbered of them, fifty and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Ephraim after their families: of Shuthelah, the family of the Shuthalhites: of Becher, the family of the Bachrites: of Tahan, the family of the Tahanites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the sons of Shuthelah: of Eran, the family of the Eranites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Ephraim according to those that were numbered of them, thirty and two thousand and five hundred. These are the sons of Joseph after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Benjamin after their families: of Bela, the family of the Belaites: of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites: of Ahiram, the family of the Ahiramites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Shupham, the family of the Shuphamites: of Hupham, the family of the Huphamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Bela were Ard and Naaman: of Ard, the family of the Ardites: and of Naaman, the family of the Naamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Benjamin after their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Dan after their families: of Shuham, the family of the Shuhamites. These are the families of Dan after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the families of the Shuhamites, according to those that were numbered of them, were threescore and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher after their families: of Jimna, the family of the Jimnites: of Jesui, the family of the Jesuites: of Beriah, the family of the Beriites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Beriah: of Heber, the family of the Heberites: of Malchiel, the family of the Malchielites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the daughter of Asher was Sarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Asher according to those that were numbered of them; who were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Naphtali after their families: of Jahzeel, the family of the Jahzeelites: of Guni, the family of the Gunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jezer, the family of the Jezerites: of Shillem, the family of the Shillemites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Naphtali according to their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the numbered of the children of Israel, six hundred thousand and a thousand seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Unto these the land shall be divided for an inheritance according to the number of names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To many thou shalt give the more inheritance, and to few thou shalt give the less inheritance: to every one shall his inheritance be given according to those that were numbered of him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Notwithstanding the land shall be divided by lot: according to the names of the tribes of their fathers they shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the lot shall the possession thereof be divided between many and few.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are they that were numbered of the Levites after their families: of Gershon, the family of the Gershonites: of Kohath, the family of the Kohathites: of Merari, the family of the Merarites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Levites: the family of the Libnites, the family of the Hebronites, the family of the Mahlites, the family of the Mushites, the family of the Korathites. And Kohath begat Amram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt: and she bare unto Amram Aaron and Moses, and Miriam their sister.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And unto Aaron was born Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died, when they offered strange fire before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them were twenty and three thousand, all males from a month old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered by Moses and Eleazar the priest, who numbered the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But among these there was not a man of them whom Moses and Aaron the priest numbered, when they numbered the children of Israel in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had said of them, They shall surely die in the wilderness. And there was not left a man of them, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} ==Chapter 27== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the daughters of Zelophehad, the son of Hepher, the son of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of Manasseh the son of Joseph: and these are the names of his daughters; Mahlah, Noah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they stood before Moses, and before Eleazar the priest, and before the princes and all the congregation, by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Our father died in the wilderness, and he was not in the company of them that gathered themselves together against the LORD in the company of Korah; but died in his own sin, and had no sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Why should the name of our father be done away from among his family, because he hath no son? Give unto us therefore a possession among the brethren of our father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought their cause before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The daughters of Zelophehad speak right: thou shalt surely give them a possession of an inheritance among their father's brethren; and thou shalt cause the inheritance of their father to pass unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a man die, and have no son, then ye shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daughter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no daughter, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his father's brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if his father have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kinsman that is next to him of his family, and he shall possess it: and it shall be unto the children of Israel a statute of judgment, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Get thee up into this mount Abarim, and see the land which I have given unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou hast seen it, thou also shalt be gathered unto thy people, as Aaron thy brother was gathered.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For ye rebelled against my commandment in the desert of Zin, in the strife of the congregation, to sanctify me at the water before their eyes: that is the water of Meribah in Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the LORD, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the LORD, the God of the spirits of all flesh, set a man over the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Which may go out before them, and which may go in before them, and which may lead them out, and which may bring them in; that the congregation of the LORD be not as sheep which have no shepherd.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take thee Joshua the son of Nun, a man in whom is the spirit, and lay thine hand upon him;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation; and give him a charge in their sight.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt put some of thine honour upon him, that all the congregation of the children of Israel may be obedient.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the LORD: at his word shall they go out, and at his word they shall come in, both he, and all the children of Israel with him, even all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded him: and he took Joshua, and set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he laid his hands upon him, and gave him a charge, as the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 28== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, My offering, and my bread for my sacrifices made by fire, for a sweet savour unto me, shall ye observe to offer unto me in their due season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And thou shalt say unto them, This is the offering made by fire which ye shall offer unto the LORD; two lambs of the first year without spot day by day, for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| The one lamb shalt thou offer in the morning, and the other lamb shalt thou offer at even;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a tenth part of an ephah of flour for a meat offering, mingled with the fourth part of an hin of beaten oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| It is a continual burnt offering, which was ordained in mount Sinai for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the drink offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for the one lamb: in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to be poured unto the LORD for a drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof, thou shalt offer it, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| This is the burnt offering of every sabbath, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the beginnings of your months ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, seven lambs of the first year without spot;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And three tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one bullock; and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal of flour mingled with oil for a meat offering unto one lamb; for a burnt offering of a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their drink offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bullock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an hin unto a lamb: this is the burnt offering of every month throughout the months of the year.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering unto the LORD shall be offered, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fourteenth day of the first month is the passover of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast: seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| In the first day shall be an holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a sacrifice made by fire for a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, and seven lambs of the first year: they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil: three tenth deals shall ye offer for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal shalt thou offer for every lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer these beside the burnt offering in the morning, which is for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| After this manner ye shall offer daily, throughout the seven days, the meat of the sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: it shall be offered beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Also in the day of the firstfruits, when ye bring a new meat offering unto the LORD, after your weeks be out, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer the burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; two young bullocks, one ram, seven lambs of the first year;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto one bullock, two tenth deals unto one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal unto one lamb, throughout the seven lambs;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer them beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, (they shall be unto you without blemish) and their drink offerings.}} ==Chapter 29== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Beside the burnt offering of the month, and his meat offering, and the daily burnt offering, and his meat offering, and their drink offerings, according unto their manner, for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall have on the tenth day of this seventh month an holy convocation; and ye shall afflict your souls: ye shall not do any work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD for a sweet savour; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year; they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals to a bullock, and two tenth deals to one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| One kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the sin offering of atonement, and the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering of it, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifteenth day of the seventh month ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work, and ye shall keep a feast unto the LORD seven days:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; thirteen young bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year; they shall be without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto every bullock of the thirteen bullocks, two tenth deals to each ram of the two rams,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal to each lamb of the fourteen lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the second day ye shall offer twelve young bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering thereof, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the third day eleven bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fourth day ten bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifth day nine bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sixth day eight bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day seven bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| On the eighth day ye shall have a solemn assembly: ye shall do no servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: one bullock, one ram, seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullock, for the ram, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| These things ye shall do unto the LORD in your set feasts, beside your vows, and your freewill offerings, for your burnt offerings, and for your meat offerings, and for your drink offerings, and for your peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 30== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the heads of the tribes concerning the children of Israel, saying, This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a man vow a vow unto the LORD, or swear an oath to bind his soul with a bond; he shall not break his word, he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a woman also vow a vow unto the LORD, and bind herself by a bond, being in her father's house in her youth;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her father hear her vow, and her bond wherewith she hath bound her soul, and her father shall hold his peace at her; then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she hath bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her father disallow her in the day that he heareth; not any of her vows, or of her bonds wherewith she hath bound her soul, shall stand: and the LORD shall forgive her, because her father disallowed her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she had at all an husband, when she vowed, or uttered ought out of her lips, wherewith she bound her soul;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her in the day that he heard it: then her vows shall stand, and her bonds wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband disallowed her on the day that he heard it; then he shall make her vow which she vowed, and that which she uttered with her lips, wherewith she bound her soul, of none effect: and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But every vow of a widow, and of her that is divorced, wherewith they have bound their souls, shall stand against her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she vowed in her husband's house, or bound her soul by a bond with an oath;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her, and disallowed her not: then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband hath utterly made them void on the day he heard them; then whatsoever proceeded out of her lips concerning her vows, or concerning the bond of her soul, shall not stand: her husband hath made them void; and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every vow, and every binding oath to afflict the soul, her husband may establish it, or her husband may make it void.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband altogether hold his peace at her from day to day; then he establisheth all her vows, or all her bonds, which are upon her: he confirmeth them, because he held his peace at her in the day that he heard them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he shall any ways make them void after that he hath heard them; then he shall bear her iniquity.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the statutes, which the LORD commanded Moses, between a man and his wife, between the father and his daughter, being yet in her youth in her father's house.}} ==Chapter 31== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Avenge the children of Israel of the Midianites: afterward shalt thou be gathered unto thy people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the people, saying, Arm some of yourselves unto the war, and let them go against the Midianites, and avenge the LORD of Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of every tribe a thousand, throughout all the tribes of Israel, shall ye send to the war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So there were delivered out of the thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe, twelve thousand armed for war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to the war, a thousand of every tribe, them and Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, to the war, with the holy instruments, and the trumpets to blow in his hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they warred against the Midianites, as the LORD commanded Moses; and they slew all the males.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they slew the kings of Midian, beside the rest of them that were slain; namely, Evi, and Rekem, and Zur, and Hur, and Reba, five kings of Midian: Balaam also the son of Beor they slew with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took all the women of Midian captives, and their little ones, and took the spoil of all their cattle, and all their flocks, and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they burnt all their cities wherein they dwelt, and all their goodly castles, with fire.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took all the spoil, and all the prey, both of men and of beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought the captives, and the prey, and the spoil, unto Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and unto the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the camp at the plains of Moab, which are by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all the princes of the congregation, went forth to meet them without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses was wroth with the officers of the host, with the captains over thousands, and captains over hundreds, which came from the battle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the LORD in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And do ye abide without the camp seven days: whosoever hath killed any person, and whosoever hath touched any slain, purify both yourselves and your captives on the third day, and on the seventh day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And purify all your raiment, and all that is made of skins, and all work of goats' hair, and all things made of wood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest said unto the men of war which went to the battle, This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD commanded Moses;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only the gold, and the silver, the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be clean: nevertheless it shall be purified with the water of separation: and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall wash your clothes on the seventh day, and ye shall be clean, and afterward ye shall come into the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the prey that was taken, both of man and of beast, thou, and Eleazar the priest, and the chief fathers of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And divide the prey into two parts; between them that took the war upon them, who went out to battle, and between all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And levy a tribute unto the LORD of the men of war which went out to battle: one soul of five hundred, both of the persons, and of the beeves, and of the asses, and of the sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of their half, and give it unto Eleazar the priest, for an heave offering of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, thou shalt take one portion of fifty, of the persons, of the beeves, of the asses, and of the flocks, of all manner of beasts, and give them unto the Levites, which keep the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest did as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the booty, being the rest of the prey which the men of war had caught, was six hundred thousand and seventy thousand and five thousand sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and twelve thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and one thousand asses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and two thousand persons in all, of women that had not known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the half, which was the portion of them that went out to war, was in number three hundred thousand and seven and thirty thousand and five hundred sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD's tribute of the sheep was six hundred and threescore and fifteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the beeves were thirty and six thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the asses were thirty thousand and five hundred; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and one.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the persons were sixteen thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was thirty and two persons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the tribute, which was the LORD's heave offering, unto Eleazar the priest, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, which Moses divided from the men that warred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (Now the half that pertained unto the congregation was three hundred thousand and thirty thousand and seven thousand and five hundred sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and six thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty thousand asses and five hundred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And sixteen thousand persons;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even of the children of Israel's half, Moses took one portion of fifty, both of man and of beast, and gave them unto the Levites, which kept the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the officers which were over thousands of the host, the captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds, came near unto Moses:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said unto Moses, Thy servants have taken the sum of the men of war which are under our charge, and there lacketh not one man of us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We have therefore brought an oblation for the LORD, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of them, even all wrought jewels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the gold of the offering that they offered up to the LORD, of the captains of thousands, and of the captains of hundreds, was sixteen thousand seven hundred and fifty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (For the men of war had taken spoil, every man for himself.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of the captains of thousands and of hundreds, and brought it into the tabernacle of the congregation, for a memorial for the children of Israel before the LORD.}} ==Chapter 32== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: }}{{font|color=#000088|and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad and the children of Reuben came and spake unto Moses, and to Eleazar the priest, and unto the princes of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Shebam, and Nebo, and Beon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even the country which the LORD smote before the congregation of Israel, is a land for cattle, and thy servants have cattle:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the children of Gad and to the children of Reuben, Shall your brethren go to war, and shall ye sit here?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And wherefore discourage ye the heart of the children of Israel from going over into the land which the LORD hath given them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Thus did your fathers, when I sent them from Kadeshbarnea to see the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For when they went up unto the valley of Eshcol, and saw the land, they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should not go into the land which the LORD had given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled the same time, and he sware, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely none of the men that came up out of Egypt, from twenty years old and upward, shall see the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob; because they have not wholly followed me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Save Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite, and Joshua the son of Nun: for they have wholly followed the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled against Israel, and he made them wander in the wilderness forty years, until all the generation, that had done evil in the sight of the LORD, was consumed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And, behold, ye are risen up in your fathers' stead, an increase of sinful men, to augment yet the fierce anger of the LORD toward Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For if ye turn away from after him, he will yet again leave them in the wilderness; and ye shall destroy all this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they came near unto him, and said, We will build sheepfolds here for our cattle, and cities for our little ones:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But we ourselves will go ready armed before the children of Israel, until we have brought them unto their place: and our little ones shall dwell in the fenced cities because of the inhabitants of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We will not return unto our houses, until the children of Israel have inherited every man his inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For we will not inherit with them on yonder side Jordan, or forward; because our inheritance is fallen to us on this side Jordan eastward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto them,}}{{font|color=#000088| If ye will do this thing, if ye will go armed before the LORD to war,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And will go all of you armed over Jordan before the LORD, until he hath driven out his enemies from before him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the land be subdued before the LORD: then afterward ye shall return, and be guiltless before the LORD, and before Israel; and this land shall be your possession before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But if ye will not do so, behold, ye have sinned against the LORD: and be sure your sin will find you out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Build you cities for your little ones, and folds for your sheep; and do that which hath proceeded out of your mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben spake unto Moses, saying, Thy servants will do as my lord commandeth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Our little ones, our wives, our flocks, and all our cattle, shall be there in the cities of Gilead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But thy servants will pass over, every man armed for war, before the Lord to battle, as my lord saith.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So concerning them Moses commanded Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun, and the chief fathers of the tribes of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, If the children of Gad and the children of Reuben will pass with you over Jordan, every man armed to battle, before the LORD, and the land shall be subdued before you; then ye shall give them the land of Gilead for a possession:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if they will not pass over with you armed, they shall have possessions among you in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben answered, saying, As the LORD hath said unto thy servants, so will we do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We will pass over armed before the LORD into the land of Canaan, that the possession of our inheritance on this side Jordan may be our's.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave unto them, even to the children of Gad, and to the children of Reuben, and unto half the tribe of Manasseh the son of Joseph, the kingdom of Sihon king of the Amorites, and the kingdom of Og king of Bashan, the land, with the cities thereof in the coasts, even the cities of the country round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Gad built Dibon, and Ataroth, and Aroer,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Atroth, Shophan, and Jaazer, and Jogbehah,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Bethnimrah, and Bethharan, fenced cities: and folds for sheep.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Reuben built Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Kirjathaim,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Nebo, and Baalmeon, (their names being changed,) and Shibmah: and gave other names unto the cities which they builded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Machir the son of Manasseh went to Gilead, and took it, and dispossessed the Amorite which was in it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gave Gilead unto Machir the son of Manasseh; and he dwelt therein.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took the small towns thereof, and called them Havothjair.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Nobah went and took Kenath, and the villages thereof, and called it Nobah, after his own name.}} ==Chapter 33== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| These are the journeys of the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt with their armies under the hand of Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And Moses wrote their goings out according to their journeys by the commandment of the LORD: and these are their journeys according to their goings out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rameses in the first month, on the fifteenth day of the first month; on the morrow after the passover the children of Israel went out with an high hand in the sight of all the Egyptians.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| For the Egyptians buried all their firstborn, which the LORD had smitten among them: upon their gods also the LORD executed judgments.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And the children of Israel removed from Rameses, and pitched in Succoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Succoth, and pitched in Etham, which is in the edge of the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Etham, and turned again unto Pihahiroth, which is before Baalzephon: and they pitched before Migdol.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from before Pihahiroth, and passed through the midst of the sea into the wilderness, and went three days' journey in the wilderness of Etham, and pitched in Marah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Marah, and came unto Elim: and in Elim were twelve fountains of water, and threescore and ten palm trees; and they pitched there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Elim, and encamped by the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the Red sea, and encamped in the wilderness of Sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they took their journey out of the wilderness of Sin, and encamped in Dophkah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Dophkah, and encamped in Alush. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Alush, and encamped at Rephidim, where was no water for the people to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rephidim, and pitched in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the desert of Sinai, and pitched at Kibrothhattaavah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Kibrothhattaavah, and encamped at Hazeroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hazeroth, and pitched in Rithmah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rithmah, and pitched at Rimmonparez.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rimmonparez, and pitched in Libnah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Libnah, and pitched at Rissah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they journeyed from Rissah, and pitched in Kehelathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Kehelathah, and pitched in mount Shapher.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from mount Shapher, and encamped in Haradah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Haradah, and pitched in Makheloth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Makheloth, and encamped at Tahath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Tahath, and pitched at Tarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Tarah, and pitched in Mithcah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Mithcah, and pitched in Hashmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hashmonah, and encamped at Moseroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Moseroth, and pitched in Benejaakan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Benejaakan, and encamped at Horhagidgad.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Horhagidgad, and pitched in Jotbathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Jotbathah, and encamped at Ebronah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Ebronah, and encamped at Eziongaber.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Eziongaber, and pitched in the wilderness of Zin, which is Kadesh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Kadesh, and pitched in mount Hor, in the edge of the land of Edom.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron the priest went up into mount Hor at the commandment of the LORD, and died there, in the fortieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the first day of the fifth month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron was an hundred and twenty and three years old when he died in mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south in the land of Canaan, heard of the coming of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from mount Hor, and pitched in Zalmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Zalmonah, and pitched in Punon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Punon, and pitched in Oboth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Oboth, and pitched in Ijeabarim, in the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Iim, and pitched in Dibongad. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Dibongad, and encamped in Almondiblathaim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Almondiblathaim, and pitched in the mountains of Abarim, before Nebo.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from the mountains of Abarim, and pitched in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they pitched by Jordan, from Bethjesimoth even unto Abelshittim in the plains of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye are passed over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall drive out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all their pictures, and destroy all their molten images, and quite pluck down all their high places:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall dispossess the inhabitants of the land, and dwell therein: for I have given you the land to possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall divide the land by lot for an inheritance among your families: and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance: every man's inheritance shall be in the place where his lot falleth; according to the tribes of your fathers ye shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover it shall come to pass, that I shall do unto you, as I thought to do unto them.}} ==Chapter 34== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land of Canaan; (this is the land that shall fall unto you for an inheritance, even the land of Canaan with the coasts thereof:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then your south quarter shall be from the wilderness of Zin along by the coast of Edom, and your south border shall be the outmost coast of the salt sea eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your border shall turn from the south to the ascent of Akrabbim, and pass on to Zin: and the going forth thereof shall be from the south to Kadeshbarnea, and shall go on to Hazaraddar, and pass on to Azmon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall fetch a compass from Azmon unto the river of Egypt, and the goings out of it shall be at the sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And as for the western border, ye shall even have the great sea for a border: this shall be your west border. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this shall be your north border: from the great sea ye shall point out for you mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From mount Hor ye shall point out your border unto the entrance of Hamath; and the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go on to Ziphron, and the goings out of it shall be at Hazarenan: this shall be your north border.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall point out your east border from Hazarenan to Shepham:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the coast shall go down from Shepham to Riblah, on the east side of Ain; and the border shall descend, and shall reach unto the side of the sea of Chinnereth eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go down to Jordan, and the goings out of it shall be at the salt sea: this shall be your land with the coasts thereof round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel, saying, This is the land which ye shall inherit by lot, which the LORD commanded to give unto the nine tribes, and to the half tribe:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the tribe of the children of Reuben according to the house of their fathers, and the tribe of the children of Gad according to the house of their fathers, have received their inheritance; and half the tribe of Manasseh have received their inheritance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The two tribes and the half tribe have received their inheritance on this side Jordan near Jericho eastward, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which shall divide the land unto you: Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take one prince of every tribe, to divide the land by inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the names of the men are these: Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the tribe of the children of Simeon, Shemuel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Elidad the son of Chislon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Dan, Bukki the son of Jogli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The prince of the children of Joseph, for the tribe of the children of Manasseh, Hanniel the son of Ephod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Ephraim, Kemuel the son of Shiphtan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Zebulun, Elizaphan the son of Parnach.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Issachar, Paltiel the son of Azzan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Asher, Ahihud the son of Shelomi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Naphtali, Pedahel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they whom the LORD commanded to divide the inheritance unto the children of Israel in the land of Canaan.}} ==Chapter 35== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they give unto the Levites of the inheritance of their possession cities to dwell in; and ye shall give also unto the Levites suburbs for the cities round about them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities shall they have to dwell in; and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the north side two thousand cubits; and the city shall be in the midst: this shall be to them the suburbs of the cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And among the cities which ye shall give unto the Levites there shall be six cities for refuge, which ye shall appoint for the manslayer, that he may flee thither: and to them ye shall add forty and two cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So all the cities which ye shall give to the Levites shall be forty and eight cities: them shall ye give with their suburbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities which ye shall give shall be of the possession of the children of Israel: from them that have many ye shall give many; but from them that have few ye shall give few: every one shall give of his cities unto the Levites according to his inheritance which he inheriteth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall appoint you cities to be cities of refuge for you; that the slayer may flee thither, which killeth any person at unawares.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be unto you cities for refuge from the avenger; that the manslayer die not, until he stand before the congregation in judgment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of these cities which ye shall give six cities shall ye have for refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall give three cities on this side Jordan, and three cities shall ye give in the land of Canaan, which shall be cities of refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These six cities shall be a refuge, both for the children of Israel, and for the stranger, and for the sojourner among them: that every one that killeth any person unawares may flee thither.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or if he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of wait, that he die;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall slay the murderer, when he meeteth him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him suddenly without enmity, or have cast upon him any thing without laying of wait,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or with any stone, wherewith a man may die, seeing him not, and cast it upon him, that he die, and was not his enemy, neither sought his harm:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the congregation shall judge between the slayer and the revenger of blood according to these judgments:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the congregation shall deliver the slayer out of the hand of the revenger of blood, and the congregation shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he was fled: and he shall abide in it unto the death of the high priest, which was anointed with the holy oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the slayer shall at any time come without the border of the city of his refuge, whither he was fled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the revenger of blood find him without the borders of the city of his refuge, and the revenger of blood kill the slayer; he shall not be guilty of blood:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge until the death of the high priest: but after the death of the high priest the slayer shall return into the land of his possession.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So these things shall be for a statute of judgment unto you throughout your generations in all your dwellings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover ye shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take no satisfaction for him that is fled to the city of his refuge, that he should come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are: for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein I dwell: for I the LORD dwell among the children of Israel.}} ==Chapter 36== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief fathers of the families of the children of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of the sons of Joseph, came near, and spake before Moses, and before the princes, the chief fathers of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said, The LORD commanded my lord to give the land for an inheritance by lot to the children of Israel: and my lord was commanded by the LORD to give the inheritance of Zelophehad our brother unto his daughters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they be married to any of the sons of the other tribes of the children of Israel, then shall their inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the jubile of the children of Israel shall be, then shall their inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall their inheritance be taken away from the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying, The tribe of the sons of Joseph hath said well.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the thing which the LORD doth command concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying, Let them marry to whom they think best; only to the family of the tribe of their father shall they marry.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So shall not the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe: for every one of the children of Israel shall keep himself to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every man the inheritance of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither shall the inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; but every one of the tribes of the children of Israel shall keep himself to his own inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they were married into the families of the sons of Manasseh the son of Joseph, and their inheritance remained in the tribe of the family of their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the commandments and the judgments, which the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses unto the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} [[Category:Documentary hypothesis]] t4eldn6olu4kr7gqkbi75fdm6vbb7gq 2417372 2417371 2022-08-22T11:33:45Z Huz and Buz 2928717 /* Chapter 26 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} <[[Bible, English, King James, According to the documentary hypothesis]] According to the [[w:documentary hypothesis|documentary hypothesis]], [[w:Numbers|Numbers]] is composed from a number of originally independant sources joined by a [[w:redaction|redactor]]. There follows the text of Numbers in the [[w:King James Version|King James Version]], with sources highlighted according to the documentary hypothesis *The [[w:Priestly source|"Priestly source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#888800|olive yellow}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Jahwist|"Jahwist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#000088|navy blue}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Jahwist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Elohist|"Elohist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#008888|teal blueish grey}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Elohist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Torah redactor|"Additions by the redactor"]] are highlighted in {{font|color=#880000|maroon red}} ==Chapter 1== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tabernacle of the congregation, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, after their families, by the house of their fathers, with the number of their names, every male by their polls;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From twenty years old and upward, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel: thou and Aaron shall number them by their armies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And with you there shall be a man of every tribe; every one head of the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the men that shall stand with you: of the tribe of Reuben; Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Simeon; Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Judah; Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Issachar; Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zebulun; Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph: of Ephraim; Elishama the son of Ammihud: of Manasseh; Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Benjamin; Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Dan; Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Asher; Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gad; Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Naphtali; Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the renowned of the congregation, princes of the tribes of their fathers, heads of thousands in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron took these men which are expressed by their names:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they assembled all the congregation together on the first day of the second month, and they declared their pedigrees after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, by their polls.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As the LORD commanded Moses, so he numbered them in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Reuben, Israel's eldest son, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Reuben, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Simeon, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, those that were numbered of them, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Simeon, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Gad, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Gad, were forty and five thousand six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Judah, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Judah, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Issachar, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Issachar, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Zebulun, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Zebulun, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph, namely, of the children of Ephraim, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Ephraim, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Manasseh, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Manasseh, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Benjamin, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Benjamin, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Dan, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Dan, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Asher, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Naphtali, throughout their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Naphtali, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those that were numbered, which Moses and Aaron numbered, and the princes of Israel, being twelve men: each one was for the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So were all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all they that were numbered were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites after the tribe of their fathers were not numbered among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had spoken unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only thou shalt not number the tribe of Levi, neither take the sum of them among the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thou shalt appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of testimony, and over all the vessels thereof, and over all things that belong to it: they shall bear the tabernacle, and all the vessels thereof; and they shall minister unto it, and shall encamp round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the tabernacle setteth forward, the Levites shall take it down: and when the tabernacle is to be pitched, the Levites shall set it up: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel shall pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and every man by his own standard, throughout their hosts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall pitch round about the tabernacle of testimony, that there be no wrath upon the congregation of the children of Israel: and the Levites shall keep the charge of the tabernacle of testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did they.}} ==Chapter 2== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house: far off about the tabernacle of the congregation shall they pitch.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the east side toward the rising of the sun shall they of the standard of the camp of Judah pitch throughout their armies: and Nahshon the son of Amminadab shall be captain of the children of Judah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that do pitch next unto him shall be the tribe of Issachar: and Nethaneel the son of Zuar shall be captain of the children of Issachar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Zebulun: and Eliab the son of Helon shall be captain of the children of Zebulun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Judah were an hundred thousand and fourscore thousand and six thousand and four hundred, throughout their armies. These shall first set forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the south side shall be the standard of the camp of Reuben according to their armies: and the captain of the children of Reuben shall be Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those which pitch by him shall be the tribe of Simeon: and the captain of the children of Simeon shall be Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Gad: and the captain of the sons of Gad shall be Eliasaph the son of Reuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and five thousand and six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Reuben were an hundred thousand and fifty and one thousand and four hundred and fifty, throughout their armies. And they shall set forth in the second rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tabernacle of the congregation shall set forward with the camp of the Levites in the midst of the camp: as they encamp, so shall they set forward, every man in his place by their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the west side shall be the standard of the camp of Ephraim according to their armies: and the captain of the sons of Ephraim shall be Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And by him shall be the tribe of Manasseh: and the captain of the children of Manasseh shall be Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Benjamin: and the captain of the sons of Benjamin shall be Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the camp of Ephraim were an hundred thousand and eight thousand and an hundred, throughout their armies. And they shall go forward in the third rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The standard of the camp of Dan shall be on the north side by their armies: and the captain of the children of Dan shall be Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that encamp by him shall be the tribe of Asher: and the captain of the children of Asher shall be Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Naphtali: and the captain of the children of Naphtali shall be Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All they that were numbered in the camp of Dan were an hundred thousand and fifty and seven thousand and six hundred. They shall go hindmost with their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those which were numbered of the children of Israel by the house of their fathers: all those that were numbered of the camps throughout their hosts were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites were not numbered among the children of Israel; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses: so they pitched by their standards, and so they set forward, every one after their families, according to the house of their fathers.}} ==Chapter 3== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These also are the generations of Aaron and Moses in the day that the LORD spake with Moses in mount Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Aaron; Nadab the firstborn, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the sons of Aaron, the priests which were anointed, whom he consecrated to minister in the priest's office.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died before the LORD, when they offered strange fire before the LORD, in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children: and Eleazar and Ithamar ministered in the priest's office in the sight of Aaron their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Bring the tribe of Levi near, and present them before Aaron the priest, that they may minister unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep his charge, and the charge of the whole congregation before the tabernacle of the congregation, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep all the instruments of the tabernacle of the congregation, and the charge of the children of Israel, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the Levites unto Aaron and to his sons: they are wholly given unto him out of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt appoint Aaron and his sons, and they shall wait on their priest's office: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken the Levites from among the children of Israel instead of all the firstborn that openeth the matrix among the children of Israel: therefore the Levites shall be mine;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because all the firstborn are mine; for on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and beast: mine shall they be: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Number the children of Levi after the house of their fathers, by their families: every male from a month old and upward shalt thou number them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered them according to the word of the LORD, as he was commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were the sons of Levi by their names; Gershon, and Kohath, and Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Gershon by their families; Libni, and Shimei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Kohath by their families; Amram, and Izehar, Hebron, and Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Merari by their families; Mahli, and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites according to the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gershon was the family of the Libnites, and the family of the Shimites: these are the families of the Gershonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, even those that were numbered of them were seven thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the Gershonites shall pitch behind the tabernacle westward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the Gershonites shall be Eliasaph the son of Lael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the charge of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation shall be the tabernacle, and the tent, the covering thereof, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the curtain for the door of the court, which is by the tabernacle, and by the altar round about, and the cords of it for all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Kohath was the family of the Amramites, and the family of the Izeharites, and the family of the Hebronites, and the family of the Uzzielites: these are the families of the Kohathites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were eight thousand and six hundred, keeping the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the sons of Kohath shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle southward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of the Kohathites shall be Elizaphan the son of Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And their charge shall be the ark, and the table, and the candlestick, and the altars, and the vessels of the sanctuary wherewith they minister, and the hanging, and all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest shall be chief over the chief of the Levites, and have the oversight of them that keep the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Merari was the family of the Mahlites, and the family of the Mushites: these are the families of Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were six thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of Merari was Zuriel the son of Abihail: these shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle northward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And under the custody and charge of the sons of Merari shall be the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof, and all the vessels thereof, and all that serveth thereto,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But those that encamp before the tabernacle toward the east, even before the tabernacle of the congregation eastward, shall be Moses, and Aaron and his sons, keeping the charge of the sanctuary for the charge of the children of Israel; and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the Levites, which Moses and Aaron numbered at the commandment of the LORD, throughout their families, all the males from a month old and upward, were twenty and two thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Number all the firstborn of the males of the children of Israel from a month old and upward, and take the number of their names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt take the Levites for me (I am the LORD) instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel; and the cattle of the Levites instead of all the firstlings among the cattle of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered, as the LORD commanded him, all the firstborn among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the firstborn males by the number of names, from a month old and upward, of those that were numbered of them, were twenty and two thousand two hundred and threescore and thirteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel, and the cattle of the Levites instead of their cattle; and the Levites shall be mine: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for those that are to be redeemed of the two hundred and threescore and thirteen of the firstborn of the children of Israel, which are more than the Levites;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thou shalt even take five shekels apiece by the poll, after the shekel of the sanctuary shalt thou take them: (the shekel is twenty gerahs:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the money, wherewith the odd number of them is to be redeemed, unto Aaron and to his sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the redemption money of them that were over and above them that were redeemed by the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the firstborn of the children of Israel took he the money; a thousand three hundred and threescore and five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the money of them that were redeemed unto Aaron and to his sons, according to the word of the LORD, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 4== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the sons of Kohath from among the sons of Levi, after their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even until fifty years old, all that enter into the host, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be the service of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation, about the most holy things:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the camp setteth forward, Aaron shall come, and his sons, and they shall take down the covering vail, and cover the ark of testimony with it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And shall put thereon the covering of badgers' skins, and shall spread over it a cloth wholly of blue, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the table of shewbread they shall spread a cloth of blue, and put thereon the dishes, and the spoons, and the bowls, and covers to cover withal: and the continual bread shall be thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall spread upon them a cloth of scarlet, and cover the same with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take a cloth of blue, and cover the candlestick of the light, and his lamps, and his tongs, and his snuffdishes, and all the oil vessels thereof, wherewith they minister unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put it and all the vessels thereof within a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put it upon a bar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the golden altar they shall spread a cloth of blue, and cover it with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put to the staves thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take all the instruments of ministry, wherewith they minister in the sanctuary, and put them in a cloth of blue, and cover them with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put them on a bar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take away the ashes from the altar, and spread a purple cloth thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put upon it all the vessels thereof, wherewith they minister about it, even the censers, the fleshhooks, and the shovels, and the basons, all the vessels of the altar; and they shall spread upon it a covering of badgers' skins, and put to the staves of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Aaron and his sons have made an end of covering the sanctuary, and all the vessels of the sanctuary, as the camp is to set forward; after that, the sons of Kohath shall come to bear it: but they shall not touch any holy thing, lest they die. These things are the burden of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And to the office of Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest pertaineth the oil for the light, and the sweet incense, and the daily meat offering, and the anointing oil, and the oversight of all the tabernacle, and of all that therein is, in the sanctuary, and in the vessels thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Cut ye not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thus do unto them, that they may live, and not die, when they approach unto the most holy things: Aaron and his sons shall go in, and appoint them every one to his service and to his burden:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But they shall not go in to see when the holy things are covered, lest they die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take also the sum of the sons of Gershon, throughout the houses of their fathers, by their families;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward until fifty years old shalt thou number them; all that enter in to perform the service, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the Gershonites, to serve, and for burdens:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall bear the curtains of the tabernacle, and the tabernacle of the congregation, his covering, and the covering of the badgers' skins that is above upon it, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the hanging for the door of the gate of the court, which is by the tabernacle and by the altar round about, and their cords, and all the instruments of their service, and all that is made for them: so shall they serve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the appointment of Aaron and his sons shall be all the service of the sons of the Gershonites, in all their burdens, and in all their service: and ye shall appoint unto them in charge all their burdens.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation: and their charge shall be under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As for the sons of Merari, thou shalt number them after their families, by the house of their fathers;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old shalt thou number them, every one that entereth into the service, to do the work of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the charge of their burden, according to all their service in the tabernacle of the congregation; the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and sockets thereof,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords, with all their instruments, and with all their service: and by name ye shall reckon the instruments of the charge of their burden.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Merari, according to all their service, in the tabernacle of the congregation, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron and the chief of the congregation numbered the sons of the Kohathites after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them by their families were two thousand seven hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were they that were numbered of the families of the Kohathites, all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, which Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the sons of Gershon, throughout their families, and by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers, were two thousand and six hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered of the families of the sons of Gershon, of all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, whom Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them after their families, were three thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These be those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, whom Moses and Aaron numbered according to the word of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All those that were numbered of the Levites, whom Moses and Aaron and the chief of Israel numbered, after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that came to do the service of the ministry, and the service of the burden in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, were eight thousand and five hundred and fourscore,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the commandment of the LORD they were numbered by the hand of Moses, every one according to his service, and according to his burden: thus were they numbered of him, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 5== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they put out of the camp every leper, and every one that hath an issue, and whosoever is defiled by the dead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Both male and female shall ye put out, without the camp shall ye put them; that they defile not their camps, in the midst whereof I dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did so, and put them out without the camp: as the LORD spake unto Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, When a man or woman shall commit any sin that men commit, to do a trespass against the LORD, and that person be guilty;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then they shall confess their sin which they have done: and he shall recompense his trespass with the principal thereof, and add unto it the fifth part thereof, and give it unto him against whom he hath trespassed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the man have no kinsman to recompense the trespass unto, let the trespass be recompensed unto the LORD, even to the priest; beside the ram of the atonement, whereby an atonement shall be made for him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every offering of all the holy things of the children of Israel, which they bring unto the priest, shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every man's hallowed things shall be his: whatsoever any man giveth the priest, it shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, If any man's wife go aside, and commit a trespass against him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man lie with her carnally, and it be hid from the eyes of her husband, and be kept close, and she be defiled, and there be no witness against her, neither she be taken with the manner;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be defiled: or if the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be not defiled:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man bring his wife unto the priest, and he shall bring her offering for her, the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal; he shall pour no oil upon it, nor put frankincense thereon; for it is an offering of jealousy, an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring her near, and set her before the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest shall take, and put it into the water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall set the woman before the LORD, and uncover the woman's head, and put the offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy offering: and the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from this bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if thou hast gone aside to another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man have lain with thee beside thine husband:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall charge the woman with an oath of cursing, and the priest shall say unto the woman, The LORD make thee a curse and an oath among thy people, when the LORD doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot: And the woman shall say, Amen, amen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall write these curses in a book, and he shall blot them out with the bitter water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall cause the woman to drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall take the jealousy offering out of the woman's hand, and shall wave the offering before the LORD, and offer it upon the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take an handful of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when he hath made her to drink the water, then it shall come to pass, that, if she be defiled, and have done trespass against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if the woman be not defiled, but be clean; then she shall be free, and shall conceive seed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside to another instead of her husband, and is defiled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or when the spirit of jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous over his wife, and shall set the woman before the LORD, and the priest shall execute upon her all this law.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man be guiltless from iniquity, and this woman shall bear her iniquity.}} ==Chapter 6== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate themselves unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head: until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the LORD, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days that he separateth himself unto the LORD he shall come at no dead body.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall not make himself unclean for his father, or for his mother, for his brother, or for his sister, when they die: because the consecration of his God is upon his head.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation he is holy unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any man die very suddenly by him, and he hath defiled the head of his consecration; then he shall shave his head in the day of his cleansing, on the seventh day shall he shave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the eighth day he shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, to the priest, to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, and make an atonement for him, for that he sinned by the dead, and shall hallow his head that same day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall consecrate unto the LORD the days of his separation, and shall bring a lamb of the first year for a trespass offering: but the days that were before shall be lost, because his separation was defiled.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer his offering unto the LORD, one he lamb of the first year without blemish for a burnt offering, and one ewe lamb of the first year without blemish for a sin offering, and one ram without blemish for peace offerings,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their meat offering, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring them before the LORD, and shall offer his sin offering, and his burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings unto the LORD, with the basket of unleavened bread: the priest shall offer also his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite, after the hair of his separation is shaven:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall wave them for a wave offering before the LORD: this is holy for the priest, with the wave breast and heave shoulder: and after that the Nazarite may drink wine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of the Nazarite who hath vowed, and of his offering unto the LORD for his separation, beside that that his hand shall get: according to the vow which he vowed, so he must do after the law of his separation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons, saying, On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel, saying unto them,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD bless thee, and keep thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them.}} ==Chapter 7== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the day that Moses had fully set up the tabernacle, and had anointed it, and sanctified it, and all the instruments thereof, both the altar and all the vessels thereof, and had anointed them, and sanctified them;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That the princes of Israel, heads of the house of their fathers, who were the princes of the tribes, and were over them that were numbered, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought their offering before the LORD, six covered wagons, and twelve oxen; a wagon for two of the princes, and for each one an ox: and they brought them before the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of them, that they may be to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; and thou shalt give them unto the Levites, to every man according to his service.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the wagons and the oxen, and gave them unto the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Two wagons and four oxen he gave unto the sons of Gershon, according to their service:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And four wagons and eight oxen he gave unto the sons of Merari, according unto their service, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But unto the sons of Kohath he gave none: because the service of the sanctuary belonging unto them was that they should bear upon their shoulders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar in the day that it was anointed, even the princes offered their offering before the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, They shall offer their offering, each prince on his day, for the dedicating of the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that offered his offering the first day was Nahshon the son of Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his offering was one silver charger, the weight thereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them were full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of ten shekels of gold, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the second day Nethaneel the son of Zuar, prince of Issachar, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He offered for his offering one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of gold of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the third day Eliab the son of Helon, prince of the children of Zebulun, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fourth day Elizur the son of Shedeur, prince of the children of Reuben, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fifth day Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai, prince of the children of Simeon, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the sixth day Eliasaph the son of Deuel, prince of the children of Gad, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, a silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the seventh day Elishama the son of Ammihud, prince of the children of Ephraim, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eighth day offered Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur, prince of the children of Manasseh:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the ninth day Abidan the son of Gideoni, prince of the children of Benjamin, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|66}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the tenth day Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai, prince of the children of Dan, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|67}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|68}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|69}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|70}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|71}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|72}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eleventh day Pagiel the son of Ocran, prince of the children of Asher, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|73}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|74}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|75}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|76}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|77}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|78}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the twelfth day Ahira the son of Enan, prince of the children of Naphtali, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|79}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|80}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|81}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|82}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|83}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|84}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This was the dedication of the altar, in the day when it was anointed, by the princes of Israel: twelve chargers of silver, twelve silver bowls, twelve spoons of gold:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|85}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Each charger of silver weighing an hundred and thirty shekels, each bowl seventy: all the silver vessels weighed two thousand and four hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|86}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The golden spoons were twelve, full of incense, weighing ten shekels apiece, after the shekel of the sanctuary: all the gold of the spoons was an hundred and twenty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|87}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the oxen for the burnt offering were twelve bullocks, the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin offering twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|88}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the oxen for the sacrifice of the peace offerings were twenty and four bullocks, the rams sixty, the he goats sixty, the lambs of the first year sixty. This was the dedication of the altar, after that it was anointed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|89}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses was gone into the tabernacle of the congregation to speak with him, then he heard the voice of one speaking unto him from off the mercy seat that was upon the ark of testimony, from between the two cherubims: and he spake unto him.}} ==Chapter 8== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and say unto him, When thou lightest the lamps, the seven lamps shall give light over against the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron did so; he lighted the lamps thereof over against the candlestick, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this work of the candlestick was of beaten gold, unto the shaft thereof, unto the flowers thereof, was beaten work: according unto the pattern which the LORD had shewed Moses, so he made the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites from among the children of Israel, and cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thus shalt thou do unto them, to cleanse them: Sprinkle water of purifying upon them, and let them shave all their flesh, and let them wash their clothes, and so make themselves clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then let them take a young bullock with his meat offering, even fine flour mingled with oil, and another young bullock shalt thou take for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt gather the whole assembly of the children of Israel together:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the LORD: and the children of Israel shall put their hands upon the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron shall offer the Levites before the LORD for an offering of the children of Israel, that they may execute the service of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites shall lay their hands upon the heads of the bullocks: and thou shalt offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, unto the LORD, to make an atonement for the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt set the Levites before Aaron, and before his sons, and offer them for an offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shalt thou separate the Levites from among the children of Israel: and the Levites shall be mine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that shall the Levites go in to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt cleanse them, and offer them for an offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For they are wholly given unto me from among the children of Israel; instead of such as open every womb, even instead of the firstborn of all the children of Israel, have I taken them unto me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For all the firstborn of the children of Israel are mine, both man and beast: on the day that I smote every firstborn in the land of Egypt I sanctified them for myself.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have taken the Levites for all the firstborn of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have given the Levites as a gift to Aaron and to his sons from among the children of Israel, to do the service of the children of Israel in the tabernacle of the congregation, and to make an atonement for the children of Israel: that there be no plague among the children of Israel, when the children of Israel come nigh unto the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Aaron, and all the congregation of the children of Israel, did to the Levites according unto all that the LORD commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did the children of Israel unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites were purified, and they washed their clothes; and Aaron offered them as an offering before the LORD; and Aaron made an atonement for them to cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that went the Levites in to do their service in the tabernacle of the congregation before Aaron, and before his sons: as the LORD had commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did they unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is it that belongeth unto the Levites: from twenty and five years old and upward they shall go in to wait upon the service of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And from the age of fifty years they shall cease waiting upon the service thereof, and shall serve no more:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But shall minister with their brethren in the tabernacle of the congregation, to keep the charge, and shall do no service. Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites touching their charge.}} ==Chapter 9== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the first month of the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the children of Israel also keep the passover at his appointed season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the fourteenth day of this month, at even, ye shall keep it in his appointed season: according to all the rites of it, and according to all the ceremonies thereof, shall ye keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, that they should keep the passover.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they kept the passover on the fourteenth day of the first month at even in the wilderness of Sinai: according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there were certain men, who were defiled by the dead body of a man, that they could not keep the passover on that day: and they came before Moses and before Aaron on that day:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those men said unto him, We are defiled by the dead body of a man: wherefore are we kept back, that we may not offer an offering of the LORD in his appointed season among the children of Israel?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Stand still, and I will hear what the LORD will command concerning you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If any man of you or of your posterity shall be unclean by reason of a dead body, or be in a journey afar off, yet he shall keep the passover unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| They shall leave none of it unto the morning, nor break any bone of it: according to all the ordinances of the passover they shall keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that is clean, and is not in a journey, and forbeareth to keep the passover, even the same soul shall be cut off from among his people: because he brought not the offering of the LORD in his appointed season, that man shall bear his sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger shall sojourn among you, and will keep the passover unto the LORD; according to the ordinance of the passover, and according to the manner thereof, so shall he do: ye shall have one ordinance, both for the stranger, and for him that was born in the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up the cloud covered the tabernacle, namely, the tent of the testimony: and at even there was upon the tabernacle as it were the appearance of fire, until the morning.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So it was alway: the cloud covered it by day, and the appearance of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, then after that the children of Israel journeyed: and in the place where the cloud abode, there the children of Israel pitched their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of the LORD they pitched: as long as the cloud abode upon the tabernacle they rested in their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud tarried long upon the tabernacle many days, then the children of Israel kept the charge of the LORD, and journeyed not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud was a few days upon the tabernacle; according to the commandment of the LORD they abode in their tents, and according to the commandment of the LORD they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud abode from even unto the morning, and that the cloud was taken up in the morning, then they journeyed: whether it was by day or by night that the cloud was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or whether it were two days, or a month, or a year, that the cloud tarried upon the tabernacle, remaining thereon, the children of Israel abode in their tents, and journeyed not: but when it was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD they rested in the tents, and at the commandment of the LORD they journeyed: they kept the charge of the LORD, at the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 10== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Make thee two trumpets of silver; of a whole piece shalt thou make them: that thou mayest use them for the calling of the assembly, and for the journeying of the camps.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when they shall blow with them, all the assembly shall assemble themselves to thee at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they blow but with one trumpet, then the princes, which are heads of the thousands of Israel, shall gather themselves unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm, then the camps that lie on the east parts shall go forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm the second time, then the camps that lie on the south side shall take their journey: they shall blow an alarm for their journeys.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But when the congregation is to be gathered together, ye shall blow, but ye shall not sound an alarm.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall blow with the trumpets; and they shall be to you for an ordinance for ever throughout your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye go to war in your land against the enemy that oppresseth you, then ye shall blow an alarm with the trumpets; and ye shall be remembered before the LORD your God, and ye shall be saved from your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Also in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings; that they may be to you for a memorial before your God: I am the LORD your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the twentieth day of the second month, in the second year, that the cloud was taken up from off the tabernacle of the testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took their journeys out of the wilderness of Sinai; and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they first took their journey according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the first place went the standard of the camp of the children of Judah according to their armies: and over his host was Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Issachar was Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Zebulun was Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the tabernacle was taken down; and the sons of Gershon and the sons of Merari set forward, bearing the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of Reuben set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Simeon was Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Gad was Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Kohathites set forward, bearing the sanctuary: and the other did set up the tabernacle against they came.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Ephraim set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Manasseh was Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Benjamin was Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Dan set forward, which was the rereward of all the camps throughout their hosts: and over his host was Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Asher was Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Naphtali was Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus were the journeyings of the children of Israel according to their armies, when they set forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto Hobab, the son of Raguel the Midianite, Moses' father in law, We are journeying unto the place of which the LORD said, I will give it you: come thou with us, and we will do thee good: for the LORD hath spoken good concerning Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto him, I will not go; but I will depart to mine own land, and to my kindred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said, Leave us not, I pray thee; forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to us instead of eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it shall be, if thou go with us, yea, it shall be, that what goodness the LORD shall do unto us, the same will we do unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they departed from the mount of the LORD three days' journey: and the ark of the covenant of the LORD went before them in the three days' journey, to search out a resting place for them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the cloud of the LORD was upon them by day, when they went out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass, when the ark set forward, that Moses said, Rise up, LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered; and let them that hate thee flee before thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when it rested, he said, Return, O LORD, unto the many thousands of Israel.}} ==Chapter 11== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the people complained, it displeased the LORD: and the LORD heard it; and his anger was kindled; and the fire of the LORD burnt among them, and consumed them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people cried unto Moses; and when Moses prayed unto the LORD, the fire was quenched.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of the place Taberah: because the fire of the LORD burnt among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the mixt multitude that was among them fell a lusting: and the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But now our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside this manna, before our eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the manna was as coriander seed, and the colour thereof as the colour of bdellium.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people went about, and gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a mortar, and baked it in pans, and made cakes of it: and the taste of it was as the taste of fresh oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when the dew fell upon the camp in the night, the manna fell upon it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Moses heard the people weep throughout their families, every man in the door of his tent: and the anger of the LORD was kindled greatly; Moses also was displeased.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the LORD, Wherefore hast thou afflicted thy servant? and wherefore have I not found favour in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Have I conceived all this people? have I begotten them, that thou shouldest say unto me, Carry them in thy bosom, as a nursing father beareth the sucking child, unto the land which thou swarest unto their fathers?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Whence should I have flesh to give unto all this people? for they weep unto me, saying, Give us flesh, that we may eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is too heavy for me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And if thou deal thus with me, kill me, I pray thee, out of hand, if I have found favour in thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be the elders of the people, and officers over them; and bring them unto the tabernacle of the congregation, that they may stand there with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And I will come down and talk with thee there: and I will take of the spirit which is upon thee, and will put it upon them; and they shall bear the burden of the people with thee, that thou bear it not thyself alone.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And say thou unto the people, Sanctify yourselves against to morrow, and ye shall eat flesh: for ye have wept in the ears of the LORD, saying, Who shall give us flesh to eat? for it was well with us in Egypt: therefore the LORD will give you flesh, and ye shall eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Ye shall not eat one day, nor two days, nor five days, neither ten days, nor twenty days;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But even a whole month, until it come out at your nostrils, and it be loathsome unto you: because that ye have despised the LORD which is among you, and have wept before him, saying, Why came we forth out of Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, The people, among whom I am, are six hundred thousand footmen; and thou hast said, I will give them flesh, that they may eat a whole month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Shall the flocks and the herds be slain for them, to suffice them? or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, to suffice them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Is the LORD's hand waxed short? thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass unto thee or not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses went out, and told the people the words of the LORD, }} {{font|color=#880000|and}} {{font|color=#008888|gathered the seventy men of the elders of the people, and set them round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in a cloud, and spake unto him, and took of the spirit that was upon him, and gave it unto the seventy elders: and it came to pass, that, when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied, and did not cease.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But there remained two of the men in the camp, the name of the one was Eldad, and the name of the other Medad: and the spirit rested upon them; and they were of them that were written, but went not out unto the tabernacle: and they prophesied in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And there ran a young man, and told Moses, and said, Eldad and Medad do prophesy in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Joshua the son of Nun, the servant of Moses, one of his young men, answered and said, My lord Moses, forbid them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto him, Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all the LORD's people were prophets, and that the LORD would put his spirit upon them!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gat him into the camp, he and the elders of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there went forth a wind from the LORD, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And while the flesh was yet between their teeth, ere it was chewed, the wrath of the LORD was kindled against the people, and the LORD smote the people with a very great plague.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of that place Kibrothhattaavah: because there they buried the people that lusted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people journeyed from Kibrothhattaavah unto Hazeroth; and abode at Hazeroth.}} ==Chapter 12== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam and Aaron spake against Moses}} {{font|color=#880000| because of the Ethiopian woman whom he had married: for he had married an Ethiopian woman.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they said, Hath the LORD indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us? And the LORD heard it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| (Now the man Moses was very meek, above all the men which were upon the face of the earth.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD spake suddenly unto Moses, and unto Aaron, and unto Miriam, Come out ye three unto the tabernacle of the congregation. And they three came out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in the pillar of the cloud, and stood in the door of the tabernacle, and called Aaron and Miriam: and they both came forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Hear now my words: If there be a prophet among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak unto him in a dream.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| My servant Moses is not so, who is faithful in all mine house. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the LORD shall he behold: wherefore then were ye not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the anger of the LORD was kindled against them; and he departed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the cloud departed from off the tabernacle; and, behold, Miriam became leprous, white as snow: and Aaron looked upon Miriam, and, behold, she was leprous.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Aaron said unto Moses, Alas, my lord, I beseech thee, lay not the sin upon us, wherein we have done foolishly, and wherein we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let her not be as one dead, of whom the flesh is half consumed when he cometh out of his mother's womb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses cried unto the LORD, saying, Heal her now, O God, I beseech thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, If her father had but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven days? let her be shut out from the camp seven days, and after that let her be received in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam was shut out from the camp seven days: and the people journeyed not till Miriam was brought in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And afterward the people removed from Hazeroth, and pitched in the wilderness of Paran.}} ==Chapter 13== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Send thou men, that they may search the land of Canaan, which I give unto the children of Israel: of every tribe of their fathers shall ye send a man, every one a ruler among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses by the commandment of the LORD sent them from the wilderness of Paran: all those men were heads of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were their names: of the tribe of Reuben, Shammua the son of Zaccur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Issachar, Igal the son of Joseph.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Ephraim, Oshea the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Palti the son of Raphu.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Zebulun, Gaddiel the son of Sodi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Joseph, namely, of the tribe of Manasseh, Gaddi the son of Susi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Dan, Ammiel the son of Gemalli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Asher, Sethur the son of Michael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Naphtali, Nahbi the son of Vophsi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Gad, Geuel the son of Machi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which Moses sent to spy out the land. And Moses called Oshea the son of Nun Jehoshua.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan, }} {{font|color=#000088|and said unto them, Get you up this way southward, and go up into the mountain:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And see the land, what it is, and the people that dwelleth therein, whether they be strong or weak, few or many;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is that they dwell in, whether it be good or bad; and what cities they be that they dwell in, whether in tents, or in strong holds;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is, whether it be fat or lean, whether there be wood therein, or not. And be ye of good courage, and bring of the fruit of the land. Now the time was the time of the firstripe grapes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|So they went up, and searched the land from the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, as men come to Hamath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they ascended by the south, and came unto Hebron; where Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak, were. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they returned from searching of the land after forty days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they went and came to Moses, and to Aaron, and to all the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the wilderness of Paran,}} {{font|color=#000088|to Kadesh; and brought back word unto them, and unto all the congregation, and shewed them the fruit of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they told him, and said, We came unto the land whither thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and honey; and this is the fruit of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Nevertheless the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great: and moreover we saw the children of Anak there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The Amalekites dwell in the land of the south: and the Hittites, and the Jebusites, and the Amorites, dwell in the mountains: and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast of Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the men that went up with him said, We be not able to go up against the people; for they are stronger than we.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great stature.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight.}} ==Chapter 14== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation lifted up their voice, and cried;}} {{font|color=#000088| and the people wept that night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron: and the whole congregation said unto them, Would God that we had died in the land of Egypt! or would God we had died in this wilderness!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And wherefore hath the LORD brought us unto this land, to fall by the sword, that our wives and our children should be a prey? were it not better for us to return into Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said one to another, Let us make a captain, and let us return into Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then Moses and Aaron fell on their faces before all the assembly of the congregation of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of them that searched the land, rent their clothes:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|And they spake unto all the company of the children of Israel, saying, The land, which we passed through to search it, is an exceeding good land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If the LORD delight in us, then he will bring us into this land, and give it us; a land which floweth with milk and honey.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only rebel not ye against the LORD, neither fear ye the people of the land; for they are bread for us: their defence is departed from them, and the LORD is with us: fear them not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the congregation bade stone them with stones. And the glory of the LORD appeared in the tabernacle of the congregation before all the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, How long will this people provoke me? and how long will it be ere they believe me, for all the signs which I have shewed among them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| I will smite them with the pestilence, and disinherit them, and will make of thee a greater nation and mightier than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the LORD, Then the Egyptians shall hear it, (for thou broughtest up this people in thy might from among them;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land: for they have heard that thou LORD art among this people, that thou LORD art seen face to face, and that thy cloud standeth over them, and that thou goest before them, by day time in a pillar of a cloud, and in a pillar of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now if thou shalt kill all this people as one man, then the nations which have heard the fame of thee will speak, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because the LORD was not able to bring this people into the land which he sware unto them, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And now, I beseech thee, let the power of my Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The LORD is longsuffering, and of great mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression, and by no means clearing the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Pardon, I beseech thee, the iniquity of this people according unto the greatness of thy mercy, and as thou hast forgiven this people, from Egypt even until now.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said, I have pardoned according to thy word: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But as truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because all those men which have seen my glory, and my miracles, which I did in Egypt and in the wilderness, and have tempted me now these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely they shall not see the land which I sware unto their fathers, neither shall any of them that provoked me see it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit with him, and hath followed me fully, him will I bring into the land whereinto he went; and his seed shall possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| (Now the Amalekites and the Canaanites dwelt in the valley.) Tomorrow turn you, and get you into the wilderness by the way of the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| How long shall I bear with this evil congregation, which murmur against me? I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel, which they murmur against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Say unto them, As truly as I live, saith the LORD, as ye have spoken in mine ears, so will I do to you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Your carcases shall fall in this wilderness; and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from twenty years old and upward which have murmured against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Doubtless ye shall not come into the land, concerning which I sware to make you dwell therein, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But your little ones, which ye said should be a prey, them will I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have despised.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But as for you, your carcases, they shall fall in this wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your children shall wander in the wilderness forty years, and bear your whoredoms, until your carcases be wasted in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years, and ye shall know my breach of promise.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I the LORD have said, I will surely do it unto all this evil congregation, that are gathered together against me: in this wilderness they shall be consumed, and there they shall die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the men, which Moses sent to search the land, who returned, and made all the congregation to murmur against him, by bringing up a slander upon the land,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those men that did bring up the evil report upon the land, died by the plague before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of the men that went to search the land, lived still.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses told these sayings unto all the children of Israel: and the people mourned greatly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they rose up early in the morning, and gat them up into the top of the mountain, saying, Lo, we be here, and will go up unto the place which the LORD hath promised: for we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, Wherefore now do ye transgress the commandment of the LORD? but it shall not prosper.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Go not up, for the LORD is not among you; that ye be not smitten before your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For the Amalekites and the Canaanites are there before you, and ye shall fall by the sword: because ye are turned away from the LORD, therefore the LORD will not be with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But they presumed to go up unto the hill top: nevertheless the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and Moses, departed not out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the Amalekites came down, and the Canaanites which dwelt in that hill, and smote them, and discomfited them, even unto Hormah.}} ==Chapter 15== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And will make an offering by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the LORD, of the herd or of the flock:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he that offereth his offering unto the LORD bring a meat offering of a tenth deal of flour mingled with the fourth part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink offering shalt thou prepare with the burnt offering or sacrifice, for one lamb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or for a ram, thou shalt prepare for a meat offering two tenth deals of flour mingled with the third part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a drink offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of wine, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou preparest a bullock for a burnt offering, or for a sacrifice in performing a vow, or peace offerings unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he bring with a bullock a meat offering of three tenth deals of flour mingled with half an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring for a drink offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shall it be done for one bullock, or for one ram, or for a lamb, or a kid.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the number that ye shall prepare, so shall ye do to every one according to their number.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that are born of the country shall do these things after this manner, in offering an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger sojourn with you, or whosoever be among you in your generations, and will offer an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; as ye do, so he shall do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourneth with you, an ordinance for ever in your generations: as ye are, so shall the stranger be before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One law and one manner shall be for you, and for the stranger that sojourneth with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land whither I bring you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, that, when ye eat of the bread of the land, ye shall offer up an heave offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall offer up a cake of the first of your dough for an heave offering: as ye do the heave offering of the threshingfloor, so shall ye heave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the first of your dough ye shall give unto the LORD an heave offering in your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye have erred, and not observed all these commandments, which the LORD hath spoken unto Moses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all that the LORD hath commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the LORD commanded Moses, and henceforward among your generations;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, if ought be committed by ignorance without the knowledge of the congregation, that all the congregation shall offer one young bullock for a burnt offering, for a sweet savour unto the LORD, with his meat offering, and his drink offering, according to the manner, and one kid of the goats for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for all the congregation of the children of Israel, and it shall be forgiven them; for it is ignorance: and they shall bring their offering, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD, and their sin offering before the LORD, for their ignorance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any soul sin through ignorance, then he shall bring a she goat of the first year for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for the soul that sinneth ignorantly, when he sinneth by ignorance before the LORD, to make an atonement for him; and it shall be forgiven him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall have one law for him that sinneth through ignorance, both for him that is born among the children of Israel, and for the stranger that sojourneth among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the soul that doeth ought presumptuously, whether he be born in the land, or a stranger, the same reproacheth the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from among his people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he hath despised the word of the LORD, and hath broken his commandment, that soul shall utterly be cut off; his iniquity shall be upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And while the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon the sabbath day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they that found him gathering sticks brought him unto Moses and Aaron, and unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they put him in ward, because it was not declared what should be done to him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, The man shall be surely put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a ribband of blue:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That ye may remember, and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I am the LORD your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: I am the LORD your God.}} ==Chapter 16== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi,}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab,}} {{font|color=#880000|and On, the son of Peleth,}} {{font|color=#008888| son}}{{font|color=#888800|s}} {{font|color=#008888|of Reuben, took men:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they rose up before Moses, with certain of the children of Israel, two hundred and fifty princes of the assembly, famous in the congregation, men of renown:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron, and said unto them, Ye take too much upon you, seeing all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is among them: wherefore then lift ye up yourselves above the congregation of the LORD?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses heard it, he fell upon his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto Korah and unto all his company, saying, Even to morrow the LORD will shew who are his, and who is holy; and will cause him to come near unto him: even him whom he hath chosen will he cause to come near unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This do; Take you censers, Korah, and all his company;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And put fire therein, and put incense in them before the LORD to morrow: and it shall be that the man whom the LORD doth choose, he shall be holy: ye take too much upon you, ye sons of Levi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Hear, I pray you, ye sons of Levi:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Seemeth it but a small thing unto you, that the God of Israel hath separated you from the congregation of Israel, to bring you near to himself to do the service of the tabernacle of the LORD, and to stand before the congregation to minister unto them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he hath brought thee near to him, and all thy brethren the sons of Levi with thee: and seek ye the priesthood also?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For which cause both thou and all thy company are gathered together against the LORD: and what is Aaron, that ye murmur against him?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to call Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab: which said, We will not come up:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Is it a small thing that thou hast brought us up out of a land that floweth with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, except thou make thyself altogether a prince over us?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards: wilt thou put out the eyes of these men? we will not come up.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses was very wroth, and said unto the LORD, Respect not thou their offering: I have not taken one ass from them, neither have I hurt one of them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Be thou and all thy company before the LORD, thou, and they, and Aaron, to morrow:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And take every man his censer, and put incense in them, and bring ye before the LORD every man his censer, two hundred and fifty censers; thou also, and Aaron, each of you his censer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took every man his censer, and put fire in them, and laid incense thereon, and stood in the door of the tabernacle of the congregation with Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Korah gathered all the congregation against them unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Separate yourselves from among this congregation, that I may consume them in a moment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they fell upon their faces, and said, O God, the God of the spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, and wilt thou be wroth with all the congregation?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the congregation, saying, Get you up from about the tabernacle}} {{font|color=#880000|of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses rose up and went unto Dathan and Abiram; and the elders of Israel followed him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto the congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888| saying, Depart, I pray you, from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of their's, lest ye be consumed in all their sins.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So they gat up from the tabernacle }} {{font|color=#880000| of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,}} {{font|color=#888800| on every side:}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram came out, and stood in the door of their tents, and their wives, and their sons, and their little children.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that the LORD hath sent me to do all these works; for I have not done them of mine own mind.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| If these men die the common death of all men, or if they be visited after the visitation of all men; then the LORD hath not sent me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But if the LORD make a new thing, and the earth open her mouth, and swallow them up, with all that appertain unto them, and they go down quick into the pit; then ye shall understand that these men have provoked the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And it came to pass, as he had made an end of speaking all these words, that the ground clave asunder that was under them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up, and their houses,}} {{font|color=#880000| and all the men that appertained unto Korah,}} {{font|color=#008888| and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| They, and all that appertained to them, went down alive into the pit, and the earth closed upon them: and they perished from among the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And all Israel that were round about them fled at the cry of them: for they said, Lest the earth swallow us up also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there came out a fire from the LORD, and consumed the two hundred and fifty men that offered incense.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, that he take up the censers out of the burning, and scatter thou the fire yonder; for they are hallowed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The censers of these sinners against their own souls, let them make them broad plates for a covering of the altar: for they offered them before the LORD, therefore they are hallowed: and they shall be a sign unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest took the brasen censers, wherewith they that were burnt had offered; and they were made broad plates for a covering of the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To be a memorial unto the children of Israel, that no stranger, which is not of the seed of Aaron, come near to offer incense before the LORD; that he be not as Korah, and as his company: as the LORD said to him by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But on the morrow all the congregation of the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron, saying, Ye have killed the people of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, when the congregation was gathered against Moses and against Aaron, that they looked toward the tabernacle of the congregation: and, behold, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD appeared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron came before the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Get you up from among this congregation, that I may consume them as in a moment. And they fell upon their faces. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Aaron, Take a censer, and put fire therein from off the altar, and put on incense, and go quickly unto the congregation, and make an atonement for them: for there is wrath gone out from the LORD; the plague is begun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron took as Moses commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation; and, behold, the plague was begun among the people: and he put on incense, and made an atonement for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now they that died in the plague were fourteen thousand and seven hundred, beside them that died about the matter of Korah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron returned unto Moses unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the plague was stayed.}} ==Chapter 17== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods: write thou every man's name upon his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt write Aaron's name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt lay them up in the tabernacle of the congregation before the testimony, where I will meet with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall come to pass, that the man's rod, whom I shall choose, shall blossom: and I will make to cease from me the murmurings of the children of Israel, whereby they murmur against you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers' houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses laid up the rods before the LORD in the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and, behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought out all the rods from before the LORD unto all the children of Israel: and they looked, and took every man his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Bring Aaron's rod again before the testimony, to be kept for a token against the rebels; and thou shalt quite take away their murmurings from me, that they die not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did so: as the LORD commanded him, so did he. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel spake unto Moses, saying, Behold, we die, we perish, we all perish.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle of the LORD shall die: shall we be consumed with dying?}} ==Chapter 18== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Aaron, Thou and thy sons and thy father's house with thee shall bear the iniquity of the sanctuary: and thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thy brethren also of the tribe of Levi, the tribe of thy father, bring thou with thee, that they may be joined unto thee, and minister unto thee: but thou and thy sons with thee shall minister before the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep thy charge, and the charge of all the tabernacle: only they shall not come nigh the vessels of the sanctuary and the altar, that neither they, nor ye also, die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be joined unto thee, and keep the charge of the tabernacle of the congregation, for all the service of the tabernacle: and a stranger shall not come nigh unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall keep the charge of the sanctuary, and the charge of the altar: that there be no wrath any more upon the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken your brethren the Levites from among the children of Israel: to you they are given as a gift for the LORD, to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou and thy sons with thee shall keep your priest's office for everything of the altar, and within the vail; and ye shall serve: I have given your priest's office unto you as a service of gift: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Behold, I also have given thee the charge of mine heave offerings of all the hallowed things of the children of Israel; unto thee have I given them by reason of the anointing, and to thy sons, by an ordinance for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be thine of the most holy things, reserved from the fire: every oblation of their's, every meat offering of their's, and every sin offering of their's, and every trespass offering of their's which they shall render unto me, shall be most holy for thee and for thy sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the most holy place shalt thou eat it; every male shall eat it: it shall be holy unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is thine; the heave offering of their gift, with all the wave offerings of the children of Israel: I have given them unto thee, and to thy sons and to thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: every one that is clean in thy house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them have I given thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever is first ripe in the land, which they shall bring unto the LORD, shall be thine; every one that is clean in thine house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing devoted in Israel shall be thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that openeth the matrix in all flesh, which they bring unto the LORD, whether it be of men or beasts, shall be thine: nevertheless the firstborn of man shalt thou surely redeem, and the firstling of unclean beasts shalt thou redeem.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that are to be redeemed from a month old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, for the money of five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, which is twenty gerahs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the firstling of a cow, or the firstling of a sheep, or the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they are holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the altar, and shalt burn their fat for an offering made by fire, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the flesh of them shall be thine, as the wave breast and as the right shoulder are thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the heave offerings of the holy things, which the children of Israel offer unto the LORD, have I given thee, and thy sons and thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: it is a covenant of salt for ever before the LORD unto thee and to thy seed with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Thou shalt have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part among them: I am thy part and thine inheritance among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, I have given the children of Levi all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance, for their service which they serve, even the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither must the children of Israel henceforth come nigh the tabernacle of the congregation, lest they bear sin, and die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they shall bear their iniquity: it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations, that among the children of Israel they have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the tithes of the children of Israel, which they offer as an heave offering unto the LORD, I have given to the Levites to inherit: therefore I have said unto them, Among the children of Israel they shall have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus speak unto the Levites, and say unto them, When ye take of the children of Israel the tithes which I have given you from them for your inheritance, then ye shall offer up an heave offering of it for the LORD, even a tenth part of the tithe.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this your heave offering shall be reckoned unto you, as though it were the corn of the threshingfloor, and as the fulness of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus ye also shall offer an heave offering unto the LORD of all your tithes, which ye receive of the children of Israel; and ye shall give thereof the LORD's heave offering to Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Out of all your gifts ye shall offer every heave offering of the LORD, of all the best thereof, even the hallowed part thereof out of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the increase of the threshingfloor, and as the increase of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall eat it in every place, ye and your households: for it is your reward for your service in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall bear no sin by reason of it, when ye have heaved from it the best of it: neither shall ye pollute the holy things of the children of Israel, lest ye die.}} ==Chapter 19== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD hath commanded, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee a red heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish, and upon which never came yoke:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall give her unto Eleazar the priest, that he may bring her forth without the camp, and one shall slay her before his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest shall take of her blood with his finger, and sprinkle of her blood directly before the tabernacle of the congregation seven times:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And one shall burn the heifer in his sight; her skin, and her flesh, and her blood, with her dung, shall he burn:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall wash his clothes, and he shall bathe his flesh in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp, and the priest shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that burneth her shall wash his clothes in water, and bathe his flesh in water, and shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp in a clean place, and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of Israel for a water of separation: it is a purification for sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that gathereth the ashes of the heifer shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: and it shall be unto the children of Israel, and unto the stranger that sojourneth among them, for a statute for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall purify himself with it on the third day, and on the seventh day he shall be clean: but if he purify not himself the third day, then the seventh day he shall not be clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever toucheth the dead body of any man that is dead, and purifieth not himself, defileth the tabernacle of the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from Israel: because the water of separation was not sprinkled upon him, he shall be unclean; his uncleanness is yet upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law, when a man dieth in a tent: all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every open vessel, which hath no covering bound upon it, is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with a sword in the open fields, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for an unclean person they shall take of the ashes of the burnt heifer of purification for sin, and running water shall be put thereto in a vessel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the clean person shall sprinkle upon the unclean on the third day, and on the seventh day: and on the seventh day he shall purify himself, and wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and shall be clean at even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that shall be unclean, and shall not purify himself, that soul shall be cut off from among the congregation, because he hath defiled the sanctuary of the LORD: the water of separation hath not been sprinkled upon him; he is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be a perpetual statute unto them, that he that sprinkleth the water of separation shall wash his clothes; and he that toucheth the water of separation shall be unclean until even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever the unclean person toucheth shall be unclean; and the soul that toucheth it shall be unclean until even.}} ==Chapter 20== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the children of Israel, even the whole congregation, into the desert of Zin in the first month:}} {{font|color=#008888| and the people abode in Kadesh; and Miriam died there, and was buried there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there was no water for the congregation: and they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people chode with Moses, and spake, }} {{font|color=#888800|saying, Would God that we had died when our brethren died before the LORD!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And why have ye brought up the congregation of the LORD into this wilderness, that we and our cattle should die there?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron went from the presence of the assembly unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they fell upon their faces: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the rod, and gather thou the assembly together, thou, and Aaron thy brother, and speak ye unto the rock before their eyes; and it shall give forth his water, and thou shalt bring forth to them water out of the rock: so thou shalt give the congregation and their beasts drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the rod from before the LORD, as he commanded him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron gathered the congregation together before the rock, and he said unto them, Hear now, ye rebels; must we fetch you water out of this rock?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their beasts also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron, Because ye believed me not, to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which I have given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the water of Meribah; because the children of Israel strove with the LORD, and he was sanctified in them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent messengers from Kadesh unto the king of Edom, Thus saith thy brother Israel, Thou knowest all the travail that hath befallen us:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| How our fathers went down into Egypt, and we have dwelt in Egypt a long time; and the Egyptians vexed us, and our fathers:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And when we cried unto the LORD, he heard our voice, and sent an angel, and hath brought us forth out of Egypt: and, behold, we are in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of thy border:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells: we will go by the king's high way, we will not turn to the right hand nor to the left, until we have passed thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Edom said unto him, Thou shalt not pass by me, lest I come out against thee with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Israel said unto him, We will go by the high way: and if I and my cattle drink of thy water, then I will pay for it: I will only, without doing anything else, go through on my feet.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Thou shalt not go through. And Edom came out against him with much people, and with a strong hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Edom refused to give Israel passage through his border: wherefore Israel turned away from him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel, even the whole congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888|journeyed from Kadesh, and}} {{font|color=#888800|came unto mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron in mount Hor, by the coast of the land of Edom, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Aaron shall be gathered unto his people: for he shall not enter into the land which I have given unto the children of Israel, because ye rebelled against my word at the water of Meribah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take Aaron and Eleazar his son, and bring them up unto mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son: and Aaron shall be gathered unto his people, and shall die there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded: and they went up into mount Hor in the sight of all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son; and Aaron died there in the top of the mount: and Moses and Eleazar came down from the mount.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when all the congregation saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for Aaron thirty days, even all the house of Israel.}} ==Chapter 21== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south, heard tell that Israel came by the way of the spies; then he fought against Israel, and took some of them prisoners.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Israel vowed a vow unto the LORD, and said, If thou wilt indeed deliver this people into my hand, then I will utterly destroy their cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD hearkened to the voice of Israel, and delivered up the Canaanites; and they utterly destroyed them and their cities: and he called the name of the place Hormah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from mount Hor by the way of the Red sea,}} {{font|color=#008888| to compass the land of Edom: and the soul of the people was much discouraged because of the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people spake against God, and against Moses, Wherefore have ye brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there is no bread, neither is there any water;}} {{font|color=#880000|and our soul loatheth this light bread.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against the LORD, and against thee; pray unto the LORD, that he take away the serpents from us. And Moses prayed for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in Oboth. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from Oboth, and pitched at Ijeabarim, in the wilderness which is before Moab, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched in the valley of Zared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched on the other side of Arnon, which is in the wilderness that cometh out of the coasts of the Amorites: for Arnon is the border of Moab, between Moab and the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore it is said in the book of the wars of the LORD, What he did in the Red sea, and in the brooks of Arnon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And at the stream of the brooks that goeth down to the dwelling of Ar, and lieth upon the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give them water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well; sing ye unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves. And from the wilderness they went to Mattanah: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Mattanah to Nahaliel: and from Nahaliel to Bamoth:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Bamoth in the valley, that is in the country of Moab, to the top of Pisgah, which looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel sent messengers unto Sihon king of the Amorites, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let me pass through thy land: we will not turn into the fields, or into the vineyards; we will not drink of the waters of the well: but we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Sihon would not suffer Israel to pass through his border: but Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out against Israel into the wilderness: and he came to Jahaz, and fought against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel smote him with the edge of the sword, and possessed his land from Arnon unto Jabbok, even unto the children of Ammon: for the border of the children of Ammon was strong.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel took all these cities: and Israel dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites, in Heshbon, and in all the villages thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For Heshbon was the city of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab, and taken all his land out of his hand, even unto Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say, Come into Heshbon, let the city of Sihon be built and prepared:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For there is a fire gone out of Heshbon, a flame from the city of Sihon: it hath consumed Ar of Moab, and the lords of the high places of Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity unto Sihon king of the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We have shot at them; Heshbon is perished even unto Dibon, and we have laid them waste even unto Nophah, which reacheth unto Medeba.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Israel dwelt in the land of the Amorites. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to spy out Jaazer, and they took the villages thereof, and drove out the Amorites that were there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And they turned and went up by the way of Bashan: and Og the king of Bashan went out against them, he, and all his people, to the battle at Edrei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Fear him not: for I have delivered him into thy hand, and all his people, and his land; and thou shalt do to him as thou didst unto Sihon king of the Amorites, which dwelt at Heshbon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| So they smote him, and his sons, and all his people, until there was none left him alive: and they possessed his land.}} ==Chapter 22== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in the plains of Moab on this side Jordan by Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Balak the son of Zippor saw all that Israel had done to the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab was sore afraid of the people, because they were many: and Moab was distressed because of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab said}} {{font|color=#880000| unto the elders of Midian,}} {{font|color=#000088|Now shall this company lick up all that are round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was king of the Moabites at that time.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He sent messengers therefore unto Balaam the son of Beor to Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the children of his people, to call him, saying, Behold, there is a people come out from Egypt: behold, they cover the face of the earth, and they abide over against me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Come now therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people; for they are too mighty for me: peradventure I shall prevail, that we may smite them, and that I may drive them out of the land: for I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the elders of Moab}} {{font|color=#880000|and the elders of Midian}} {{font|color=#000088|departed with the rewards of divination in their hand; and they came unto Balaam, and spake unto him the words of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto them, Lodge here this night, and I will bring you word again, as the LORD shall speak unto me: and the princes of Moab abode with Balaam.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam, and said, What men are these with thee?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto God, Balak the son of Zippor, king of Moab, hath sent unto me saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, there is a people come out of Egypt, which covereth the face of the earth: come now, curse me them; peradventure I shall be able to overcome them, and drive them out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God said unto Balaam, Thou shalt not go with them; thou shalt not curse the people: for they are blessed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and said unto the princes of Balak, Get you into your land: for the LORD refuseth to give me leave to go with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the princes of Moab rose up, and they went unto Balak, and said, Balaam refuseth to come with us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak sent yet again princes, more, and more honourable than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came to Balaam, and said to him, Thus saith Balak the son of Zippor, Let nothing, I pray thee, hinder thee from coming unto me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For I will promote thee unto very great honour, and I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me: come therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam answered and said unto the servants of Balak, If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the word of the LORD my God, to do less or more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now therefore, I pray you, tarry ye also here this night, that I may know what the LORD will say unto me more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam at night, and said unto him, If the men come to call thee, rise up, and go with them; but yet the word which I shall say unto thee, that shalt thou do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and saddled his ass, and went with the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And God's anger was kindled because he went:}} {{font|color=#000088|and the angel of the LORD stood in the way for an adversary against him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into the field: and Balaam smote the ass, to turn her into the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she thrust herself unto the wall, and crushed Balaam's foot against the wall: and he smote her again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD went further, and stood in a narrow place, where was no way to turn either to the right hand or to the left.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she fell down under Balaam: and Balaam's anger was kindled, and he smote the ass with a staff.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD opened the mouth of the ass, and she said unto Balaam, What have I done unto thee, that thou hast smitten me these three times?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the ass, Because thou hast mocked me: I would there were a sword in mine hand, for now would I kill thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass said unto Balaam, Am not I thine ass, upon which thou hast ridden ever since I was thine unto this day? was I ever wont to do so unto thee? And he said, Nay.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the LORD opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and he bowed down his head, and fell flat on his face.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto him, Wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass these three times? behold, I went out to withstand thee, because thy way is perverse before me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw me, and turned from me these three times: unless she had turned from me, surely now also I had slain thee, and saved her alive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the angel of the LORD, I have sinned; for I knew not that thou stoodest in the way against me: now therefore, if it displease thee, I will get me back again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto Balaam, Go with the men: but only the word that I shall speak unto thee, that thou shalt speak. So Balaam went with the princes of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balak heard that Balaam was come, he went out to meet him unto a city of Moab, which is in the border of Arnon, which is in the utmost coast.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Did I not earnestly send unto thee to call thee? wherefore camest thou not unto me? am I not able indeed to promote thee to honour?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Lo, I am come unto thee: have I now any power at all to say any thing? the word that God putteth in my mouth, that shall I speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam went with Balak, and they came unto Kirjathhuzoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak offered oxen and sheep, and sent to Balaam, and to the princes that were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass on the morrow, that Balak took Balaam, and brought him up into the high places of Baal, that thence he might see the utmost part of the people.}} ==Chapter 23== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven oxen and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had spoken; and Balak and Balaam offered on every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Stand by thy burnt offering, and I will go: peradventure the LORD will come to meet me: and whatsoever he sheweth me I will tell thee. And he went to an high place.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God met Balaam: and he said unto him, I have prepared seven altars, and I have offered upon every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD put a word in Balaam's mouth, and said, Return unto Balak, and thus thou shalt speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he returned unto him, and, lo, he stood by his burnt sacrifice, he, and all the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balak the king of Moab hath brought me from Aram, out of the mountains of the east, saying, Come, curse me Jacob, and come, defy Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed? or how shall I defy, whom the LORD hath not defied?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills I behold him: lo, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be reckoned among the nations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Who can count the dust of Jacob, and the number of the fourth part of Israel? Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, What hast thou done unto me? I took thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast blessed them altogether.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he answered and said, Must I not take heed to speak that which the LORD hath put in my mouth?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto him, Come, I pray thee, with me unto another place, from whence thou mayest see them: thou shalt see but the utmost part of them, and shalt not see them all: and curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he brought him into the field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah, and built seven altars, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto Balak, Stand here by thy burnt offering, while I meet the LORD yonder.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD met Balaam, and put a word in his mouth, and said, Go again unto Balak, and say thus.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when he came to him, behold, he stood by his burnt offering, and the princes of Moab with him. And Balak said unto him, What hath the LORD spoken?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Rise up, Balak, and hear; hearken unto me, thou son of Zippor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, I have received commandment to bless: and he hath blessed; and I cannot reverse it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the LORD his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion: he shall not lie down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Neither curse them at all, nor bless them at all.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But Balaam answered and said unto Balak, Told not I thee, saying, All that the LORD speaketh, that I must do?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Come, I pray thee, I will bring thee unto another place; peradventure it will please God that thou mayest curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak brought Balaam unto the top of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven bullocks and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had said, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} ==Chapter 24== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balaam saw that it pleased the LORD to bless Israel, he went not, as at other times, to seek for enchantments, but he set his face toward the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam lifted up his eyes, and he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes; and the spirit of God came upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees of lign aloes which the LORD hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He shall pour the water out of his buckets, and his seed shall be in many waters, and his king shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shall be exalted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought him forth out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn: he shall eat up the nations his enemies, and shall break their bones, and pierce them through with his arrows.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion: who shall stir him up? Blessed is he that blesseth thee, and cursed is he that curseth thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he smote his hands together: and Balak said unto Balaam, I called thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast altogether blessed them these three times.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Therefore now flee thou to thy place: I thought to promote thee unto great honour; but, lo, the LORD hath kept thee back from honour.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Spake I not also to thy messengers which thou sentest unto me, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the LORD, to do either good or bad of mine own mind; but what the LORD saith, that will I speak?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And now, behold, I go unto my people: come therefore, and I will advertise thee what this people shall do to thy people in the latter days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| He hath said, which heard the words of God, and knew the knowledge of the most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold him, but not nigh: there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Edom shall be a possession, Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies; and Israel shall do valiantly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion, and shall destroy him that remaineth of the city.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable, and said, Amalek was the first of the nations; but his latter end shall be that he perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he looked on the Kenites, and took up his parable, and said, Strong is thy dwellingplace, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Nevertheless the Kenite shall be wasted, until Asshur shall carry thee away captive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Alas, who shall live when God doeth this!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and shall afflict Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up, and went and returned to his place: and Balak also went his way.}} ==Chapter 25== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel abode in Shittim, }} {{font|color=#000088|and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods: and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel joined himself unto Baalpeor: }} {{font|color=#000088|and the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people, and hang them up before the LORD against the sun, that the fierce anger of the LORD may be turned away from Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the judges of Israel, Slay ye every one his men that were joined unto Baalpeor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, one of the children of Israel came and brought unto his brethren a Midianitish woman in the sight of Moses, and in the sight of all the congregation of the children of Israel, who were weeping before the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation, and took a javelin in his hand;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust both of them through, the man of Israel, and the woman through her belly.}} {{font|color=#880000| So the plague was stayed from the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And those that died in the plague were twenty and four thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, hath turned my wrath away from the children of Israel, while he was zealous for my sake among them, that I consumed not the children of Israel in my jealousy.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Wherefore say, Behold, I give unto him my covenant of peace:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall have it, and his seed after him, even the covenant of an everlasting priesthood; because he was zealous for his God, and made an atonement for the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now the name of the Israelite that was slain, even that was slain with the Midianitish woman, was Zimri, the son of Salu, a prince of a chief house among the Simeonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the Midianitish woman that was slain was Cozbi, the daughter of Zur; he was head over a people, and of a chief house in Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Vex the Midianites, and smite them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|For they vex you with their wiles,}} {{font|color=#880000| wherewith they have beguiled you in the matter of Peor, and}} {{font|color=#888800| in the matter of Cozbi, the daughter of a prince of Midian, their sister, which was slain}} {{font|color=#880000| in the day of the plague for Peor's sake.}} ==Chapter 26== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass}} {{font|color=#880000| after the plague,}} {{font|color=#888800| that the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, from twenty years old and upward, throughout their fathers' house, all that are able to go to war in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest spake with them in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the people, from twenty years old and upward; as the LORD commanded Moses and the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Reuben, the eldest son of Israel: the children of Reuben; Hanoch, of whom cometh the family of the Hanochites: of Pallu, the family of the Palluites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Carmi, the family of the Carmites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Reubenites: and they that were numbered of them were forty and three thousand and seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pallu; Eliab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the sons of Eliab; Nemuel, and Dathan, and Abiram. This is that Dathan and Abiram, which were famous in the congregation, who strove against Moses and against Aaron in the company of Korah, when they strove against the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up together with Korah, when that company died, what time the fire devoured two hundred and fifty men: and they became a sign.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Notwithstanding the children of Korah died not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Simeon after their families: of Nemuel, the family of the Nemuelites: of Jamin, the family of the Jaminites: of Jachin, the family of the Jachinites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites: of Shaul, the family of the Shaulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Simeonites, twenty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad after their families: of Zephon, the family of the Zephonites: of Haggi, the family of the Haggites: of Shuni, the family of the Shunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Ozni, the family of the Oznites: of Eri, the family of the Erites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Arod, the family of the Arodites: of Areli, the family of the Arelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the children of Gad according to those that were numbered of them, forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| The sons of Judah were Er and Onan: and Er and Onan died in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Judah after their families were; of Shelah, the family of the Shelanites: of Pharez, the family of the Pharzites: of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pharez were; of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Hamul, the family of the Hamulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Judah according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and sixteen thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Issachar after their families: of Tola, the family of the Tolaites: of Pua, the family of the Punites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites: of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Issachar according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and four thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Zebulun after their families: of Sered, the family of the Sardites: of Elon, the family of the Elonites: of Jahleel, the family of the Jahleelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Zebulunites according to those that were numbered of them, threescore thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Joseph after their families were Manasseh and Ephraim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Manasseh: of Machir, the family of the Machirites: and Machir begat Gilead: of Gilead come the family of the Gileadites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Gilead: of Jeezer, the family of the Jeezerites: of Helek, the family of the Helekites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Asriel, the family of the Asrielites: and of Shechem, the family of the Shechemites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Shemida, the family of the Shemidaites: and of Hepher, the family of the Hepherites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Zelophehad the son of Hepher had no sons, but daughters: and the names of the daughters of Zelophehad were Mahlah, and Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Manasseh, and those that were numbered of them, fifty and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Ephraim after their families: of Shuthelah, the family of the Shuthalhites: of Becher, the family of the Bachrites: of Tahan, the family of the Tahanites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the sons of Shuthelah: of Eran, the family of the Eranites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Ephraim according to those that were numbered of them, thirty and two thousand and five hundred. These are the sons of Joseph after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Benjamin after their families: of Bela, the family of the Belaites: of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites: of Ahiram, the family of the Ahiramites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Shupham, the family of the Shuphamites: of Hupham, the family of the Huphamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Bela were Ard and Naaman: of Ard, the family of the Ardites: and of Naaman, the family of the Naamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Benjamin after their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Dan after their families: of Shuham, the family of the Shuhamites. These are the families of Dan after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the families of the Shuhamites, according to those that were numbered of them, were threescore and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher after their families: of Jimna, the family of the Jimnites: of Jesui, the family of the Jesuites: of Beriah, the family of the Beriites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Beriah: of Heber, the family of the Heberites: of Malchiel, the family of the Malchielites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the daughter of Asher was Sarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Asher according to those that were numbered of them; who were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Naphtali after their families: of Jahzeel, the family of the Jahzeelites: of Guni, the family of the Gunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jezer, the family of the Jezerites: of Shillem, the family of the Shillemites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Naphtali according to their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the numbered of the children of Israel, six hundred thousand and a thousand seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Unto these the land shall be divided for an inheritance according to the number of names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To many thou shalt give the more inheritance, and to few thou shalt give the less inheritance: to every one shall his inheritance be given according to those that were numbered of him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Notwithstanding the land shall be divided by lot: according to the names of the tribes of their fathers they shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the lot shall the possession thereof be divided between many and few.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are they that were numbered of the Levites after their families: of Gershon, the family of the Gershonites: of Kohath, the family of the Kohathites: of Merari, the family of the Merarites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Levites: the family of the Libnites, the family of the Hebronites, the family of the Mahlites, the family of the Mushites, the family of the Korathites. And Kohath begat Amram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt: and she bare unto Amram Aaron and Moses, and Miriam their sister.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And unto Aaron was born Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died, when they offered strange fire before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them were twenty and three thousand, all males from a month old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered by Moses and Eleazar the priest, who numbered the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But among these there was not a man of them whom Moses and Aaron the priest numbered, when they numbered the children of Israel in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had said of them, They shall surely die in the wilderness. And there was not left a man of them, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} ==Chapter 27== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the daughters of Zelophehad, the son of Hepher, the son of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of Manasseh the son of Joseph: and these are the names of his daughters; Mahlah, Noah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they stood before Moses, and before Eleazar the priest, and before the princes and all the congregation, by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Our father died in the wilderness, and he was not in the company of them that gathered themselves together against the LORD in the company of Korah; but died in his own sin, and had no sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Why should the name of our father be done away from among his family, because he hath no son? Give unto us therefore a possession among the brethren of our father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought their cause before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The daughters of Zelophehad speak right: thou shalt surely give them a possession of an inheritance among their father's brethren; and thou shalt cause the inheritance of their father to pass unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a man die, and have no son, then ye shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daughter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no daughter, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his father's brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if his father have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kinsman that is next to him of his family, and he shall possess it: and it shall be unto the children of Israel a statute of judgment, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Get thee up into this mount Abarim, and see the land which I have given unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou hast seen it, thou also shalt be gathered unto thy people, as Aaron thy brother was gathered.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For ye rebelled against my commandment in the desert of Zin, in the strife of the congregation, to sanctify me at the water before their eyes: that is the water of Meribah in Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the LORD, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the LORD, the God of the spirits of all flesh, set a man over the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Which may go out before them, and which may go in before them, and which may lead them out, and which may bring them in; that the congregation of the LORD be not as sheep which have no shepherd.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take thee Joshua the son of Nun, a man in whom is the spirit, and lay thine hand upon him;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation; and give him a charge in their sight.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt put some of thine honour upon him, that all the congregation of the children of Israel may be obedient.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the LORD: at his word shall they go out, and at his word they shall come in, both he, and all the children of Israel with him, even all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded him: and he took Joshua, and set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he laid his hands upon him, and gave him a charge, as the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 28== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, My offering, and my bread for my sacrifices made by fire, for a sweet savour unto me, shall ye observe to offer unto me in their due season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And thou shalt say unto them, This is the offering made by fire which ye shall offer unto the LORD; two lambs of the first year without spot day by day, for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| The one lamb shalt thou offer in the morning, and the other lamb shalt thou offer at even;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a tenth part of an ephah of flour for a meat offering, mingled with the fourth part of an hin of beaten oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| It is a continual burnt offering, which was ordained in mount Sinai for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the drink offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for the one lamb: in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to be poured unto the LORD for a drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof, thou shalt offer it, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| This is the burnt offering of every sabbath, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the beginnings of your months ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, seven lambs of the first year without spot;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And three tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one bullock; and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal of flour mingled with oil for a meat offering unto one lamb; for a burnt offering of a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their drink offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bullock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an hin unto a lamb: this is the burnt offering of every month throughout the months of the year.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering unto the LORD shall be offered, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fourteenth day of the first month is the passover of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast: seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| In the first day shall be an holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a sacrifice made by fire for a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, and seven lambs of the first year: they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil: three tenth deals shall ye offer for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal shalt thou offer for every lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer these beside the burnt offering in the morning, which is for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| After this manner ye shall offer daily, throughout the seven days, the meat of the sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: it shall be offered beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Also in the day of the firstfruits, when ye bring a new meat offering unto the LORD, after your weeks be out, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer the burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; two young bullocks, one ram, seven lambs of the first year;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto one bullock, two tenth deals unto one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal unto one lamb, throughout the seven lambs;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer them beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, (they shall be unto you without blemish) and their drink offerings.}} ==Chapter 29== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Beside the burnt offering of the month, and his meat offering, and the daily burnt offering, and his meat offering, and their drink offerings, according unto their manner, for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall have on the tenth day of this seventh month an holy convocation; and ye shall afflict your souls: ye shall not do any work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD for a sweet savour; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year; they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals to a bullock, and two tenth deals to one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| One kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the sin offering of atonement, and the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering of it, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifteenth day of the seventh month ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work, and ye shall keep a feast unto the LORD seven days:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; thirteen young bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year; they shall be without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto every bullock of the thirteen bullocks, two tenth deals to each ram of the two rams,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal to each lamb of the fourteen lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the second day ye shall offer twelve young bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering thereof, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the third day eleven bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fourth day ten bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifth day nine bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sixth day eight bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day seven bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| On the eighth day ye shall have a solemn assembly: ye shall do no servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: one bullock, one ram, seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullock, for the ram, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| These things ye shall do unto the LORD in your set feasts, beside your vows, and your freewill offerings, for your burnt offerings, and for your meat offerings, and for your drink offerings, and for your peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 30== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the heads of the tribes concerning the children of Israel, saying, This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a man vow a vow unto the LORD, or swear an oath to bind his soul with a bond; he shall not break his word, he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a woman also vow a vow unto the LORD, and bind herself by a bond, being in her father's house in her youth;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her father hear her vow, and her bond wherewith she hath bound her soul, and her father shall hold his peace at her; then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she hath bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her father disallow her in the day that he heareth; not any of her vows, or of her bonds wherewith she hath bound her soul, shall stand: and the LORD shall forgive her, because her father disallowed her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she had at all an husband, when she vowed, or uttered ought out of her lips, wherewith she bound her soul;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her in the day that he heard it: then her vows shall stand, and her bonds wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband disallowed her on the day that he heard it; then he shall make her vow which she vowed, and that which she uttered with her lips, wherewith she bound her soul, of none effect: and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But every vow of a widow, and of her that is divorced, wherewith they have bound their souls, shall stand against her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she vowed in her husband's house, or bound her soul by a bond with an oath;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her, and disallowed her not: then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband hath utterly made them void on the day he heard them; then whatsoever proceeded out of her lips concerning her vows, or concerning the bond of her soul, shall not stand: her husband hath made them void; and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every vow, and every binding oath to afflict the soul, her husband may establish it, or her husband may make it void.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband altogether hold his peace at her from day to day; then he establisheth all her vows, or all her bonds, which are upon her: he confirmeth them, because he held his peace at her in the day that he heard them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he shall any ways make them void after that he hath heard them; then he shall bear her iniquity.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the statutes, which the LORD commanded Moses, between a man and his wife, between the father and his daughter, being yet in her youth in her father's house.}} ==Chapter 31== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Avenge the children of Israel of the Midianites: afterward shalt thou be gathered unto thy people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the people, saying, Arm some of yourselves unto the war, and let them go against the Midianites, and avenge the LORD of Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of every tribe a thousand, throughout all the tribes of Israel, shall ye send to the war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So there were delivered out of the thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe, twelve thousand armed for war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to the war, a thousand of every tribe, them and Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, to the war, with the holy instruments, and the trumpets to blow in his hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they warred against the Midianites, as the LORD commanded Moses; and they slew all the males.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they slew the kings of Midian, beside the rest of them that were slain; namely, Evi, and Rekem, and Zur, and Hur, and Reba, five kings of Midian: Balaam also the son of Beor they slew with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took all the women of Midian captives, and their little ones, and took the spoil of all their cattle, and all their flocks, and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they burnt all their cities wherein they dwelt, and all their goodly castles, with fire.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took all the spoil, and all the prey, both of men and of beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought the captives, and the prey, and the spoil, unto Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and unto the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the camp at the plains of Moab, which are by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all the princes of the congregation, went forth to meet them without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses was wroth with the officers of the host, with the captains over thousands, and captains over hundreds, which came from the battle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the LORD in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And do ye abide without the camp seven days: whosoever hath killed any person, and whosoever hath touched any slain, purify both yourselves and your captives on the third day, and on the seventh day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And purify all your raiment, and all that is made of skins, and all work of goats' hair, and all things made of wood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest said unto the men of war which went to the battle, This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD commanded Moses;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only the gold, and the silver, the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be clean: nevertheless it shall be purified with the water of separation: and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall wash your clothes on the seventh day, and ye shall be clean, and afterward ye shall come into the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the prey that was taken, both of man and of beast, thou, and Eleazar the priest, and the chief fathers of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And divide the prey into two parts; between them that took the war upon them, who went out to battle, and between all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And levy a tribute unto the LORD of the men of war which went out to battle: one soul of five hundred, both of the persons, and of the beeves, and of the asses, and of the sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of their half, and give it unto Eleazar the priest, for an heave offering of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, thou shalt take one portion of fifty, of the persons, of the beeves, of the asses, and of the flocks, of all manner of beasts, and give them unto the Levites, which keep the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest did as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the booty, being the rest of the prey which the men of war had caught, was six hundred thousand and seventy thousand and five thousand sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and twelve thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and one thousand asses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and two thousand persons in all, of women that had not known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the half, which was the portion of them that went out to war, was in number three hundred thousand and seven and thirty thousand and five hundred sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD's tribute of the sheep was six hundred and threescore and fifteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the beeves were thirty and six thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the asses were thirty thousand and five hundred; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and one.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the persons were sixteen thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was thirty and two persons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the tribute, which was the LORD's heave offering, unto Eleazar the priest, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, which Moses divided from the men that warred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (Now the half that pertained unto the congregation was three hundred thousand and thirty thousand and seven thousand and five hundred sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and six thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty thousand asses and five hundred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And sixteen thousand persons;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even of the children of Israel's half, Moses took one portion of fifty, both of man and of beast, and gave them unto the Levites, which kept the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the officers which were over thousands of the host, the captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds, came near unto Moses:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said unto Moses, Thy servants have taken the sum of the men of war which are under our charge, and there lacketh not one man of us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We have therefore brought an oblation for the LORD, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of them, even all wrought jewels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the gold of the offering that they offered up to the LORD, of the captains of thousands, and of the captains of hundreds, was sixteen thousand seven hundred and fifty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (For the men of war had taken spoil, every man for himself.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of the captains of thousands and of hundreds, and brought it into the tabernacle of the congregation, for a memorial for the children of Israel before the LORD.}} ==Chapter 32== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: }}{{font|color=#000088|and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad and the children of Reuben came and spake unto Moses, and to Eleazar the priest, and unto the princes of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Shebam, and Nebo, and Beon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even the country which the LORD smote before the congregation of Israel, is a land for cattle, and thy servants have cattle:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the children of Gad and to the children of Reuben, Shall your brethren go to war, and shall ye sit here?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And wherefore discourage ye the heart of the children of Israel from going over into the land which the LORD hath given them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Thus did your fathers, when I sent them from Kadeshbarnea to see the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For when they went up unto the valley of Eshcol, and saw the land, they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should not go into the land which the LORD had given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled the same time, and he sware, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely none of the men that came up out of Egypt, from twenty years old and upward, shall see the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob; because they have not wholly followed me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Save Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite, and Joshua the son of Nun: for they have wholly followed the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled against Israel, and he made them wander in the wilderness forty years, until all the generation, that had done evil in the sight of the LORD, was consumed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And, behold, ye are risen up in your fathers' stead, an increase of sinful men, to augment yet the fierce anger of the LORD toward Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For if ye turn away from after him, he will yet again leave them in the wilderness; and ye shall destroy all this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they came near unto him, and said, We will build sheepfolds here for our cattle, and cities for our little ones:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But we ourselves will go ready armed before the children of Israel, until we have brought them unto their place: and our little ones shall dwell in the fenced cities because of the inhabitants of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We will not return unto our houses, until the children of Israel have inherited every man his inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For we will not inherit with them on yonder side Jordan, or forward; because our inheritance is fallen to us on this side Jordan eastward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto them,}}{{font|color=#000088| If ye will do this thing, if ye will go armed before the LORD to war,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And will go all of you armed over Jordan before the LORD, until he hath driven out his enemies from before him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the land be subdued before the LORD: then afterward ye shall return, and be guiltless before the LORD, and before Israel; and this land shall be your possession before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But if ye will not do so, behold, ye have sinned against the LORD: and be sure your sin will find you out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Build you cities for your little ones, and folds for your sheep; and do that which hath proceeded out of your mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben spake unto Moses, saying, Thy servants will do as my lord commandeth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Our little ones, our wives, our flocks, and all our cattle, shall be there in the cities of Gilead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But thy servants will pass over, every man armed for war, before the Lord to battle, as my lord saith.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So concerning them Moses commanded Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun, and the chief fathers of the tribes of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, If the children of Gad and the children of Reuben will pass with you over Jordan, every man armed to battle, before the LORD, and the land shall be subdued before you; then ye shall give them the land of Gilead for a possession:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if they will not pass over with you armed, they shall have possessions among you in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben answered, saying, As the LORD hath said unto thy servants, so will we do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We will pass over armed before the LORD into the land of Canaan, that the possession of our inheritance on this side Jordan may be our's.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave unto them, even to the children of Gad, and to the children of Reuben, and unto half the tribe of Manasseh the son of Joseph, the kingdom of Sihon king of the Amorites, and the kingdom of Og king of Bashan, the land, with the cities thereof in the coasts, even the cities of the country round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Gad built Dibon, and Ataroth, and Aroer,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Atroth, Shophan, and Jaazer, and Jogbehah,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Bethnimrah, and Bethharan, fenced cities: and folds for sheep.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Reuben built Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Kirjathaim,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Nebo, and Baalmeon, (their names being changed,) and Shibmah: and gave other names unto the cities which they builded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Machir the son of Manasseh went to Gilead, and took it, and dispossessed the Amorite which was in it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gave Gilead unto Machir the son of Manasseh; and he dwelt therein.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took the small towns thereof, and called them Havothjair.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Nobah went and took Kenath, and the villages thereof, and called it Nobah, after his own name.}} ==Chapter 33== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| These are the journeys of the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt with their armies under the hand of Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And Moses wrote their goings out according to their journeys by the commandment of the LORD: and these are their journeys according to their goings out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rameses in the first month, on the fifteenth day of the first month; on the morrow after the passover the children of Israel went out with an high hand in the sight of all the Egyptians.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| For the Egyptians buried all their firstborn, which the LORD had smitten among them: upon their gods also the LORD executed judgments.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And the children of Israel removed from Rameses, and pitched in Succoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Succoth, and pitched in Etham, which is in the edge of the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Etham, and turned again unto Pihahiroth, which is before Baalzephon: and they pitched before Migdol.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from before Pihahiroth, and passed through the midst of the sea into the wilderness, and went three days' journey in the wilderness of Etham, and pitched in Marah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Marah, and came unto Elim: and in Elim were twelve fountains of water, and threescore and ten palm trees; and they pitched there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Elim, and encamped by the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the Red sea, and encamped in the wilderness of Sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they took their journey out of the wilderness of Sin, and encamped in Dophkah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Dophkah, and encamped in Alush. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Alush, and encamped at Rephidim, where was no water for the people to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rephidim, and pitched in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the desert of Sinai, and pitched at Kibrothhattaavah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Kibrothhattaavah, and encamped at Hazeroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hazeroth, and pitched in Rithmah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rithmah, and pitched at Rimmonparez.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rimmonparez, and pitched in Libnah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Libnah, and pitched at Rissah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they journeyed from Rissah, and pitched in Kehelathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Kehelathah, and pitched in mount Shapher.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from mount Shapher, and encamped in Haradah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Haradah, and pitched in Makheloth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Makheloth, and encamped at Tahath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Tahath, and pitched at Tarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Tarah, and pitched in Mithcah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Mithcah, and pitched in Hashmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hashmonah, and encamped at Moseroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Moseroth, and pitched in Benejaakan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Benejaakan, and encamped at Horhagidgad.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Horhagidgad, and pitched in Jotbathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Jotbathah, and encamped at Ebronah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Ebronah, and encamped at Eziongaber.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Eziongaber, and pitched in the wilderness of Zin, which is Kadesh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Kadesh, and pitched in mount Hor, in the edge of the land of Edom.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron the priest went up into mount Hor at the commandment of the LORD, and died there, in the fortieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the first day of the fifth month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron was an hundred and twenty and three years old when he died in mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south in the land of Canaan, heard of the coming of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from mount Hor, and pitched in Zalmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Zalmonah, and pitched in Punon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Punon, and pitched in Oboth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Oboth, and pitched in Ijeabarim, in the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Iim, and pitched in Dibongad. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Dibongad, and encamped in Almondiblathaim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Almondiblathaim, and pitched in the mountains of Abarim, before Nebo.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from the mountains of Abarim, and pitched in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they pitched by Jordan, from Bethjesimoth even unto Abelshittim in the plains of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye are passed over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall drive out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all their pictures, and destroy all their molten images, and quite pluck down all their high places:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall dispossess the inhabitants of the land, and dwell therein: for I have given you the land to possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall divide the land by lot for an inheritance among your families: and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance: every man's inheritance shall be in the place where his lot falleth; according to the tribes of your fathers ye shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover it shall come to pass, that I shall do unto you, as I thought to do unto them.}} ==Chapter 34== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land of Canaan; (this is the land that shall fall unto you for an inheritance, even the land of Canaan with the coasts thereof:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then your south quarter shall be from the wilderness of Zin along by the coast of Edom, and your south border shall be the outmost coast of the salt sea eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your border shall turn from the south to the ascent of Akrabbim, and pass on to Zin: and the going forth thereof shall be from the south to Kadeshbarnea, and shall go on to Hazaraddar, and pass on to Azmon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall fetch a compass from Azmon unto the river of Egypt, and the goings out of it shall be at the sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And as for the western border, ye shall even have the great sea for a border: this shall be your west border. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this shall be your north border: from the great sea ye shall point out for you mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From mount Hor ye shall point out your border unto the entrance of Hamath; and the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go on to Ziphron, and the goings out of it shall be at Hazarenan: this shall be your north border.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall point out your east border from Hazarenan to Shepham:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the coast shall go down from Shepham to Riblah, on the east side of Ain; and the border shall descend, and shall reach unto the side of the sea of Chinnereth eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go down to Jordan, and the goings out of it shall be at the salt sea: this shall be your land with the coasts thereof round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel, saying, This is the land which ye shall inherit by lot, which the LORD commanded to give unto the nine tribes, and to the half tribe:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the tribe of the children of Reuben according to the house of their fathers, and the tribe of the children of Gad according to the house of their fathers, have received their inheritance; and half the tribe of Manasseh have received their inheritance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The two tribes and the half tribe have received their inheritance on this side Jordan near Jericho eastward, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which shall divide the land unto you: Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take one prince of every tribe, to divide the land by inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the names of the men are these: Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the tribe of the children of Simeon, Shemuel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Elidad the son of Chislon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Dan, Bukki the son of Jogli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The prince of the children of Joseph, for the tribe of the children of Manasseh, Hanniel the son of Ephod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Ephraim, Kemuel the son of Shiphtan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Zebulun, Elizaphan the son of Parnach.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Issachar, Paltiel the son of Azzan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Asher, Ahihud the son of Shelomi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Naphtali, Pedahel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they whom the LORD commanded to divide the inheritance unto the children of Israel in the land of Canaan.}} ==Chapter 35== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they give unto the Levites of the inheritance of their possession cities to dwell in; and ye shall give also unto the Levites suburbs for the cities round about them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities shall they have to dwell in; and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the north side two thousand cubits; and the city shall be in the midst: this shall be to them the suburbs of the cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And among the cities which ye shall give unto the Levites there shall be six cities for refuge, which ye shall appoint for the manslayer, that he may flee thither: and to them ye shall add forty and two cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So all the cities which ye shall give to the Levites shall be forty and eight cities: them shall ye give with their suburbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities which ye shall give shall be of the possession of the children of Israel: from them that have many ye shall give many; but from them that have few ye shall give few: every one shall give of his cities unto the Levites according to his inheritance which he inheriteth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall appoint you cities to be cities of refuge for you; that the slayer may flee thither, which killeth any person at unawares.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be unto you cities for refuge from the avenger; that the manslayer die not, until he stand before the congregation in judgment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of these cities which ye shall give six cities shall ye have for refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall give three cities on this side Jordan, and three cities shall ye give in the land of Canaan, which shall be cities of refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These six cities shall be a refuge, both for the children of Israel, and for the stranger, and for the sojourner among them: that every one that killeth any person unawares may flee thither.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or if he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of wait, that he die;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall slay the murderer, when he meeteth him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him suddenly without enmity, or have cast upon him any thing without laying of wait,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or with any stone, wherewith a man may die, seeing him not, and cast it upon him, that he die, and was not his enemy, neither sought his harm:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the congregation shall judge between the slayer and the revenger of blood according to these judgments:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the congregation shall deliver the slayer out of the hand of the revenger of blood, and the congregation shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he was fled: and he shall abide in it unto the death of the high priest, which was anointed with the holy oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the slayer shall at any time come without the border of the city of his refuge, whither he was fled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the revenger of blood find him without the borders of the city of his refuge, and the revenger of blood kill the slayer; he shall not be guilty of blood:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge until the death of the high priest: but after the death of the high priest the slayer shall return into the land of his possession.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So these things shall be for a statute of judgment unto you throughout your generations in all your dwellings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover ye shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take no satisfaction for him that is fled to the city of his refuge, that he should come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are: for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein I dwell: for I the LORD dwell among the children of Israel.}} ==Chapter 36== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief fathers of the families of the children of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of the sons of Joseph, came near, and spake before Moses, and before the princes, the chief fathers of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said, The LORD commanded my lord to give the land for an inheritance by lot to the children of Israel: and my lord was commanded by the LORD to give the inheritance of Zelophehad our brother unto his daughters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they be married to any of the sons of the other tribes of the children of Israel, then shall their inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the jubile of the children of Israel shall be, then shall their inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall their inheritance be taken away from the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying, The tribe of the sons of Joseph hath said well.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the thing which the LORD doth command concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying, Let them marry to whom they think best; only to the family of the tribe of their father shall they marry.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So shall not the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe: for every one of the children of Israel shall keep himself to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every man the inheritance of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither shall the inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; but every one of the tribes of the children of Israel shall keep himself to his own inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they were married into the families of the sons of Manasseh the son of Joseph, and their inheritance remained in the tribe of the family of their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the commandments and the judgments, which the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses unto the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} [[Category:Documentary hypothesis]] 2lksgnm625tl2hlwfop09a9zb9gy5eq 2417373 2417372 2022-08-22T11:35:56Z Huz and Buz 2928717 /* Chapter 26 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} <[[Bible, English, King James, According to the documentary hypothesis]] According to the [[w:documentary hypothesis|documentary hypothesis]], [[w:Numbers|Numbers]] is composed from a number of originally independant sources joined by a [[w:redaction|redactor]]. There follows the text of Numbers in the [[w:King James Version|King James Version]], with sources highlighted according to the documentary hypothesis *The [[w:Priestly source|"Priestly source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#888800|olive yellow}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Jahwist|"Jahwist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#000088|navy blue}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Jahwist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Elohist|"Elohist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#008888|teal blueish grey}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Elohist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Torah redactor|"Additions by the redactor"]] are highlighted in {{font|color=#880000|maroon red}} ==Chapter 1== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tabernacle of the congregation, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, after their families, by the house of their fathers, with the number of their names, every male by their polls;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From twenty years old and upward, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel: thou and Aaron shall number them by their armies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And with you there shall be a man of every tribe; every one head of the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the men that shall stand with you: of the tribe of Reuben; Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Simeon; Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Judah; Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Issachar; Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zebulun; Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph: of Ephraim; Elishama the son of Ammihud: of Manasseh; Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Benjamin; Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Dan; Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Asher; Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gad; Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Naphtali; Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the renowned of the congregation, princes of the tribes of their fathers, heads of thousands in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron took these men which are expressed by their names:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they assembled all the congregation together on the first day of the second month, and they declared their pedigrees after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, by their polls.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As the LORD commanded Moses, so he numbered them in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Reuben, Israel's eldest son, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Reuben, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Simeon, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, those that were numbered of them, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Simeon, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Gad, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Gad, were forty and five thousand six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Judah, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Judah, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Issachar, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Issachar, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Zebulun, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Zebulun, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph, namely, of the children of Ephraim, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Ephraim, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Manasseh, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Manasseh, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Benjamin, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Benjamin, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Dan, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Dan, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Asher, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Naphtali, throughout their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Naphtali, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those that were numbered, which Moses and Aaron numbered, and the princes of Israel, being twelve men: each one was for the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So were all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all they that were numbered were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites after the tribe of their fathers were not numbered among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had spoken unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only thou shalt not number the tribe of Levi, neither take the sum of them among the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thou shalt appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of testimony, and over all the vessels thereof, and over all things that belong to it: they shall bear the tabernacle, and all the vessels thereof; and they shall minister unto it, and shall encamp round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the tabernacle setteth forward, the Levites shall take it down: and when the tabernacle is to be pitched, the Levites shall set it up: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel shall pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and every man by his own standard, throughout their hosts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall pitch round about the tabernacle of testimony, that there be no wrath upon the congregation of the children of Israel: and the Levites shall keep the charge of the tabernacle of testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did they.}} ==Chapter 2== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house: far off about the tabernacle of the congregation shall they pitch.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the east side toward the rising of the sun shall they of the standard of the camp of Judah pitch throughout their armies: and Nahshon the son of Amminadab shall be captain of the children of Judah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that do pitch next unto him shall be the tribe of Issachar: and Nethaneel the son of Zuar shall be captain of the children of Issachar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Zebulun: and Eliab the son of Helon shall be captain of the children of Zebulun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Judah were an hundred thousand and fourscore thousand and six thousand and four hundred, throughout their armies. These shall first set forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the south side shall be the standard of the camp of Reuben according to their armies: and the captain of the children of Reuben shall be Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those which pitch by him shall be the tribe of Simeon: and the captain of the children of Simeon shall be Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Gad: and the captain of the sons of Gad shall be Eliasaph the son of Reuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and five thousand and six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Reuben were an hundred thousand and fifty and one thousand and four hundred and fifty, throughout their armies. And they shall set forth in the second rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tabernacle of the congregation shall set forward with the camp of the Levites in the midst of the camp: as they encamp, so shall they set forward, every man in his place by their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the west side shall be the standard of the camp of Ephraim according to their armies: and the captain of the sons of Ephraim shall be Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And by him shall be the tribe of Manasseh: and the captain of the children of Manasseh shall be Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Benjamin: and the captain of the sons of Benjamin shall be Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the camp of Ephraim were an hundred thousand and eight thousand and an hundred, throughout their armies. And they shall go forward in the third rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The standard of the camp of Dan shall be on the north side by their armies: and the captain of the children of Dan shall be Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that encamp by him shall be the tribe of Asher: and the captain of the children of Asher shall be Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Naphtali: and the captain of the children of Naphtali shall be Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All they that were numbered in the camp of Dan were an hundred thousand and fifty and seven thousand and six hundred. They shall go hindmost with their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those which were numbered of the children of Israel by the house of their fathers: all those that were numbered of the camps throughout their hosts were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites were not numbered among the children of Israel; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses: so they pitched by their standards, and so they set forward, every one after their families, according to the house of their fathers.}} ==Chapter 3== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These also are the generations of Aaron and Moses in the day that the LORD spake with Moses in mount Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Aaron; Nadab the firstborn, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the sons of Aaron, the priests which were anointed, whom he consecrated to minister in the priest's office.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died before the LORD, when they offered strange fire before the LORD, in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children: and Eleazar and Ithamar ministered in the priest's office in the sight of Aaron their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Bring the tribe of Levi near, and present them before Aaron the priest, that they may minister unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep his charge, and the charge of the whole congregation before the tabernacle of the congregation, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep all the instruments of the tabernacle of the congregation, and the charge of the children of Israel, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the Levites unto Aaron and to his sons: they are wholly given unto him out of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt appoint Aaron and his sons, and they shall wait on their priest's office: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken the Levites from among the children of Israel instead of all the firstborn that openeth the matrix among the children of Israel: therefore the Levites shall be mine;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because all the firstborn are mine; for on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and beast: mine shall they be: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Number the children of Levi after the house of their fathers, by their families: every male from a month old and upward shalt thou number them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered them according to the word of the LORD, as he was commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were the sons of Levi by their names; Gershon, and Kohath, and Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Gershon by their families; Libni, and Shimei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Kohath by their families; Amram, and Izehar, Hebron, and Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Merari by their families; Mahli, and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites according to the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gershon was the family of the Libnites, and the family of the Shimites: these are the families of the Gershonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, even those that were numbered of them were seven thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the Gershonites shall pitch behind the tabernacle westward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the Gershonites shall be Eliasaph the son of Lael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the charge of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation shall be the tabernacle, and the tent, the covering thereof, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the curtain for the door of the court, which is by the tabernacle, and by the altar round about, and the cords of it for all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Kohath was the family of the Amramites, and the family of the Izeharites, and the family of the Hebronites, and the family of the Uzzielites: these are the families of the Kohathites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were eight thousand and six hundred, keeping the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the sons of Kohath shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle southward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of the Kohathites shall be Elizaphan the son of Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And their charge shall be the ark, and the table, and the candlestick, and the altars, and the vessels of the sanctuary wherewith they minister, and the hanging, and all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest shall be chief over the chief of the Levites, and have the oversight of them that keep the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Merari was the family of the Mahlites, and the family of the Mushites: these are the families of Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were six thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of Merari was Zuriel the son of Abihail: these shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle northward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And under the custody and charge of the sons of Merari shall be the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof, and all the vessels thereof, and all that serveth thereto,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But those that encamp before the tabernacle toward the east, even before the tabernacle of the congregation eastward, shall be Moses, and Aaron and his sons, keeping the charge of the sanctuary for the charge of the children of Israel; and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the Levites, which Moses and Aaron numbered at the commandment of the LORD, throughout their families, all the males from a month old and upward, were twenty and two thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Number all the firstborn of the males of the children of Israel from a month old and upward, and take the number of their names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt take the Levites for me (I am the LORD) instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel; and the cattle of the Levites instead of all the firstlings among the cattle of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered, as the LORD commanded him, all the firstborn among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the firstborn males by the number of names, from a month old and upward, of those that were numbered of them, were twenty and two thousand two hundred and threescore and thirteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel, and the cattle of the Levites instead of their cattle; and the Levites shall be mine: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for those that are to be redeemed of the two hundred and threescore and thirteen of the firstborn of the children of Israel, which are more than the Levites;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thou shalt even take five shekels apiece by the poll, after the shekel of the sanctuary shalt thou take them: (the shekel is twenty gerahs:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the money, wherewith the odd number of them is to be redeemed, unto Aaron and to his sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the redemption money of them that were over and above them that were redeemed by the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the firstborn of the children of Israel took he the money; a thousand three hundred and threescore and five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the money of them that were redeemed unto Aaron and to his sons, according to the word of the LORD, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 4== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the sons of Kohath from among the sons of Levi, after their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even until fifty years old, all that enter into the host, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be the service of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation, about the most holy things:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the camp setteth forward, Aaron shall come, and his sons, and they shall take down the covering vail, and cover the ark of testimony with it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And shall put thereon the covering of badgers' skins, and shall spread over it a cloth wholly of blue, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the table of shewbread they shall spread a cloth of blue, and put thereon the dishes, and the spoons, and the bowls, and covers to cover withal: and the continual bread shall be thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall spread upon them a cloth of scarlet, and cover the same with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take a cloth of blue, and cover the candlestick of the light, and his lamps, and his tongs, and his snuffdishes, and all the oil vessels thereof, wherewith they minister unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put it and all the vessels thereof within a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put it upon a bar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the golden altar they shall spread a cloth of blue, and cover it with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put to the staves thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take all the instruments of ministry, wherewith they minister in the sanctuary, and put them in a cloth of blue, and cover them with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put them on a bar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take away the ashes from the altar, and spread a purple cloth thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put upon it all the vessels thereof, wherewith they minister about it, even the censers, the fleshhooks, and the shovels, and the basons, all the vessels of the altar; and they shall spread upon it a covering of badgers' skins, and put to the staves of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Aaron and his sons have made an end of covering the sanctuary, and all the vessels of the sanctuary, as the camp is to set forward; after that, the sons of Kohath shall come to bear it: but they shall not touch any holy thing, lest they die. These things are the burden of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And to the office of Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest pertaineth the oil for the light, and the sweet incense, and the daily meat offering, and the anointing oil, and the oversight of all the tabernacle, and of all that therein is, in the sanctuary, and in the vessels thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Cut ye not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thus do unto them, that they may live, and not die, when they approach unto the most holy things: Aaron and his sons shall go in, and appoint them every one to his service and to his burden:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But they shall not go in to see when the holy things are covered, lest they die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take also the sum of the sons of Gershon, throughout the houses of their fathers, by their families;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward until fifty years old shalt thou number them; all that enter in to perform the service, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the Gershonites, to serve, and for burdens:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall bear the curtains of the tabernacle, and the tabernacle of the congregation, his covering, and the covering of the badgers' skins that is above upon it, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the hanging for the door of the gate of the court, which is by the tabernacle and by the altar round about, and their cords, and all the instruments of their service, and all that is made for them: so shall they serve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the appointment of Aaron and his sons shall be all the service of the sons of the Gershonites, in all their burdens, and in all their service: and ye shall appoint unto them in charge all their burdens.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation: and their charge shall be under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As for the sons of Merari, thou shalt number them after their families, by the house of their fathers;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old shalt thou number them, every one that entereth into the service, to do the work of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the charge of their burden, according to all their service in the tabernacle of the congregation; the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and sockets thereof,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords, with all their instruments, and with all their service: and by name ye shall reckon the instruments of the charge of their burden.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Merari, according to all their service, in the tabernacle of the congregation, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron and the chief of the congregation numbered the sons of the Kohathites after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them by their families were two thousand seven hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were they that were numbered of the families of the Kohathites, all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, which Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the sons of Gershon, throughout their families, and by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers, were two thousand and six hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered of the families of the sons of Gershon, of all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, whom Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them after their families, were three thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These be those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, whom Moses and Aaron numbered according to the word of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All those that were numbered of the Levites, whom Moses and Aaron and the chief of Israel numbered, after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that came to do the service of the ministry, and the service of the burden in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, were eight thousand and five hundred and fourscore,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the commandment of the LORD they were numbered by the hand of Moses, every one according to his service, and according to his burden: thus were they numbered of him, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 5== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they put out of the camp every leper, and every one that hath an issue, and whosoever is defiled by the dead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Both male and female shall ye put out, without the camp shall ye put them; that they defile not their camps, in the midst whereof I dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did so, and put them out without the camp: as the LORD spake unto Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, When a man or woman shall commit any sin that men commit, to do a trespass against the LORD, and that person be guilty;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then they shall confess their sin which they have done: and he shall recompense his trespass with the principal thereof, and add unto it the fifth part thereof, and give it unto him against whom he hath trespassed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the man have no kinsman to recompense the trespass unto, let the trespass be recompensed unto the LORD, even to the priest; beside the ram of the atonement, whereby an atonement shall be made for him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every offering of all the holy things of the children of Israel, which they bring unto the priest, shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every man's hallowed things shall be his: whatsoever any man giveth the priest, it shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, If any man's wife go aside, and commit a trespass against him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man lie with her carnally, and it be hid from the eyes of her husband, and be kept close, and she be defiled, and there be no witness against her, neither she be taken with the manner;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be defiled: or if the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be not defiled:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man bring his wife unto the priest, and he shall bring her offering for her, the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal; he shall pour no oil upon it, nor put frankincense thereon; for it is an offering of jealousy, an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring her near, and set her before the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest shall take, and put it into the water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall set the woman before the LORD, and uncover the woman's head, and put the offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy offering: and the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from this bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if thou hast gone aside to another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man have lain with thee beside thine husband:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall charge the woman with an oath of cursing, and the priest shall say unto the woman, The LORD make thee a curse and an oath among thy people, when the LORD doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot: And the woman shall say, Amen, amen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall write these curses in a book, and he shall blot them out with the bitter water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall cause the woman to drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall take the jealousy offering out of the woman's hand, and shall wave the offering before the LORD, and offer it upon the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take an handful of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when he hath made her to drink the water, then it shall come to pass, that, if she be defiled, and have done trespass against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if the woman be not defiled, but be clean; then she shall be free, and shall conceive seed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside to another instead of her husband, and is defiled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or when the spirit of jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous over his wife, and shall set the woman before the LORD, and the priest shall execute upon her all this law.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man be guiltless from iniquity, and this woman shall bear her iniquity.}} ==Chapter 6== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate themselves unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head: until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the LORD, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days that he separateth himself unto the LORD he shall come at no dead body.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall not make himself unclean for his father, or for his mother, for his brother, or for his sister, when they die: because the consecration of his God is upon his head.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation he is holy unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any man die very suddenly by him, and he hath defiled the head of his consecration; then he shall shave his head in the day of his cleansing, on the seventh day shall he shave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the eighth day he shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, to the priest, to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, and make an atonement for him, for that he sinned by the dead, and shall hallow his head that same day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall consecrate unto the LORD the days of his separation, and shall bring a lamb of the first year for a trespass offering: but the days that were before shall be lost, because his separation was defiled.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer his offering unto the LORD, one he lamb of the first year without blemish for a burnt offering, and one ewe lamb of the first year without blemish for a sin offering, and one ram without blemish for peace offerings,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their meat offering, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring them before the LORD, and shall offer his sin offering, and his burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings unto the LORD, with the basket of unleavened bread: the priest shall offer also his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite, after the hair of his separation is shaven:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall wave them for a wave offering before the LORD: this is holy for the priest, with the wave breast and heave shoulder: and after that the Nazarite may drink wine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of the Nazarite who hath vowed, and of his offering unto the LORD for his separation, beside that that his hand shall get: according to the vow which he vowed, so he must do after the law of his separation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons, saying, On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel, saying unto them,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD bless thee, and keep thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them.}} ==Chapter 7== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the day that Moses had fully set up the tabernacle, and had anointed it, and sanctified it, and all the instruments thereof, both the altar and all the vessels thereof, and had anointed them, and sanctified them;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That the princes of Israel, heads of the house of their fathers, who were the princes of the tribes, and were over them that were numbered, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought their offering before the LORD, six covered wagons, and twelve oxen; a wagon for two of the princes, and for each one an ox: and they brought them before the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of them, that they may be to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; and thou shalt give them unto the Levites, to every man according to his service.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the wagons and the oxen, and gave them unto the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Two wagons and four oxen he gave unto the sons of Gershon, according to their service:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And four wagons and eight oxen he gave unto the sons of Merari, according unto their service, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But unto the sons of Kohath he gave none: because the service of the sanctuary belonging unto them was that they should bear upon their shoulders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar in the day that it was anointed, even the princes offered their offering before the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, They shall offer their offering, each prince on his day, for the dedicating of the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that offered his offering the first day was Nahshon the son of Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his offering was one silver charger, the weight thereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them were full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of ten shekels of gold, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the second day Nethaneel the son of Zuar, prince of Issachar, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He offered for his offering one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of gold of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the third day Eliab the son of Helon, prince of the children of Zebulun, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fourth day Elizur the son of Shedeur, prince of the children of Reuben, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fifth day Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai, prince of the children of Simeon, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the sixth day Eliasaph the son of Deuel, prince of the children of Gad, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, a silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the seventh day Elishama the son of Ammihud, prince of the children of Ephraim, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eighth day offered Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur, prince of the children of Manasseh:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the ninth day Abidan the son of Gideoni, prince of the children of Benjamin, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|66}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the tenth day Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai, prince of the children of Dan, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|67}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|68}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|69}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|70}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|71}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|72}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eleventh day Pagiel the son of Ocran, prince of the children of Asher, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|73}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|74}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|75}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|76}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|77}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|78}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the twelfth day Ahira the son of Enan, prince of the children of Naphtali, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|79}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|80}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|81}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|82}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|83}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|84}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This was the dedication of the altar, in the day when it was anointed, by the princes of Israel: twelve chargers of silver, twelve silver bowls, twelve spoons of gold:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|85}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Each charger of silver weighing an hundred and thirty shekels, each bowl seventy: all the silver vessels weighed two thousand and four hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|86}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The golden spoons were twelve, full of incense, weighing ten shekels apiece, after the shekel of the sanctuary: all the gold of the spoons was an hundred and twenty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|87}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the oxen for the burnt offering were twelve bullocks, the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin offering twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|88}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the oxen for the sacrifice of the peace offerings were twenty and four bullocks, the rams sixty, the he goats sixty, the lambs of the first year sixty. This was the dedication of the altar, after that it was anointed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|89}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses was gone into the tabernacle of the congregation to speak with him, then he heard the voice of one speaking unto him from off the mercy seat that was upon the ark of testimony, from between the two cherubims: and he spake unto him.}} ==Chapter 8== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and say unto him, When thou lightest the lamps, the seven lamps shall give light over against the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron did so; he lighted the lamps thereof over against the candlestick, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this work of the candlestick was of beaten gold, unto the shaft thereof, unto the flowers thereof, was beaten work: according unto the pattern which the LORD had shewed Moses, so he made the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites from among the children of Israel, and cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thus shalt thou do unto them, to cleanse them: Sprinkle water of purifying upon them, and let them shave all their flesh, and let them wash their clothes, and so make themselves clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then let them take a young bullock with his meat offering, even fine flour mingled with oil, and another young bullock shalt thou take for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt gather the whole assembly of the children of Israel together:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the LORD: and the children of Israel shall put their hands upon the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron shall offer the Levites before the LORD for an offering of the children of Israel, that they may execute the service of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites shall lay their hands upon the heads of the bullocks: and thou shalt offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, unto the LORD, to make an atonement for the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt set the Levites before Aaron, and before his sons, and offer them for an offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shalt thou separate the Levites from among the children of Israel: and the Levites shall be mine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that shall the Levites go in to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt cleanse them, and offer them for an offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For they are wholly given unto me from among the children of Israel; instead of such as open every womb, even instead of the firstborn of all the children of Israel, have I taken them unto me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For all the firstborn of the children of Israel are mine, both man and beast: on the day that I smote every firstborn in the land of Egypt I sanctified them for myself.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have taken the Levites for all the firstborn of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have given the Levites as a gift to Aaron and to his sons from among the children of Israel, to do the service of the children of Israel in the tabernacle of the congregation, and to make an atonement for the children of Israel: that there be no plague among the children of Israel, when the children of Israel come nigh unto the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Aaron, and all the congregation of the children of Israel, did to the Levites according unto all that the LORD commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did the children of Israel unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites were purified, and they washed their clothes; and Aaron offered them as an offering before the LORD; and Aaron made an atonement for them to cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that went the Levites in to do their service in the tabernacle of the congregation before Aaron, and before his sons: as the LORD had commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did they unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is it that belongeth unto the Levites: from twenty and five years old and upward they shall go in to wait upon the service of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And from the age of fifty years they shall cease waiting upon the service thereof, and shall serve no more:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But shall minister with their brethren in the tabernacle of the congregation, to keep the charge, and shall do no service. Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites touching their charge.}} ==Chapter 9== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the first month of the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the children of Israel also keep the passover at his appointed season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the fourteenth day of this month, at even, ye shall keep it in his appointed season: according to all the rites of it, and according to all the ceremonies thereof, shall ye keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, that they should keep the passover.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they kept the passover on the fourteenth day of the first month at even in the wilderness of Sinai: according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there were certain men, who were defiled by the dead body of a man, that they could not keep the passover on that day: and they came before Moses and before Aaron on that day:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those men said unto him, We are defiled by the dead body of a man: wherefore are we kept back, that we may not offer an offering of the LORD in his appointed season among the children of Israel?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Stand still, and I will hear what the LORD will command concerning you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If any man of you or of your posterity shall be unclean by reason of a dead body, or be in a journey afar off, yet he shall keep the passover unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| They shall leave none of it unto the morning, nor break any bone of it: according to all the ordinances of the passover they shall keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that is clean, and is not in a journey, and forbeareth to keep the passover, even the same soul shall be cut off from among his people: because he brought not the offering of the LORD in his appointed season, that man shall bear his sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger shall sojourn among you, and will keep the passover unto the LORD; according to the ordinance of the passover, and according to the manner thereof, so shall he do: ye shall have one ordinance, both for the stranger, and for him that was born in the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up the cloud covered the tabernacle, namely, the tent of the testimony: and at even there was upon the tabernacle as it were the appearance of fire, until the morning.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So it was alway: the cloud covered it by day, and the appearance of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, then after that the children of Israel journeyed: and in the place where the cloud abode, there the children of Israel pitched their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of the LORD they pitched: as long as the cloud abode upon the tabernacle they rested in their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud tarried long upon the tabernacle many days, then the children of Israel kept the charge of the LORD, and journeyed not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud was a few days upon the tabernacle; according to the commandment of the LORD they abode in their tents, and according to the commandment of the LORD they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud abode from even unto the morning, and that the cloud was taken up in the morning, then they journeyed: whether it was by day or by night that the cloud was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or whether it were two days, or a month, or a year, that the cloud tarried upon the tabernacle, remaining thereon, the children of Israel abode in their tents, and journeyed not: but when it was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD they rested in the tents, and at the commandment of the LORD they journeyed: they kept the charge of the LORD, at the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 10== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Make thee two trumpets of silver; of a whole piece shalt thou make them: that thou mayest use them for the calling of the assembly, and for the journeying of the camps.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when they shall blow with them, all the assembly shall assemble themselves to thee at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they blow but with one trumpet, then the princes, which are heads of the thousands of Israel, shall gather themselves unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm, then the camps that lie on the east parts shall go forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm the second time, then the camps that lie on the south side shall take their journey: they shall blow an alarm for their journeys.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But when the congregation is to be gathered together, ye shall blow, but ye shall not sound an alarm.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall blow with the trumpets; and they shall be to you for an ordinance for ever throughout your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye go to war in your land against the enemy that oppresseth you, then ye shall blow an alarm with the trumpets; and ye shall be remembered before the LORD your God, and ye shall be saved from your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Also in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings; that they may be to you for a memorial before your God: I am the LORD your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the twentieth day of the second month, in the second year, that the cloud was taken up from off the tabernacle of the testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took their journeys out of the wilderness of Sinai; and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they first took their journey according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the first place went the standard of the camp of the children of Judah according to their armies: and over his host was Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Issachar was Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Zebulun was Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the tabernacle was taken down; and the sons of Gershon and the sons of Merari set forward, bearing the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of Reuben set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Simeon was Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Gad was Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Kohathites set forward, bearing the sanctuary: and the other did set up the tabernacle against they came.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Ephraim set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Manasseh was Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Benjamin was Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Dan set forward, which was the rereward of all the camps throughout their hosts: and over his host was Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Asher was Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Naphtali was Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus were the journeyings of the children of Israel according to their armies, when they set forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto Hobab, the son of Raguel the Midianite, Moses' father in law, We are journeying unto the place of which the LORD said, I will give it you: come thou with us, and we will do thee good: for the LORD hath spoken good concerning Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto him, I will not go; but I will depart to mine own land, and to my kindred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said, Leave us not, I pray thee; forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to us instead of eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it shall be, if thou go with us, yea, it shall be, that what goodness the LORD shall do unto us, the same will we do unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they departed from the mount of the LORD three days' journey: and the ark of the covenant of the LORD went before them in the three days' journey, to search out a resting place for them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the cloud of the LORD was upon them by day, when they went out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass, when the ark set forward, that Moses said, Rise up, LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered; and let them that hate thee flee before thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when it rested, he said, Return, O LORD, unto the many thousands of Israel.}} ==Chapter 11== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the people complained, it displeased the LORD: and the LORD heard it; and his anger was kindled; and the fire of the LORD burnt among them, and consumed them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people cried unto Moses; and when Moses prayed unto the LORD, the fire was quenched.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of the place Taberah: because the fire of the LORD burnt among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the mixt multitude that was among them fell a lusting: and the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But now our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside this manna, before our eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the manna was as coriander seed, and the colour thereof as the colour of bdellium.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people went about, and gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a mortar, and baked it in pans, and made cakes of it: and the taste of it was as the taste of fresh oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when the dew fell upon the camp in the night, the manna fell upon it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Moses heard the people weep throughout their families, every man in the door of his tent: and the anger of the LORD was kindled greatly; Moses also was displeased.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the LORD, Wherefore hast thou afflicted thy servant? and wherefore have I not found favour in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Have I conceived all this people? have I begotten them, that thou shouldest say unto me, Carry them in thy bosom, as a nursing father beareth the sucking child, unto the land which thou swarest unto their fathers?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Whence should I have flesh to give unto all this people? for they weep unto me, saying, Give us flesh, that we may eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is too heavy for me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And if thou deal thus with me, kill me, I pray thee, out of hand, if I have found favour in thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be the elders of the people, and officers over them; and bring them unto the tabernacle of the congregation, that they may stand there with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And I will come down and talk with thee there: and I will take of the spirit which is upon thee, and will put it upon them; and they shall bear the burden of the people with thee, that thou bear it not thyself alone.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And say thou unto the people, Sanctify yourselves against to morrow, and ye shall eat flesh: for ye have wept in the ears of the LORD, saying, Who shall give us flesh to eat? for it was well with us in Egypt: therefore the LORD will give you flesh, and ye shall eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Ye shall not eat one day, nor two days, nor five days, neither ten days, nor twenty days;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But even a whole month, until it come out at your nostrils, and it be loathsome unto you: because that ye have despised the LORD which is among you, and have wept before him, saying, Why came we forth out of Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, The people, among whom I am, are six hundred thousand footmen; and thou hast said, I will give them flesh, that they may eat a whole month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Shall the flocks and the herds be slain for them, to suffice them? or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, to suffice them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Is the LORD's hand waxed short? thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass unto thee or not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses went out, and told the people the words of the LORD, }} {{font|color=#880000|and}} {{font|color=#008888|gathered the seventy men of the elders of the people, and set them round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in a cloud, and spake unto him, and took of the spirit that was upon him, and gave it unto the seventy elders: and it came to pass, that, when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied, and did not cease.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But there remained two of the men in the camp, the name of the one was Eldad, and the name of the other Medad: and the spirit rested upon them; and they were of them that were written, but went not out unto the tabernacle: and they prophesied in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And there ran a young man, and told Moses, and said, Eldad and Medad do prophesy in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Joshua the son of Nun, the servant of Moses, one of his young men, answered and said, My lord Moses, forbid them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto him, Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all the LORD's people were prophets, and that the LORD would put his spirit upon them!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gat him into the camp, he and the elders of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there went forth a wind from the LORD, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And while the flesh was yet between their teeth, ere it was chewed, the wrath of the LORD was kindled against the people, and the LORD smote the people with a very great plague.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of that place Kibrothhattaavah: because there they buried the people that lusted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people journeyed from Kibrothhattaavah unto Hazeroth; and abode at Hazeroth.}} ==Chapter 12== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam and Aaron spake against Moses}} {{font|color=#880000| because of the Ethiopian woman whom he had married: for he had married an Ethiopian woman.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they said, Hath the LORD indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us? And the LORD heard it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| (Now the man Moses was very meek, above all the men which were upon the face of the earth.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD spake suddenly unto Moses, and unto Aaron, and unto Miriam, Come out ye three unto the tabernacle of the congregation. And they three came out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in the pillar of the cloud, and stood in the door of the tabernacle, and called Aaron and Miriam: and they both came forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Hear now my words: If there be a prophet among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak unto him in a dream.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| My servant Moses is not so, who is faithful in all mine house. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the LORD shall he behold: wherefore then were ye not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the anger of the LORD was kindled against them; and he departed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the cloud departed from off the tabernacle; and, behold, Miriam became leprous, white as snow: and Aaron looked upon Miriam, and, behold, she was leprous.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Aaron said unto Moses, Alas, my lord, I beseech thee, lay not the sin upon us, wherein we have done foolishly, and wherein we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let her not be as one dead, of whom the flesh is half consumed when he cometh out of his mother's womb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses cried unto the LORD, saying, Heal her now, O God, I beseech thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, If her father had but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven days? let her be shut out from the camp seven days, and after that let her be received in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam was shut out from the camp seven days: and the people journeyed not till Miriam was brought in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And afterward the people removed from Hazeroth, and pitched in the wilderness of Paran.}} ==Chapter 13== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Send thou men, that they may search the land of Canaan, which I give unto the children of Israel: of every tribe of their fathers shall ye send a man, every one a ruler among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses by the commandment of the LORD sent them from the wilderness of Paran: all those men were heads of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were their names: of the tribe of Reuben, Shammua the son of Zaccur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Issachar, Igal the son of Joseph.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Ephraim, Oshea the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Palti the son of Raphu.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Zebulun, Gaddiel the son of Sodi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Joseph, namely, of the tribe of Manasseh, Gaddi the son of Susi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Dan, Ammiel the son of Gemalli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Asher, Sethur the son of Michael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Naphtali, Nahbi the son of Vophsi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Gad, Geuel the son of Machi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which Moses sent to spy out the land. And Moses called Oshea the son of Nun Jehoshua.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan, }} {{font|color=#000088|and said unto them, Get you up this way southward, and go up into the mountain:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And see the land, what it is, and the people that dwelleth therein, whether they be strong or weak, few or many;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is that they dwell in, whether it be good or bad; and what cities they be that they dwell in, whether in tents, or in strong holds;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is, whether it be fat or lean, whether there be wood therein, or not. And be ye of good courage, and bring of the fruit of the land. Now the time was the time of the firstripe grapes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|So they went up, and searched the land from the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, as men come to Hamath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they ascended by the south, and came unto Hebron; where Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak, were. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they returned from searching of the land after forty days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they went and came to Moses, and to Aaron, and to all the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the wilderness of Paran,}} {{font|color=#000088|to Kadesh; and brought back word unto them, and unto all the congregation, and shewed them the fruit of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they told him, and said, We came unto the land whither thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and honey; and this is the fruit of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Nevertheless the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great: and moreover we saw the children of Anak there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The Amalekites dwell in the land of the south: and the Hittites, and the Jebusites, and the Amorites, dwell in the mountains: and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast of Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the men that went up with him said, We be not able to go up against the people; for they are stronger than we.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great stature.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight.}} ==Chapter 14== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation lifted up their voice, and cried;}} {{font|color=#000088| and the people wept that night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron: and the whole congregation said unto them, Would God that we had died in the land of Egypt! or would God we had died in this wilderness!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And wherefore hath the LORD brought us unto this land, to fall by the sword, that our wives and our children should be a prey? were it not better for us to return into Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said one to another, Let us make a captain, and let us return into Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then Moses and Aaron fell on their faces before all the assembly of the congregation of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of them that searched the land, rent their clothes:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|And they spake unto all the company of the children of Israel, saying, The land, which we passed through to search it, is an exceeding good land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If the LORD delight in us, then he will bring us into this land, and give it us; a land which floweth with milk and honey.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only rebel not ye against the LORD, neither fear ye the people of the land; for they are bread for us: their defence is departed from them, and the LORD is with us: fear them not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the congregation bade stone them with stones. And the glory of the LORD appeared in the tabernacle of the congregation before all the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, How long will this people provoke me? and how long will it be ere they believe me, for all the signs which I have shewed among them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| I will smite them with the pestilence, and disinherit them, and will make of thee a greater nation and mightier than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the LORD, Then the Egyptians shall hear it, (for thou broughtest up this people in thy might from among them;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land: for they have heard that thou LORD art among this people, that thou LORD art seen face to face, and that thy cloud standeth over them, and that thou goest before them, by day time in a pillar of a cloud, and in a pillar of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now if thou shalt kill all this people as one man, then the nations which have heard the fame of thee will speak, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because the LORD was not able to bring this people into the land which he sware unto them, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And now, I beseech thee, let the power of my Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The LORD is longsuffering, and of great mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression, and by no means clearing the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Pardon, I beseech thee, the iniquity of this people according unto the greatness of thy mercy, and as thou hast forgiven this people, from Egypt even until now.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said, I have pardoned according to thy word: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But as truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because all those men which have seen my glory, and my miracles, which I did in Egypt and in the wilderness, and have tempted me now these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely they shall not see the land which I sware unto their fathers, neither shall any of them that provoked me see it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit with him, and hath followed me fully, him will I bring into the land whereinto he went; and his seed shall possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| (Now the Amalekites and the Canaanites dwelt in the valley.) Tomorrow turn you, and get you into the wilderness by the way of the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| How long shall I bear with this evil congregation, which murmur against me? I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel, which they murmur against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Say unto them, As truly as I live, saith the LORD, as ye have spoken in mine ears, so will I do to you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Your carcases shall fall in this wilderness; and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from twenty years old and upward which have murmured against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Doubtless ye shall not come into the land, concerning which I sware to make you dwell therein, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But your little ones, which ye said should be a prey, them will I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have despised.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But as for you, your carcases, they shall fall in this wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your children shall wander in the wilderness forty years, and bear your whoredoms, until your carcases be wasted in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years, and ye shall know my breach of promise.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I the LORD have said, I will surely do it unto all this evil congregation, that are gathered together against me: in this wilderness they shall be consumed, and there they shall die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the men, which Moses sent to search the land, who returned, and made all the congregation to murmur against him, by bringing up a slander upon the land,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those men that did bring up the evil report upon the land, died by the plague before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of the men that went to search the land, lived still.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses told these sayings unto all the children of Israel: and the people mourned greatly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they rose up early in the morning, and gat them up into the top of the mountain, saying, Lo, we be here, and will go up unto the place which the LORD hath promised: for we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, Wherefore now do ye transgress the commandment of the LORD? but it shall not prosper.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Go not up, for the LORD is not among you; that ye be not smitten before your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For the Amalekites and the Canaanites are there before you, and ye shall fall by the sword: because ye are turned away from the LORD, therefore the LORD will not be with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But they presumed to go up unto the hill top: nevertheless the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and Moses, departed not out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the Amalekites came down, and the Canaanites which dwelt in that hill, and smote them, and discomfited them, even unto Hormah.}} ==Chapter 15== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And will make an offering by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the LORD, of the herd or of the flock:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he that offereth his offering unto the LORD bring a meat offering of a tenth deal of flour mingled with the fourth part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink offering shalt thou prepare with the burnt offering or sacrifice, for one lamb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or for a ram, thou shalt prepare for a meat offering two tenth deals of flour mingled with the third part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a drink offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of wine, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou preparest a bullock for a burnt offering, or for a sacrifice in performing a vow, or peace offerings unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he bring with a bullock a meat offering of three tenth deals of flour mingled with half an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring for a drink offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shall it be done for one bullock, or for one ram, or for a lamb, or a kid.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the number that ye shall prepare, so shall ye do to every one according to their number.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that are born of the country shall do these things after this manner, in offering an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger sojourn with you, or whosoever be among you in your generations, and will offer an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; as ye do, so he shall do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourneth with you, an ordinance for ever in your generations: as ye are, so shall the stranger be before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One law and one manner shall be for you, and for the stranger that sojourneth with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land whither I bring you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, that, when ye eat of the bread of the land, ye shall offer up an heave offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall offer up a cake of the first of your dough for an heave offering: as ye do the heave offering of the threshingfloor, so shall ye heave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the first of your dough ye shall give unto the LORD an heave offering in your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye have erred, and not observed all these commandments, which the LORD hath spoken unto Moses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all that the LORD hath commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the LORD commanded Moses, and henceforward among your generations;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, if ought be committed by ignorance without the knowledge of the congregation, that all the congregation shall offer one young bullock for a burnt offering, for a sweet savour unto the LORD, with his meat offering, and his drink offering, according to the manner, and one kid of the goats for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for all the congregation of the children of Israel, and it shall be forgiven them; for it is ignorance: and they shall bring their offering, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD, and their sin offering before the LORD, for their ignorance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any soul sin through ignorance, then he shall bring a she goat of the first year for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for the soul that sinneth ignorantly, when he sinneth by ignorance before the LORD, to make an atonement for him; and it shall be forgiven him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall have one law for him that sinneth through ignorance, both for him that is born among the children of Israel, and for the stranger that sojourneth among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the soul that doeth ought presumptuously, whether he be born in the land, or a stranger, the same reproacheth the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from among his people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he hath despised the word of the LORD, and hath broken his commandment, that soul shall utterly be cut off; his iniquity shall be upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And while the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon the sabbath day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they that found him gathering sticks brought him unto Moses and Aaron, and unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they put him in ward, because it was not declared what should be done to him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, The man shall be surely put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a ribband of blue:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That ye may remember, and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I am the LORD your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: I am the LORD your God.}} ==Chapter 16== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi,}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab,}} {{font|color=#880000|and On, the son of Peleth,}} {{font|color=#008888| son}}{{font|color=#888800|s}} {{font|color=#008888|of Reuben, took men:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they rose up before Moses, with certain of the children of Israel, two hundred and fifty princes of the assembly, famous in the congregation, men of renown:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron, and said unto them, Ye take too much upon you, seeing all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is among them: wherefore then lift ye up yourselves above the congregation of the LORD?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses heard it, he fell upon his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto Korah and unto all his company, saying, Even to morrow the LORD will shew who are his, and who is holy; and will cause him to come near unto him: even him whom he hath chosen will he cause to come near unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This do; Take you censers, Korah, and all his company;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And put fire therein, and put incense in them before the LORD to morrow: and it shall be that the man whom the LORD doth choose, he shall be holy: ye take too much upon you, ye sons of Levi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Hear, I pray you, ye sons of Levi:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Seemeth it but a small thing unto you, that the God of Israel hath separated you from the congregation of Israel, to bring you near to himself to do the service of the tabernacle of the LORD, and to stand before the congregation to minister unto them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he hath brought thee near to him, and all thy brethren the sons of Levi with thee: and seek ye the priesthood also?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For which cause both thou and all thy company are gathered together against the LORD: and what is Aaron, that ye murmur against him?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to call Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab: which said, We will not come up:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Is it a small thing that thou hast brought us up out of a land that floweth with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, except thou make thyself altogether a prince over us?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards: wilt thou put out the eyes of these men? we will not come up.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses was very wroth, and said unto the LORD, Respect not thou their offering: I have not taken one ass from them, neither have I hurt one of them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Be thou and all thy company before the LORD, thou, and they, and Aaron, to morrow:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And take every man his censer, and put incense in them, and bring ye before the LORD every man his censer, two hundred and fifty censers; thou also, and Aaron, each of you his censer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took every man his censer, and put fire in them, and laid incense thereon, and stood in the door of the tabernacle of the congregation with Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Korah gathered all the congregation against them unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Separate yourselves from among this congregation, that I may consume them in a moment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they fell upon their faces, and said, O God, the God of the spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, and wilt thou be wroth with all the congregation?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the congregation, saying, Get you up from about the tabernacle}} {{font|color=#880000|of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses rose up and went unto Dathan and Abiram; and the elders of Israel followed him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto the congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888| saying, Depart, I pray you, from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of their's, lest ye be consumed in all their sins.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So they gat up from the tabernacle }} {{font|color=#880000| of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,}} {{font|color=#888800| on every side:}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram came out, and stood in the door of their tents, and their wives, and their sons, and their little children.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that the LORD hath sent me to do all these works; for I have not done them of mine own mind.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| If these men die the common death of all men, or if they be visited after the visitation of all men; then the LORD hath not sent me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But if the LORD make a new thing, and the earth open her mouth, and swallow them up, with all that appertain unto them, and they go down quick into the pit; then ye shall understand that these men have provoked the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And it came to pass, as he had made an end of speaking all these words, that the ground clave asunder that was under them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up, and their houses,}} {{font|color=#880000| and all the men that appertained unto Korah,}} {{font|color=#008888| and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| They, and all that appertained to them, went down alive into the pit, and the earth closed upon them: and they perished from among the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And all Israel that were round about them fled at the cry of them: for they said, Lest the earth swallow us up also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there came out a fire from the LORD, and consumed the two hundred and fifty men that offered incense.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, that he take up the censers out of the burning, and scatter thou the fire yonder; for they are hallowed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The censers of these sinners against their own souls, let them make them broad plates for a covering of the altar: for they offered them before the LORD, therefore they are hallowed: and they shall be a sign unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest took the brasen censers, wherewith they that were burnt had offered; and they were made broad plates for a covering of the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To be a memorial unto the children of Israel, that no stranger, which is not of the seed of Aaron, come near to offer incense before the LORD; that he be not as Korah, and as his company: as the LORD said to him by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But on the morrow all the congregation of the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron, saying, Ye have killed the people of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, when the congregation was gathered against Moses and against Aaron, that they looked toward the tabernacle of the congregation: and, behold, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD appeared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron came before the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Get you up from among this congregation, that I may consume them as in a moment. And they fell upon their faces. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Aaron, Take a censer, and put fire therein from off the altar, and put on incense, and go quickly unto the congregation, and make an atonement for them: for there is wrath gone out from the LORD; the plague is begun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron took as Moses commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation; and, behold, the plague was begun among the people: and he put on incense, and made an atonement for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now they that died in the plague were fourteen thousand and seven hundred, beside them that died about the matter of Korah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron returned unto Moses unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the plague was stayed.}} ==Chapter 17== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods: write thou every man's name upon his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt write Aaron's name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt lay them up in the tabernacle of the congregation before the testimony, where I will meet with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall come to pass, that the man's rod, whom I shall choose, shall blossom: and I will make to cease from me the murmurings of the children of Israel, whereby they murmur against you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers' houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses laid up the rods before the LORD in the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and, behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought out all the rods from before the LORD unto all the children of Israel: and they looked, and took every man his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Bring Aaron's rod again before the testimony, to be kept for a token against the rebels; and thou shalt quite take away their murmurings from me, that they die not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did so: as the LORD commanded him, so did he. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel spake unto Moses, saying, Behold, we die, we perish, we all perish.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle of the LORD shall die: shall we be consumed with dying?}} ==Chapter 18== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Aaron, Thou and thy sons and thy father's house with thee shall bear the iniquity of the sanctuary: and thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thy brethren also of the tribe of Levi, the tribe of thy father, bring thou with thee, that they may be joined unto thee, and minister unto thee: but thou and thy sons with thee shall minister before the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep thy charge, and the charge of all the tabernacle: only they shall not come nigh the vessels of the sanctuary and the altar, that neither they, nor ye also, die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be joined unto thee, and keep the charge of the tabernacle of the congregation, for all the service of the tabernacle: and a stranger shall not come nigh unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall keep the charge of the sanctuary, and the charge of the altar: that there be no wrath any more upon the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken your brethren the Levites from among the children of Israel: to you they are given as a gift for the LORD, to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou and thy sons with thee shall keep your priest's office for everything of the altar, and within the vail; and ye shall serve: I have given your priest's office unto you as a service of gift: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Behold, I also have given thee the charge of mine heave offerings of all the hallowed things of the children of Israel; unto thee have I given them by reason of the anointing, and to thy sons, by an ordinance for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be thine of the most holy things, reserved from the fire: every oblation of their's, every meat offering of their's, and every sin offering of their's, and every trespass offering of their's which they shall render unto me, shall be most holy for thee and for thy sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the most holy place shalt thou eat it; every male shall eat it: it shall be holy unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is thine; the heave offering of their gift, with all the wave offerings of the children of Israel: I have given them unto thee, and to thy sons and to thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: every one that is clean in thy house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them have I given thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever is first ripe in the land, which they shall bring unto the LORD, shall be thine; every one that is clean in thine house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing devoted in Israel shall be thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that openeth the matrix in all flesh, which they bring unto the LORD, whether it be of men or beasts, shall be thine: nevertheless the firstborn of man shalt thou surely redeem, and the firstling of unclean beasts shalt thou redeem.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that are to be redeemed from a month old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, for the money of five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, which is twenty gerahs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the firstling of a cow, or the firstling of a sheep, or the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they are holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the altar, and shalt burn their fat for an offering made by fire, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the flesh of them shall be thine, as the wave breast and as the right shoulder are thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the heave offerings of the holy things, which the children of Israel offer unto the LORD, have I given thee, and thy sons and thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: it is a covenant of salt for ever before the LORD unto thee and to thy seed with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Thou shalt have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part among them: I am thy part and thine inheritance among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, I have given the children of Levi all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance, for their service which they serve, even the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither must the children of Israel henceforth come nigh the tabernacle of the congregation, lest they bear sin, and die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they shall bear their iniquity: it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations, that among the children of Israel they have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the tithes of the children of Israel, which they offer as an heave offering unto the LORD, I have given to the Levites to inherit: therefore I have said unto them, Among the children of Israel they shall have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus speak unto the Levites, and say unto them, When ye take of the children of Israel the tithes which I have given you from them for your inheritance, then ye shall offer up an heave offering of it for the LORD, even a tenth part of the tithe.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this your heave offering shall be reckoned unto you, as though it were the corn of the threshingfloor, and as the fulness of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus ye also shall offer an heave offering unto the LORD of all your tithes, which ye receive of the children of Israel; and ye shall give thereof the LORD's heave offering to Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Out of all your gifts ye shall offer every heave offering of the LORD, of all the best thereof, even the hallowed part thereof out of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the increase of the threshingfloor, and as the increase of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall eat it in every place, ye and your households: for it is your reward for your service in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall bear no sin by reason of it, when ye have heaved from it the best of it: neither shall ye pollute the holy things of the children of Israel, lest ye die.}} ==Chapter 19== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD hath commanded, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee a red heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish, and upon which never came yoke:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall give her unto Eleazar the priest, that he may bring her forth without the camp, and one shall slay her before his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest shall take of her blood with his finger, and sprinkle of her blood directly before the tabernacle of the congregation seven times:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And one shall burn the heifer in his sight; her skin, and her flesh, and her blood, with her dung, shall he burn:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall wash his clothes, and he shall bathe his flesh in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp, and the priest shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that burneth her shall wash his clothes in water, and bathe his flesh in water, and shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp in a clean place, and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of Israel for a water of separation: it is a purification for sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that gathereth the ashes of the heifer shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: and it shall be unto the children of Israel, and unto the stranger that sojourneth among them, for a statute for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall purify himself with it on the third day, and on the seventh day he shall be clean: but if he purify not himself the third day, then the seventh day he shall not be clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever toucheth the dead body of any man that is dead, and purifieth not himself, defileth the tabernacle of the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from Israel: because the water of separation was not sprinkled upon him, he shall be unclean; his uncleanness is yet upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law, when a man dieth in a tent: all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every open vessel, which hath no covering bound upon it, is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with a sword in the open fields, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for an unclean person they shall take of the ashes of the burnt heifer of purification for sin, and running water shall be put thereto in a vessel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the clean person shall sprinkle upon the unclean on the third day, and on the seventh day: and on the seventh day he shall purify himself, and wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and shall be clean at even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that shall be unclean, and shall not purify himself, that soul shall be cut off from among the congregation, because he hath defiled the sanctuary of the LORD: the water of separation hath not been sprinkled upon him; he is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be a perpetual statute unto them, that he that sprinkleth the water of separation shall wash his clothes; and he that toucheth the water of separation shall be unclean until even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever the unclean person toucheth shall be unclean; and the soul that toucheth it shall be unclean until even.}} ==Chapter 20== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the children of Israel, even the whole congregation, into the desert of Zin in the first month:}} {{font|color=#008888| and the people abode in Kadesh; and Miriam died there, and was buried there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there was no water for the congregation: and they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people chode with Moses, and spake, }} {{font|color=#888800|saying, Would God that we had died when our brethren died before the LORD!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And why have ye brought up the congregation of the LORD into this wilderness, that we and our cattle should die there?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron went from the presence of the assembly unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they fell upon their faces: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the rod, and gather thou the assembly together, thou, and Aaron thy brother, and speak ye unto the rock before their eyes; and it shall give forth his water, and thou shalt bring forth to them water out of the rock: so thou shalt give the congregation and their beasts drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the rod from before the LORD, as he commanded him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron gathered the congregation together before the rock, and he said unto them, Hear now, ye rebels; must we fetch you water out of this rock?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their beasts also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron, Because ye believed me not, to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which I have given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the water of Meribah; because the children of Israel strove with the LORD, and he was sanctified in them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent messengers from Kadesh unto the king of Edom, Thus saith thy brother Israel, Thou knowest all the travail that hath befallen us:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| How our fathers went down into Egypt, and we have dwelt in Egypt a long time; and the Egyptians vexed us, and our fathers:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And when we cried unto the LORD, he heard our voice, and sent an angel, and hath brought us forth out of Egypt: and, behold, we are in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of thy border:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells: we will go by the king's high way, we will not turn to the right hand nor to the left, until we have passed thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Edom said unto him, Thou shalt not pass by me, lest I come out against thee with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Israel said unto him, We will go by the high way: and if I and my cattle drink of thy water, then I will pay for it: I will only, without doing anything else, go through on my feet.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Thou shalt not go through. And Edom came out against him with much people, and with a strong hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Edom refused to give Israel passage through his border: wherefore Israel turned away from him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel, even the whole congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888|journeyed from Kadesh, and}} {{font|color=#888800|came unto mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron in mount Hor, by the coast of the land of Edom, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Aaron shall be gathered unto his people: for he shall not enter into the land which I have given unto the children of Israel, because ye rebelled against my word at the water of Meribah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take Aaron and Eleazar his son, and bring them up unto mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son: and Aaron shall be gathered unto his people, and shall die there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded: and they went up into mount Hor in the sight of all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son; and Aaron died there in the top of the mount: and Moses and Eleazar came down from the mount.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when all the congregation saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for Aaron thirty days, even all the house of Israel.}} ==Chapter 21== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south, heard tell that Israel came by the way of the spies; then he fought against Israel, and took some of them prisoners.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Israel vowed a vow unto the LORD, and said, If thou wilt indeed deliver this people into my hand, then I will utterly destroy their cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD hearkened to the voice of Israel, and delivered up the Canaanites; and they utterly destroyed them and their cities: and he called the name of the place Hormah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from mount Hor by the way of the Red sea,}} {{font|color=#008888| to compass the land of Edom: and the soul of the people was much discouraged because of the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people spake against God, and against Moses, Wherefore have ye brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there is no bread, neither is there any water;}} {{font|color=#880000|and our soul loatheth this light bread.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against the LORD, and against thee; pray unto the LORD, that he take away the serpents from us. And Moses prayed for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in Oboth. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from Oboth, and pitched at Ijeabarim, in the wilderness which is before Moab, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched in the valley of Zared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched on the other side of Arnon, which is in the wilderness that cometh out of the coasts of the Amorites: for Arnon is the border of Moab, between Moab and the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore it is said in the book of the wars of the LORD, What he did in the Red sea, and in the brooks of Arnon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And at the stream of the brooks that goeth down to the dwelling of Ar, and lieth upon the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give them water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well; sing ye unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves. And from the wilderness they went to Mattanah: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Mattanah to Nahaliel: and from Nahaliel to Bamoth:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Bamoth in the valley, that is in the country of Moab, to the top of Pisgah, which looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel sent messengers unto Sihon king of the Amorites, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let me pass through thy land: we will not turn into the fields, or into the vineyards; we will not drink of the waters of the well: but we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Sihon would not suffer Israel to pass through his border: but Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out against Israel into the wilderness: and he came to Jahaz, and fought against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel smote him with the edge of the sword, and possessed his land from Arnon unto Jabbok, even unto the children of Ammon: for the border of the children of Ammon was strong.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel took all these cities: and Israel dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites, in Heshbon, and in all the villages thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For Heshbon was the city of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab, and taken all his land out of his hand, even unto Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say, Come into Heshbon, let the city of Sihon be built and prepared:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For there is a fire gone out of Heshbon, a flame from the city of Sihon: it hath consumed Ar of Moab, and the lords of the high places of Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity unto Sihon king of the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We have shot at them; Heshbon is perished even unto Dibon, and we have laid them waste even unto Nophah, which reacheth unto Medeba.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Israel dwelt in the land of the Amorites. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to spy out Jaazer, and they took the villages thereof, and drove out the Amorites that were there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And they turned and went up by the way of Bashan: and Og the king of Bashan went out against them, he, and all his people, to the battle at Edrei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Fear him not: for I have delivered him into thy hand, and all his people, and his land; and thou shalt do to him as thou didst unto Sihon king of the Amorites, which dwelt at Heshbon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| So they smote him, and his sons, and all his people, until there was none left him alive: and they possessed his land.}} ==Chapter 22== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in the plains of Moab on this side Jordan by Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Balak the son of Zippor saw all that Israel had done to the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab was sore afraid of the people, because they were many: and Moab was distressed because of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab said}} {{font|color=#880000| unto the elders of Midian,}} {{font|color=#000088|Now shall this company lick up all that are round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was king of the Moabites at that time.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He sent messengers therefore unto Balaam the son of Beor to Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the children of his people, to call him, saying, Behold, there is a people come out from Egypt: behold, they cover the face of the earth, and they abide over against me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Come now therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people; for they are too mighty for me: peradventure I shall prevail, that we may smite them, and that I may drive them out of the land: for I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the elders of Moab}} {{font|color=#880000|and the elders of Midian}} {{font|color=#000088|departed with the rewards of divination in their hand; and they came unto Balaam, and spake unto him the words of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto them, Lodge here this night, and I will bring you word again, as the LORD shall speak unto me: and the princes of Moab abode with Balaam.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam, and said, What men are these with thee?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto God, Balak the son of Zippor, king of Moab, hath sent unto me saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, there is a people come out of Egypt, which covereth the face of the earth: come now, curse me them; peradventure I shall be able to overcome them, and drive them out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God said unto Balaam, Thou shalt not go with them; thou shalt not curse the people: for they are blessed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and said unto the princes of Balak, Get you into your land: for the LORD refuseth to give me leave to go with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the princes of Moab rose up, and they went unto Balak, and said, Balaam refuseth to come with us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak sent yet again princes, more, and more honourable than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came to Balaam, and said to him, Thus saith Balak the son of Zippor, Let nothing, I pray thee, hinder thee from coming unto me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For I will promote thee unto very great honour, and I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me: come therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam answered and said unto the servants of Balak, If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the word of the LORD my God, to do less or more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now therefore, I pray you, tarry ye also here this night, that I may know what the LORD will say unto me more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam at night, and said unto him, If the men come to call thee, rise up, and go with them; but yet the word which I shall say unto thee, that shalt thou do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and saddled his ass, and went with the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And God's anger was kindled because he went:}} {{font|color=#000088|and the angel of the LORD stood in the way for an adversary against him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into the field: and Balaam smote the ass, to turn her into the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she thrust herself unto the wall, and crushed Balaam's foot against the wall: and he smote her again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD went further, and stood in a narrow place, where was no way to turn either to the right hand or to the left.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she fell down under Balaam: and Balaam's anger was kindled, and he smote the ass with a staff.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD opened the mouth of the ass, and she said unto Balaam, What have I done unto thee, that thou hast smitten me these three times?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the ass, Because thou hast mocked me: I would there were a sword in mine hand, for now would I kill thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass said unto Balaam, Am not I thine ass, upon which thou hast ridden ever since I was thine unto this day? was I ever wont to do so unto thee? And he said, Nay.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the LORD opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and he bowed down his head, and fell flat on his face.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto him, Wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass these three times? behold, I went out to withstand thee, because thy way is perverse before me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw me, and turned from me these three times: unless she had turned from me, surely now also I had slain thee, and saved her alive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the angel of the LORD, I have sinned; for I knew not that thou stoodest in the way against me: now therefore, if it displease thee, I will get me back again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto Balaam, Go with the men: but only the word that I shall speak unto thee, that thou shalt speak. So Balaam went with the princes of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balak heard that Balaam was come, he went out to meet him unto a city of Moab, which is in the border of Arnon, which is in the utmost coast.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Did I not earnestly send unto thee to call thee? wherefore camest thou not unto me? am I not able indeed to promote thee to honour?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Lo, I am come unto thee: have I now any power at all to say any thing? the word that God putteth in my mouth, that shall I speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam went with Balak, and they came unto Kirjathhuzoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak offered oxen and sheep, and sent to Balaam, and to the princes that were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass on the morrow, that Balak took Balaam, and brought him up into the high places of Baal, that thence he might see the utmost part of the people.}} ==Chapter 23== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven oxen and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had spoken; and Balak and Balaam offered on every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Stand by thy burnt offering, and I will go: peradventure the LORD will come to meet me: and whatsoever he sheweth me I will tell thee. And he went to an high place.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God met Balaam: and he said unto him, I have prepared seven altars, and I have offered upon every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD put a word in Balaam's mouth, and said, Return unto Balak, and thus thou shalt speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he returned unto him, and, lo, he stood by his burnt sacrifice, he, and all the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balak the king of Moab hath brought me from Aram, out of the mountains of the east, saying, Come, curse me Jacob, and come, defy Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed? or how shall I defy, whom the LORD hath not defied?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills I behold him: lo, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be reckoned among the nations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Who can count the dust of Jacob, and the number of the fourth part of Israel? Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, What hast thou done unto me? I took thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast blessed them altogether.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he answered and said, Must I not take heed to speak that which the LORD hath put in my mouth?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto him, Come, I pray thee, with me unto another place, from whence thou mayest see them: thou shalt see but the utmost part of them, and shalt not see them all: and curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he brought him into the field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah, and built seven altars, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto Balak, Stand here by thy burnt offering, while I meet the LORD yonder.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD met Balaam, and put a word in his mouth, and said, Go again unto Balak, and say thus.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when he came to him, behold, he stood by his burnt offering, and the princes of Moab with him. And Balak said unto him, What hath the LORD spoken?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Rise up, Balak, and hear; hearken unto me, thou son of Zippor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, I have received commandment to bless: and he hath blessed; and I cannot reverse it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the LORD his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion: he shall not lie down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Neither curse them at all, nor bless them at all.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But Balaam answered and said unto Balak, Told not I thee, saying, All that the LORD speaketh, that I must do?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Come, I pray thee, I will bring thee unto another place; peradventure it will please God that thou mayest curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak brought Balaam unto the top of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven bullocks and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had said, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} ==Chapter 24== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balaam saw that it pleased the LORD to bless Israel, he went not, as at other times, to seek for enchantments, but he set his face toward the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam lifted up his eyes, and he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes; and the spirit of God came upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees of lign aloes which the LORD hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He shall pour the water out of his buckets, and his seed shall be in many waters, and his king shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shall be exalted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought him forth out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn: he shall eat up the nations his enemies, and shall break their bones, and pierce them through with his arrows.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion: who shall stir him up? Blessed is he that blesseth thee, and cursed is he that curseth thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he smote his hands together: and Balak said unto Balaam, I called thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast altogether blessed them these three times.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Therefore now flee thou to thy place: I thought to promote thee unto great honour; but, lo, the LORD hath kept thee back from honour.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Spake I not also to thy messengers which thou sentest unto me, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the LORD, to do either good or bad of mine own mind; but what the LORD saith, that will I speak?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And now, behold, I go unto my people: come therefore, and I will advertise thee what this people shall do to thy people in the latter days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| He hath said, which heard the words of God, and knew the knowledge of the most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold him, but not nigh: there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Edom shall be a possession, Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies; and Israel shall do valiantly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion, and shall destroy him that remaineth of the city.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable, and said, Amalek was the first of the nations; but his latter end shall be that he perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he looked on the Kenites, and took up his parable, and said, Strong is thy dwellingplace, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Nevertheless the Kenite shall be wasted, until Asshur shall carry thee away captive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Alas, who shall live when God doeth this!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and shall afflict Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up, and went and returned to his place: and Balak also went his way.}} ==Chapter 25== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel abode in Shittim, }} {{font|color=#000088|and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods: and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel joined himself unto Baalpeor: }} {{font|color=#000088|and the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people, and hang them up before the LORD against the sun, that the fierce anger of the LORD may be turned away from Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the judges of Israel, Slay ye every one his men that were joined unto Baalpeor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, one of the children of Israel came and brought unto his brethren a Midianitish woman in the sight of Moses, and in the sight of all the congregation of the children of Israel, who were weeping before the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation, and took a javelin in his hand;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust both of them through, the man of Israel, and the woman through her belly.}} {{font|color=#880000| So the plague was stayed from the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And those that died in the plague were twenty and four thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, hath turned my wrath away from the children of Israel, while he was zealous for my sake among them, that I consumed not the children of Israel in my jealousy.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Wherefore say, Behold, I give unto him my covenant of peace:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall have it, and his seed after him, even the covenant of an everlasting priesthood; because he was zealous for his God, and made an atonement for the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now the name of the Israelite that was slain, even that was slain with the Midianitish woman, was Zimri, the son of Salu, a prince of a chief house among the Simeonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the Midianitish woman that was slain was Cozbi, the daughter of Zur; he was head over a people, and of a chief house in Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Vex the Midianites, and smite them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|For they vex you with their wiles,}} {{font|color=#880000| wherewith they have beguiled you in the matter of Peor, and}} {{font|color=#888800| in the matter of Cozbi, the daughter of a prince of Midian, their sister, which was slain}} {{font|color=#880000| in the day of the plague for Peor's sake.}} ==Chapter 26== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass}} {{font|color=#880000| after the plague,}} {{font|color=#888800| that the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, from twenty years old and upward, throughout their fathers' house, all that are able to go to war in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest spake with them in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the people, from twenty years old and upward; as the LORD commanded Moses and the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Reuben, the eldest son of Israel: the children of Reuben; Hanoch, of whom cometh the family of the Hanochites: of Pallu, the family of the Palluites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Carmi, the family of the Carmites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Reubenites: and they that were numbered of them were forty and three thousand and seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pallu; Eliab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the sons of Eliab; Nemuel, and Dathan, and Abiram. This is that Dathan and Abiram, which were famous in the congregation, who strove against Moses and against Aaron in the company of Korah, when they strove against the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up together with Korah, when that company died, what time the fire devoured two hundred and fifty men: and they became a sign.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Notwithstanding the children of Korah died not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Simeon after their families: of Nemuel, the family of the Nemuelites: of Jamin, the family of the Jaminites: of Jachin, the family of the Jachinites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites: of Shaul, the family of the Shaulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Simeonites, twenty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad after their families: of Zephon, the family of the Zephonites: of Haggi, the family of the Haggites: of Shuni, the family of the Shunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Ozni, the family of the Oznites: of Eri, the family of the Erites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Arod, the family of the Arodites: of Areli, the family of the Arelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the children of Gad according to those that were numbered of them, forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| The sons of Judah were Er and Onan: and Er and Onan died in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Judah after their families were; of Shelah, the family of the Shelanites: of Pharez, the family of the Pharzites: of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pharez were; of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Hamul, the family of the Hamulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Judah according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and sixteen thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Issachar after their families: of Tola, the family of the Tolaites: of Pua, the family of the Punites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites: of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Issachar according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and four thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Zebulun after their families: of Sered, the family of the Sardites: of Elon, the family of the Elonites: of Jahleel, the family of the Jahleelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Zebulunites according to those that were numbered of them, threescore thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Joseph after their families were Manasseh and Ephraim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Manasseh: of Machir, the family of the Machirites: and Machir begat Gilead: of Gilead come the family of the Gileadites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Gilead: of Jeezer, the family of the Jeezerites: of Helek, the family of the Helekites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Asriel, the family of the Asrielites: and of Shechem, the family of the Shechemites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Shemida, the family of the Shemidaites: and of Hepher, the family of the Hepherites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Zelophehad the son of Hepher had no sons, but daughters: and the names of the daughters of Zelophehad were Mahlah, and Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Manasseh, and those that were numbered of them, fifty and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Ephraim after their families: of Shuthelah, the family of the Shuthalhites: of Becher, the family of the Bachrites: of Tahan, the family of the Tahanites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the sons of Shuthelah: of Eran, the family of the Eranites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Ephraim according to those that were numbered of them, thirty and two thousand and five hundred. These are the sons of Joseph after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Benjamin after their families: of Bela, the family of the Belaites: of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites: of Ahiram, the family of the Ahiramites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Shupham, the family of the Shuphamites: of Hupham, the family of the Huphamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Bela were Ard and Naaman: of Ard, the family of the Ardites: and of Naaman, the family of the Naamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Benjamin after their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Dan after their families: of Shuham, the family of the Shuhamites. These are the families of Dan after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the families of the Shuhamites, according to those that were numbered of them, were threescore and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher after their families: of Jimna, the family of the Jimnites: of Jesui, the family of the Jesuites: of Beriah, the family of the Beriites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Beriah: of Heber, the family of the Heberites: of Malchiel, the family of the Malchielites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the daughter of Asher was Sarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Asher according to those that were numbered of them; who were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Naphtali after their families: of Jahzeel, the family of the Jahzeelites: of Guni, the family of the Gunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jezer, the family of the Jezerites: of Shillem, the family of the Shillemites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Naphtali according to their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the numbered of the children of Israel, six hundred thousand and a thousand seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Unto these the land shall be divided for an inheritance according to the number of names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To many thou shalt give the more inheritance, and to few thou shalt give the less inheritance: to every one shall his inheritance be given according to those that were numbered of him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Notwithstanding the land shall be divided by lot: according to the names of the tribes of their fathers they shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the lot shall the possession thereof be divided between many and few.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are they that were numbered of the Levites after their families: of Gershon, the family of the Gershonites: of Kohath, the family of the Kohathites: of Merari, the family of the Merarites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Levites: the family of the Libnites, the family of the Hebronites, the family of the Mahlites, the family of the Mushites, the family of the Korathites. And Kohath begat Amram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt: and she bare unto Amram Aaron and Moses,}} {{font|color=#880000| and Miriam their sister.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And unto Aaron was born Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died, when they offered strange fire before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them were twenty and three thousand, all males from a month old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered by Moses and Eleazar the priest, who numbered the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But among these there was not a man of them whom Moses and Aaron the priest numbered, when they numbered the children of Israel in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had said of them, They shall surely die in the wilderness. And there was not left a man of them, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} ==Chapter 27== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the daughters of Zelophehad, the son of Hepher, the son of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of Manasseh the son of Joseph: and these are the names of his daughters; Mahlah, Noah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they stood before Moses, and before Eleazar the priest, and before the princes and all the congregation, by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Our father died in the wilderness, and he was not in the company of them that gathered themselves together against the LORD in the company of Korah; but died in his own sin, and had no sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Why should the name of our father be done away from among his family, because he hath no son? Give unto us therefore a possession among the brethren of our father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought their cause before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The daughters of Zelophehad speak right: thou shalt surely give them a possession of an inheritance among their father's brethren; and thou shalt cause the inheritance of their father to pass unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a man die, and have no son, then ye shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daughter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no daughter, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his father's brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if his father have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kinsman that is next to him of his family, and he shall possess it: and it shall be unto the children of Israel a statute of judgment, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Get thee up into this mount Abarim, and see the land which I have given unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou hast seen it, thou also shalt be gathered unto thy people, as Aaron thy brother was gathered.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For ye rebelled against my commandment in the desert of Zin, in the strife of the congregation, to sanctify me at the water before their eyes: that is the water of Meribah in Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the LORD, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the LORD, the God of the spirits of all flesh, set a man over the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Which may go out before them, and which may go in before them, and which may lead them out, and which may bring them in; that the congregation of the LORD be not as sheep which have no shepherd.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take thee Joshua the son of Nun, a man in whom is the spirit, and lay thine hand upon him;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation; and give him a charge in their sight.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt put some of thine honour upon him, that all the congregation of the children of Israel may be obedient.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the LORD: at his word shall they go out, and at his word they shall come in, both he, and all the children of Israel with him, even all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded him: and he took Joshua, and set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he laid his hands upon him, and gave him a charge, as the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 28== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, My offering, and my bread for my sacrifices made by fire, for a sweet savour unto me, shall ye observe to offer unto me in their due season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And thou shalt say unto them, This is the offering made by fire which ye shall offer unto the LORD; two lambs of the first year without spot day by day, for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| The one lamb shalt thou offer in the morning, and the other lamb shalt thou offer at even;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a tenth part of an ephah of flour for a meat offering, mingled with the fourth part of an hin of beaten oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| It is a continual burnt offering, which was ordained in mount Sinai for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the drink offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for the one lamb: in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to be poured unto the LORD for a drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof, thou shalt offer it, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| This is the burnt offering of every sabbath, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the beginnings of your months ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, seven lambs of the first year without spot;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And three tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one bullock; and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal of flour mingled with oil for a meat offering unto one lamb; for a burnt offering of a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their drink offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bullock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an hin unto a lamb: this is the burnt offering of every month throughout the months of the year.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering unto the LORD shall be offered, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fourteenth day of the first month is the passover of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast: seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| In the first day shall be an holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a sacrifice made by fire for a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, and seven lambs of the first year: they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil: three tenth deals shall ye offer for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal shalt thou offer for every lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer these beside the burnt offering in the morning, which is for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| After this manner ye shall offer daily, throughout the seven days, the meat of the sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: it shall be offered beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Also in the day of the firstfruits, when ye bring a new meat offering unto the LORD, after your weeks be out, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer the burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; two young bullocks, one ram, seven lambs of the first year;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto one bullock, two tenth deals unto one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal unto one lamb, throughout the seven lambs;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer them beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, (they shall be unto you without blemish) and their drink offerings.}} ==Chapter 29== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Beside the burnt offering of the month, and his meat offering, and the daily burnt offering, and his meat offering, and their drink offerings, according unto their manner, for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall have on the tenth day of this seventh month an holy convocation; and ye shall afflict your souls: ye shall not do any work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD for a sweet savour; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year; they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals to a bullock, and two tenth deals to one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| One kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the sin offering of atonement, and the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering of it, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifteenth day of the seventh month ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work, and ye shall keep a feast unto the LORD seven days:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; thirteen young bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year; they shall be without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto every bullock of the thirteen bullocks, two tenth deals to each ram of the two rams,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal to each lamb of the fourteen lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the second day ye shall offer twelve young bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering thereof, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the third day eleven bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fourth day ten bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifth day nine bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sixth day eight bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day seven bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| On the eighth day ye shall have a solemn assembly: ye shall do no servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: one bullock, one ram, seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullock, for the ram, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| These things ye shall do unto the LORD in your set feasts, beside your vows, and your freewill offerings, for your burnt offerings, and for your meat offerings, and for your drink offerings, and for your peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 30== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the heads of the tribes concerning the children of Israel, saying, This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a man vow a vow unto the LORD, or swear an oath to bind his soul with a bond; he shall not break his word, he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a woman also vow a vow unto the LORD, and bind herself by a bond, being in her father's house in her youth;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her father hear her vow, and her bond wherewith she hath bound her soul, and her father shall hold his peace at her; then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she hath bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her father disallow her in the day that he heareth; not any of her vows, or of her bonds wherewith she hath bound her soul, shall stand: and the LORD shall forgive her, because her father disallowed her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she had at all an husband, when she vowed, or uttered ought out of her lips, wherewith she bound her soul;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her in the day that he heard it: then her vows shall stand, and her bonds wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband disallowed her on the day that he heard it; then he shall make her vow which she vowed, and that which she uttered with her lips, wherewith she bound her soul, of none effect: and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But every vow of a widow, and of her that is divorced, wherewith they have bound their souls, shall stand against her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she vowed in her husband's house, or bound her soul by a bond with an oath;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her, and disallowed her not: then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband hath utterly made them void on the day he heard them; then whatsoever proceeded out of her lips concerning her vows, or concerning the bond of her soul, shall not stand: her husband hath made them void; and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every vow, and every binding oath to afflict the soul, her husband may establish it, or her husband may make it void.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband altogether hold his peace at her from day to day; then he establisheth all her vows, or all her bonds, which are upon her: he confirmeth them, because he held his peace at her in the day that he heard them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he shall any ways make them void after that he hath heard them; then he shall bear her iniquity.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the statutes, which the LORD commanded Moses, between a man and his wife, between the father and his daughter, being yet in her youth in her father's house.}} ==Chapter 31== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Avenge the children of Israel of the Midianites: afterward shalt thou be gathered unto thy people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the people, saying, Arm some of yourselves unto the war, and let them go against the Midianites, and avenge the LORD of Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of every tribe a thousand, throughout all the tribes of Israel, shall ye send to the war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So there were delivered out of the thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe, twelve thousand armed for war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to the war, a thousand of every tribe, them and Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, to the war, with the holy instruments, and the trumpets to blow in his hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they warred against the Midianites, as the LORD commanded Moses; and they slew all the males.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they slew the kings of Midian, beside the rest of them that were slain; namely, Evi, and Rekem, and Zur, and Hur, and Reba, five kings of Midian: Balaam also the son of Beor they slew with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took all the women of Midian captives, and their little ones, and took the spoil of all their cattle, and all their flocks, and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they burnt all their cities wherein they dwelt, and all their goodly castles, with fire.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took all the spoil, and all the prey, both of men and of beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought the captives, and the prey, and the spoil, unto Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and unto the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the camp at the plains of Moab, which are by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all the princes of the congregation, went forth to meet them without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses was wroth with the officers of the host, with the captains over thousands, and captains over hundreds, which came from the battle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the LORD in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And do ye abide without the camp seven days: whosoever hath killed any person, and whosoever hath touched any slain, purify both yourselves and your captives on the third day, and on the seventh day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And purify all your raiment, and all that is made of skins, and all work of goats' hair, and all things made of wood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest said unto the men of war which went to the battle, This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD commanded Moses;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only the gold, and the silver, the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be clean: nevertheless it shall be purified with the water of separation: and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall wash your clothes on the seventh day, and ye shall be clean, and afterward ye shall come into the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the prey that was taken, both of man and of beast, thou, and Eleazar the priest, and the chief fathers of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And divide the prey into two parts; between them that took the war upon them, who went out to battle, and between all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And levy a tribute unto the LORD of the men of war which went out to battle: one soul of five hundred, both of the persons, and of the beeves, and of the asses, and of the sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of their half, and give it unto Eleazar the priest, for an heave offering of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, thou shalt take one portion of fifty, of the persons, of the beeves, of the asses, and of the flocks, of all manner of beasts, and give them unto the Levites, which keep the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest did as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the booty, being the rest of the prey which the men of war had caught, was six hundred thousand and seventy thousand and five thousand sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and twelve thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and one thousand asses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and two thousand persons in all, of women that had not known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the half, which was the portion of them that went out to war, was in number three hundred thousand and seven and thirty thousand and five hundred sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD's tribute of the sheep was six hundred and threescore and fifteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the beeves were thirty and six thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the asses were thirty thousand and five hundred; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and one.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the persons were sixteen thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was thirty and two persons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the tribute, which was the LORD's heave offering, unto Eleazar the priest, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, which Moses divided from the men that warred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (Now the half that pertained unto the congregation was three hundred thousand and thirty thousand and seven thousand and five hundred sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and six thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty thousand asses and five hundred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And sixteen thousand persons;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even of the children of Israel's half, Moses took one portion of fifty, both of man and of beast, and gave them unto the Levites, which kept the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the officers which were over thousands of the host, the captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds, came near unto Moses:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said unto Moses, Thy servants have taken the sum of the men of war which are under our charge, and there lacketh not one man of us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We have therefore brought an oblation for the LORD, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of them, even all wrought jewels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the gold of the offering that they offered up to the LORD, of the captains of thousands, and of the captains of hundreds, was sixteen thousand seven hundred and fifty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (For the men of war had taken spoil, every man for himself.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of the captains of thousands and of hundreds, and brought it into the tabernacle of the congregation, for a memorial for the children of Israel before the LORD.}} ==Chapter 32== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: }}{{font|color=#000088|and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad and the children of Reuben came and spake unto Moses, and to Eleazar the priest, and unto the princes of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Shebam, and Nebo, and Beon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even the country which the LORD smote before the congregation of Israel, is a land for cattle, and thy servants have cattle:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the children of Gad and to the children of Reuben, Shall your brethren go to war, and shall ye sit here?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And wherefore discourage ye the heart of the children of Israel from going over into the land which the LORD hath given them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Thus did your fathers, when I sent them from Kadeshbarnea to see the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For when they went up unto the valley of Eshcol, and saw the land, they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should not go into the land which the LORD had given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled the same time, and he sware, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely none of the men that came up out of Egypt, from twenty years old and upward, shall see the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob; because they have not wholly followed me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Save Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite, and Joshua the son of Nun: for they have wholly followed the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled against Israel, and he made them wander in the wilderness forty years, until all the generation, that had done evil in the sight of the LORD, was consumed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And, behold, ye are risen up in your fathers' stead, an increase of sinful men, to augment yet the fierce anger of the LORD toward Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For if ye turn away from after him, he will yet again leave them in the wilderness; and ye shall destroy all this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they came near unto him, and said, We will build sheepfolds here for our cattle, and cities for our little ones:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But we ourselves will go ready armed before the children of Israel, until we have brought them unto their place: and our little ones shall dwell in the fenced cities because of the inhabitants of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We will not return unto our houses, until the children of Israel have inherited every man his inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For we will not inherit with them on yonder side Jordan, or forward; because our inheritance is fallen to us on this side Jordan eastward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto them,}}{{font|color=#000088| If ye will do this thing, if ye will go armed before the LORD to war,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And will go all of you armed over Jordan before the LORD, until he hath driven out his enemies from before him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the land be subdued before the LORD: then afterward ye shall return, and be guiltless before the LORD, and before Israel; and this land shall be your possession before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But if ye will not do so, behold, ye have sinned against the LORD: and be sure your sin will find you out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Build you cities for your little ones, and folds for your sheep; and do that which hath proceeded out of your mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben spake unto Moses, saying, Thy servants will do as my lord commandeth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Our little ones, our wives, our flocks, and all our cattle, shall be there in the cities of Gilead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But thy servants will pass over, every man armed for war, before the Lord to battle, as my lord saith.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So concerning them Moses commanded Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun, and the chief fathers of the tribes of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, If the children of Gad and the children of Reuben will pass with you over Jordan, every man armed to battle, before the LORD, and the land shall be subdued before you; then ye shall give them the land of Gilead for a possession:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if they will not pass over with you armed, they shall have possessions among you in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben answered, saying, As the LORD hath said unto thy servants, so will we do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We will pass over armed before the LORD into the land of Canaan, that the possession of our inheritance on this side Jordan may be our's.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave unto them, even to the children of Gad, and to the children of Reuben, and unto half the tribe of Manasseh the son of Joseph, the kingdom of Sihon king of the Amorites, and the kingdom of Og king of Bashan, the land, with the cities thereof in the coasts, even the cities of the country round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Gad built Dibon, and Ataroth, and Aroer,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Atroth, Shophan, and Jaazer, and Jogbehah,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Bethnimrah, and Bethharan, fenced cities: and folds for sheep.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Reuben built Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Kirjathaim,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Nebo, and Baalmeon, (their names being changed,) and Shibmah: and gave other names unto the cities which they builded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Machir the son of Manasseh went to Gilead, and took it, and dispossessed the Amorite which was in it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gave Gilead unto Machir the son of Manasseh; and he dwelt therein.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took the small towns thereof, and called them Havothjair.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Nobah went and took Kenath, and the villages thereof, and called it Nobah, after his own name.}} ==Chapter 33== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| These are the journeys of the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt with their armies under the hand of Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And Moses wrote their goings out according to their journeys by the commandment of the LORD: and these are their journeys according to their goings out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rameses in the first month, on the fifteenth day of the first month; on the morrow after the passover the children of Israel went out with an high hand in the sight of all the Egyptians.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| For the Egyptians buried all their firstborn, which the LORD had smitten among them: upon their gods also the LORD executed judgments.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And the children of Israel removed from Rameses, and pitched in Succoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Succoth, and pitched in Etham, which is in the edge of the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Etham, and turned again unto Pihahiroth, which is before Baalzephon: and they pitched before Migdol.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from before Pihahiroth, and passed through the midst of the sea into the wilderness, and went three days' journey in the wilderness of Etham, and pitched in Marah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Marah, and came unto Elim: and in Elim were twelve fountains of water, and threescore and ten palm trees; and they pitched there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Elim, and encamped by the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the Red sea, and encamped in the wilderness of Sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they took their journey out of the wilderness of Sin, and encamped in Dophkah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Dophkah, and encamped in Alush. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Alush, and encamped at Rephidim, where was no water for the people to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rephidim, and pitched in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the desert of Sinai, and pitched at Kibrothhattaavah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Kibrothhattaavah, and encamped at Hazeroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hazeroth, and pitched in Rithmah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rithmah, and pitched at Rimmonparez.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rimmonparez, and pitched in Libnah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Libnah, and pitched at Rissah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they journeyed from Rissah, and pitched in Kehelathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Kehelathah, and pitched in mount Shapher.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from mount Shapher, and encamped in Haradah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Haradah, and pitched in Makheloth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Makheloth, and encamped at Tahath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Tahath, and pitched at Tarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Tarah, and pitched in Mithcah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Mithcah, and pitched in Hashmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hashmonah, and encamped at Moseroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Moseroth, and pitched in Benejaakan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Benejaakan, and encamped at Horhagidgad.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Horhagidgad, and pitched in Jotbathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Jotbathah, and encamped at Ebronah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Ebronah, and encamped at Eziongaber.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Eziongaber, and pitched in the wilderness of Zin, which is Kadesh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Kadesh, and pitched in mount Hor, in the edge of the land of Edom.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron the priest went up into mount Hor at the commandment of the LORD, and died there, in the fortieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the first day of the fifth month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron was an hundred and twenty and three years old when he died in mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south in the land of Canaan, heard of the coming of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from mount Hor, and pitched in Zalmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Zalmonah, and pitched in Punon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Punon, and pitched in Oboth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Oboth, and pitched in Ijeabarim, in the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Iim, and pitched in Dibongad. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Dibongad, and encamped in Almondiblathaim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Almondiblathaim, and pitched in the mountains of Abarim, before Nebo.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from the mountains of Abarim, and pitched in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they pitched by Jordan, from Bethjesimoth even unto Abelshittim in the plains of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye are passed over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall drive out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all their pictures, and destroy all their molten images, and quite pluck down all their high places:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall dispossess the inhabitants of the land, and dwell therein: for I have given you the land to possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall divide the land by lot for an inheritance among your families: and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance: every man's inheritance shall be in the place where his lot falleth; according to the tribes of your fathers ye shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover it shall come to pass, that I shall do unto you, as I thought to do unto them.}} ==Chapter 34== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land of Canaan; (this is the land that shall fall unto you for an inheritance, even the land of Canaan with the coasts thereof:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then your south quarter shall be from the wilderness of Zin along by the coast of Edom, and your south border shall be the outmost coast of the salt sea eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your border shall turn from the south to the ascent of Akrabbim, and pass on to Zin: and the going forth thereof shall be from the south to Kadeshbarnea, and shall go on to Hazaraddar, and pass on to Azmon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall fetch a compass from Azmon unto the river of Egypt, and the goings out of it shall be at the sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And as for the western border, ye shall even have the great sea for a border: this shall be your west border. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this shall be your north border: from the great sea ye shall point out for you mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From mount Hor ye shall point out your border unto the entrance of Hamath; and the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go on to Ziphron, and the goings out of it shall be at Hazarenan: this shall be your north border.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall point out your east border from Hazarenan to Shepham:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the coast shall go down from Shepham to Riblah, on the east side of Ain; and the border shall descend, and shall reach unto the side of the sea of Chinnereth eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go down to Jordan, and the goings out of it shall be at the salt sea: this shall be your land with the coasts thereof round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel, saying, This is the land which ye shall inherit by lot, which the LORD commanded to give unto the nine tribes, and to the half tribe:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the tribe of the children of Reuben according to the house of their fathers, and the tribe of the children of Gad according to the house of their fathers, have received their inheritance; and half the tribe of Manasseh have received their inheritance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The two tribes and the half tribe have received their inheritance on this side Jordan near Jericho eastward, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which shall divide the land unto you: Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take one prince of every tribe, to divide the land by inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the names of the men are these: Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the tribe of the children of Simeon, Shemuel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Elidad the son of Chislon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Dan, Bukki the son of Jogli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The prince of the children of Joseph, for the tribe of the children of Manasseh, Hanniel the son of Ephod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Ephraim, Kemuel the son of Shiphtan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Zebulun, Elizaphan the son of Parnach.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Issachar, Paltiel the son of Azzan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Asher, Ahihud the son of Shelomi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Naphtali, Pedahel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they whom the LORD commanded to divide the inheritance unto the children of Israel in the land of Canaan.}} ==Chapter 35== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they give unto the Levites of the inheritance of their possession cities to dwell in; and ye shall give also unto the Levites suburbs for the cities round about them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities shall they have to dwell in; and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the north side two thousand cubits; and the city shall be in the midst: this shall be to them the suburbs of the cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And among the cities which ye shall give unto the Levites there shall be six cities for refuge, which ye shall appoint for the manslayer, that he may flee thither: and to them ye shall add forty and two cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So all the cities which ye shall give to the Levites shall be forty and eight cities: them shall ye give with their suburbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities which ye shall give shall be of the possession of the children of Israel: from them that have many ye shall give many; but from them that have few ye shall give few: every one shall give of his cities unto the Levites according to his inheritance which he inheriteth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall appoint you cities to be cities of refuge for you; that the slayer may flee thither, which killeth any person at unawares.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be unto you cities for refuge from the avenger; that the manslayer die not, until he stand before the congregation in judgment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of these cities which ye shall give six cities shall ye have for refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall give three cities on this side Jordan, and three cities shall ye give in the land of Canaan, which shall be cities of refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These six cities shall be a refuge, both for the children of Israel, and for the stranger, and for the sojourner among them: that every one that killeth any person unawares may flee thither.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or if he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of wait, that he die;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall slay the murderer, when he meeteth him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him suddenly without enmity, or have cast upon him any thing without laying of wait,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or with any stone, wherewith a man may die, seeing him not, and cast it upon him, that he die, and was not his enemy, neither sought his harm:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the congregation shall judge between the slayer and the revenger of blood according to these judgments:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the congregation shall deliver the slayer out of the hand of the revenger of blood, and the congregation shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he was fled: and he shall abide in it unto the death of the high priest, which was anointed with the holy oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the slayer shall at any time come without the border of the city of his refuge, whither he was fled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the revenger of blood find him without the borders of the city of his refuge, and the revenger of blood kill the slayer; he shall not be guilty of blood:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge until the death of the high priest: but after the death of the high priest the slayer shall return into the land of his possession.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So these things shall be for a statute of judgment unto you throughout your generations in all your dwellings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover ye shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take no satisfaction for him that is fled to the city of his refuge, that he should come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are: for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein I dwell: for I the LORD dwell among the children of Israel.}} ==Chapter 36== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief fathers of the families of the children of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of the sons of Joseph, came near, and spake before Moses, and before the princes, the chief fathers of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said, The LORD commanded my lord to give the land for an inheritance by lot to the children of Israel: and my lord was commanded by the LORD to give the inheritance of Zelophehad our brother unto his daughters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they be married to any of the sons of the other tribes of the children of Israel, then shall their inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the jubile of the children of Israel shall be, then shall their inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall their inheritance be taken away from the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying, The tribe of the sons of Joseph hath said well.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the thing which the LORD doth command concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying, Let them marry to whom they think best; only to the family of the tribe of their father shall they marry.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So shall not the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe: for every one of the children of Israel shall keep himself to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every man the inheritance of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither shall the inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; but every one of the tribes of the children of Israel shall keep himself to his own inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they were married into the families of the sons of Manasseh the son of Joseph, and their inheritance remained in the tribe of the family of their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the commandments and the judgments, which the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses unto the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} [[Category:Documentary hypothesis]] 04nayypu8flwid6k0bqvg9vbpbzsqus 0 60484 2417063 543319 2022-08-21T14:03:23Z Nym1977 2948644 Change a broken link and add a few sections in order to complete the stub wikitext text/x-wiki {{tertiary}} {{0%done}} {{TOCright}} The aim of this page is provide advice and support for thesis-writing. ==Guides== Universities and disciplines usually have their own specific guidelines about the process and requirements for a thesis. Example guides include: * ==Purpose== The purpose of a thesis is generally to make an original contribution to academic knowledge and often also to award the author of the thesis with an official 'degree' (or part of a 'degree') where the thesis is undertaking as a learning exercise. ==Thesis sections== In general a Thesis follow an extended variation of an [[IMRaD]] structure. Typical sections include: ===Pre-pages=== * Title * Table of contents * Table of tables * Table of figures * Abstract ===Introduction=== ===Method=== ===Results=== ===Discussion=== ===References=== ===Appendices=== ==See also== {{wikipedia}} * [[Dissertations]] * [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ASearch&ns0=1&ns4=1&ns100=1&ns102=1&ns104=1&search=Thesis&fulltext=Advanced+search Search for Thesis at Wikiversity] * [[:Category:Style guide]] == Explanatory notes == == References == == External links == * [[wikibooks:ETD_Guide|Guide Guide to electronic theses and dissertations]] on [[Wikibooks]] * [https://francescolelli.info/how-to-do-a-good-thesis-the-miniseries/ Guides and Suggestions for writing a better thesis] on [https://francescolelli.info francescolelli.info] [[Category:Theses]] bgiiu36tbe8a8o38tf11n3ebufz35zu 0 64511 2417093 2416866 2022-08-21T18:13:28Z Nobeedee 2948238 Element Addition: Added table to accompany image in output section. wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" ! [[Introduction_to_Computers/Hardware_and_software|'''<< Previous - Hardware_and_software''']] ! ! ! ! [[Introduction_to_Computers/Data_sizes_and_speeds|'''Next - Data_sizes_and_speeds >> ''']] |} {{Introduction to computers/header}} {{nearlythere}} ==Input== Whatever goes into the computer. Input can take a variety of forms, from commands you enter from the keyboard to data from another computer or device. A device that feeds data into a computer, such as a keyboard or mouse, is called an input device. * http://winplanet.webopedia.com/TERM/I/input.html {{wikipedia|input/output}} {{clear}} ==Output== [[File:Personal computer, exploded 6.svg|thumb|right|376px]] {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline; float: right" |- ! style="text-align:center; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | 1-9 ! style="text-align:left; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | English ! style="text-align:left; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | Wikipedia ! style="text-align:center; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | 10-16 ! style="text-align:left; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | English ! style="text-align:left; padding: 0px 5px;" width="auto" | Wikipedia |- |1 |Scanner | {{wikipedia|Image_scanner}} |10 |Monitor | {{wikipedia|Computer_display}} |- |2 |CPU (Microprocessor) | {{wikipedia|Central_processing_unit}} |11 |System software | {{wikipedia|System_software}} |- |3 |Main memory (RAM) | {{wikipedia|Computer_memory}} |12 |Application software | {{wikipedia|Application_software}} |- |4 |Expansion cards | {{wikipedia|Expansion_card}} |13 |Keyboard | {{wikipedia|Computer_keyboard}} |- |5 |Power supply unit | {{wikipedia|Power_supply_unit_(computer)}} |14 |Mouse | {{wikipedia|Mouse (computing)}} |- |6 |Optical disc drive | {{wikipedia|Optical_disc_drive}} |15 |External hard disk | {{wikipedia|External hard disk drive}} |- |7 |Hard disk drive (HDD) | {{wikipedia|Hard_disk_drive}} |16 |Printer | {{wikipedia|Computer printer}} |- |8 |Motherboard | {{wikipedia|Motherboard}} |- |9 |Speaker | {{wikipedia|Computer_speakers}} |} Anything that comes out of a computer. Output can be display screens, loudspeakers, and printers. {{clear}} ==Processing== [[Image:80486dx2-large.jpg|250px|thumb|right]] The processor is the brain of a computer. It's also called the '''"CPU"'''(Central processing unit) and it is a microchip. {{clear}} ==Storage== [[Image:DDR2 ram mounted.jpg|250px|thumb|right]] Computer data storage is referred to as storage or memory, which can save digital data. Examples are RAM, hard disks, or removable memory sticks. * [{{eyespot|0XCzIG2UEi60tbiEJW0lIWek9p}} podcast] * <!-- REM clumsy attempt to point out whole lesson on storage--> see also storage heading under processor * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_%28computing%29 {{clear}} ===Course Navigation=== {| class="wikitable" ! [[Introduction_to_Computers/Hardware_and_software|'''<< Previous - Hardware_and_software''']] ! ! ! ! [[Introduction_to_Computers/Data_sizes_and_speeds|'''Next - Data_sizes_and_speeds >> ''']] |} kvhon80ve719i70q2i7qytp89fwst1e 0 64754 2417073 2021667 2022-08-21T15:07:57Z Nym1977 2948644 wikitext text/x-wiki # Use automatic captioning of tables and figures - this will allow the automatic generation of a table of tables and a table of figures. Also use styles for headings, which will allow automatic generation of a table of contents. # Use word processor tables and graph tools, in general, rather than dumped SPSS output. SPSS output will require considerable customization to be rendered in APA style. == Resources == [[Category:Theses]] [[Category:Tips]] oz9p2jioshudizcvzaaeb3w2epxkp2l 10 92700 2417134 2185724 2022-08-22T01:17:42Z Minorax 2868362 vva wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center;margin:0.5em;padding:0.5em;" class="plainlinks"><span style="background:#ffffff;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;padding:1em;border:1px solid gray;"> [[File:System-search.svg|24x24px|link=]] Search for '''{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}''': [[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|24x24px|link=w:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikipedia]] [[File:Wikibooks-logo.svg|24x24px|link=b:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikibooks]] [[File:Wikisource-logo.svg|24x24px|link=s:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikisource]] [[File:Wiktionary-logo.svg|24x24px|link=wikt:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wiktionary]] [[File:Commons-logo.png|24x24px|link=commons:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikimedia Commons]] [[File:Wikinews-logo.png|32x32px|link=n:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikinews]] [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|24x24px|link=q:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikiquote]] [[File:Wikispecies-logo.png|24x24px|link=species:Special:Search/{{PAGENAMEE:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}}|Wikispies]] </span></div> <noinclude>[[Category:Interwiki link templates]]</noinclude> tthtpun9njubhggxi1b6xz47bj7nq7t 3 137364 2417081 2416278 2022-08-21T16:04:37Z 2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A /* To know about You. */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki {{Archive box|[[/2013/]] · [[/2014/]] · [[/2015/]] · [[/2016/]] · [[/2017/]] · [[/2018/]] · [[/2019/]] · [[/2020/]] · [[/2021/]] · [[/2022/]]}} {{:User:{{PAGENAME}}/Welcome}} <!-- Add comments below --> == Question == Hi I am Wikivuyo I just joined a few days ago and I was wondering if you could help me figure out how to create a new website and to change my account. {{Unsigned|Wikivuyo|8 July 2022‎}} :{{At|Wikivuyo}} Welcome to Wikiversity! You can't really create a new website here. You can edit pages. Start by editing your [[User:Wikivuyo/sandbox|sandbox]]. If you want to create a website, you might try using [[GitHub]] as a free starting point. I'm not sure what you want to change about your account. If you want to rename it, see [[meta:Changing username]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:15, 8 July 2022 (UTC) == text does not wrap == ===text does not wrap=== [[File:0715wrap01.png|thumb|400px|''' 2 screen shots showing where text wraps and where text doesn't wrap.''' </br> ]] Hello Professor Braunschweig, The 2 screenshots are of my sandbox. The left hand shot shows that text when displayed normally doesn't wrap. The right hand shot of preview taken in editing mode shows that text wraps. I prefer the right hand method of text automatically wrapping. How do I ensure this? Thanks. [[User:ThaniosAkro|ThaniosAkro]] ([[User talk:ThaniosAkro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThaniosAkro|contribs]]) 20:39, 15 July 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:ThaniosAkro|ThaniosAkro]] The right answer is to stop using RoundBoxTop. Those templates are based on tables. Using tables for layout has been discouraged since HTML 4, or since 1999. See [https://www.thoughtco.com/dont-use-tables-for-layout-3468941 ThoughtCo: Don't Use Tables for Layout] for more information. Templates like this should be discouraged in general, and rewritten to use div tags instead of tables where they are necessary. :The only example I can provide offhand is [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Layout]]. I spent (a lot of) time back in 2017 switching the main page to a flexbox layout so that it wraps correctly, both within the boxes and then the boxes themselves. :[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:12, 15 July 2022 (UTC) == New user receiving error message during workshop == Hi @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]! A new user recently tried to publish a new lesson plan for Eventmath, which included links to Twitter and the Internet Archive. (The lesson plan is based on a tweet, and the user archived the tweet so that it would be permanently available). When attempting to publish, the following error message was generated: <blockquote>This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link</blockquote> The user is brand new, so I offered to help. I checked the [[Special:ListGroupRights|User group rights]] and didn't see anything about this. Can you help? We're running workshops with new users, and I am hoping that this won't continue happening. At least one other user (also new, I think) was able to publish a new page with an external link, without issue. Would it help if they publish the page first, and then add the link as a second edit? Maybe @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] could also help? Thank you so much! -- [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:28, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Greg at Higher Math}} For me the first step is to see the context of the effort. Do you have a reference to the page where this incident occurred? Another issue to be sorted out is any degree of commercialization associated with your project. I am not an expert in such matters, but my guess is that paid workers should be allowed to make such edits under certain circumstances. {{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I don't know if we are supposed to hold this discussion here or move it to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action]].--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 10:35, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :{{At|Greg at Higher Math}} Wikiversity is bombarded with spamming attempts to create pages with external links. We have filters in place to block this behavior. Please instruct users to create pages without external links and then add links later. Have them start with a clean introductory paragraph, for example. :There are other abuse filters new users may encounter as well. There are work-arounds, but all of them take some time and require some patience. Most importantly, remind users that everything about Wikiversity is volunteer-driven. It may become necessary for you to apply as a [[Wikiversity:Curators|curator]] to fully support these new users. :Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:56, 18 August 2022 (UTC) ::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] and @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]: Thank you both for your rapid replies! I'll reply about each point in turn. ::* Eventmath is not commercial in any way. Everything we produce is free and open access, and all content is provided by volunteers. The only exception is [[metawiki:Grants:Project/Eventmath|grant funding from the Wikimedia Foundation]], for project creation and leadership. We are in the early stages of discussing leadership roles for other contributors. ::* Here's the context. To create a new Eventmath lesson plan, contributors follow the guidance on our [[Eventmath/Contributing|Contributing page]]. The key step is to enter a title into an input box and click "Create lesson plan." This opens an editor on a new page with the entered title, and the editor is preloaded with our [[Template:Eventmath lesson plan|lesson plan template]]. Unfortunately, I can't link to the specific page in question, since the user was unable to publish it. ::* I've advised the user to publish the page first, and then add the external link afterward. I'll revise the on-wiki instructions accordingly once we confirm that there are no other problems for the next set of new users. ::* Applying to become a curator sounds like a good idea. For example, we've had a user accidentally make [[Eventmath/Lesson plans/Impact|a page with a title unrelated to their topic]], and then create [[Eventmath/Lesson plans/Using inclusion-exclusion to understand COVID reinfection|a new page with an accurate title]]. My understanding is that a redirect would be inappropriate, since the title of the first page is not related in any way to the second page; also, there is no content on the first page that needs to be retained (the only custom content in the lesson plan is a link, which is also in the second page). ::** I read about curatorship at the link you provided; '''are there any expectations regarding the time commitment'''? I want to be sure I can follow through on the responsibilities. ::** Since I already mentioned it, '''would you be able to delete the page with the inaccurate title'''? I'd be happy to submit a separate request if that is better. ::* I appreciate the heads-up about other abuse filters, and it's always inspiring to me that Wikiversity is run by volunteers, so I'll be sure to remind everyone of this. ::Thanks again! ::-- [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 16:51, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]]: :::Curators are volunteers. They contribute whatever time they can / wish to. :::The easiest way to get a page deleted is to add {{tlx|Delete|reason}} at the top of the page. I deleted the page you had linked. :::Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:57, 18 August 2022 (UTC) == To know about You. == Hai, Dave Braunschweig, are You a Wikipedia Administrator. [[Special:Contributions/2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A|2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A]] ([[User talk:2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A|discuss]]) 16:04, 21 August 2022 (UTC) nsj6adqdr56492dk7krdubumc8kdcio 2417086 2417081 2022-08-21T16:15:00Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 /* To know about You. */ Reply wikitext text/x-wiki {{Archive box|[[/2013/]] · [[/2014/]] · [[/2015/]] · [[/2016/]] · [[/2017/]] · [[/2018/]] · [[/2019/]] · [[/2020/]] · [[/2021/]] · [[/2022/]]}} {{:User:{{PAGENAME}}/Welcome}} <!-- Add comments below --> == Question == Hi I am Wikivuyo I just joined a few days ago and I was wondering if you could help me figure out how to create a new website and to change my account. {{Unsigned|Wikivuyo|8 July 2022‎}} :{{At|Wikivuyo}} Welcome to Wikiversity! You can't really create a new website here. You can edit pages. Start by editing your [[User:Wikivuyo/sandbox|sandbox]]. If you want to create a website, you might try using [[GitHub]] as a free starting point. I'm not sure what you want to change about your account. If you want to rename it, see [[meta:Changing username]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:15, 8 July 2022 (UTC) == text does not wrap == ===text does not wrap=== [[File:0715wrap01.png|thumb|400px|''' 2 screen shots showing where text wraps and where text doesn't wrap.''' </br> ]] Hello Professor Braunschweig, The 2 screenshots are of my sandbox. The left hand shot shows that text when displayed normally doesn't wrap. The right hand shot of preview taken in editing mode shows that text wraps. I prefer the right hand method of text automatically wrapping. How do I ensure this? Thanks. [[User:ThaniosAkro|ThaniosAkro]] ([[User talk:ThaniosAkro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThaniosAkro|contribs]]) 20:39, 15 July 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:ThaniosAkro|ThaniosAkro]] The right answer is to stop using RoundBoxTop. Those templates are based on tables. Using tables for layout has been discouraged since HTML 4, or since 1999. See [https://www.thoughtco.com/dont-use-tables-for-layout-3468941 ThoughtCo: Don't Use Tables for Layout] for more information. Templates like this should be discouraged in general, and rewritten to use div tags instead of tables where they are necessary. :The only example I can provide offhand is [[Wikiversity:Main Page/Layout]]. I spent (a lot of) time back in 2017 switching the main page to a flexbox layout so that it wraps correctly, both within the boxes and then the boxes themselves. :[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:12, 15 July 2022 (UTC) == New user receiving error message during workshop == Hi @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]! A new user recently tried to publish a new lesson plan for Eventmath, which included links to Twitter and the Internet Archive. (The lesson plan is based on a tweet, and the user archived the tweet so that it would be permanently available). When attempting to publish, the following error message was generated: <blockquote>This action has been automatically identified as potentially harmful, and therefore disallowed. If you believe your action was constructive, please [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|inform an administrator]] of what you were trying to do. A brief description of the abuse rule which your action matched is: New User Created Page with External Link</blockquote> The user is brand new, so I offered to help. I checked the [[Special:ListGroupRights|User group rights]] and didn't see anything about this. Can you help? We're running workshops with new users, and I am hoping that this won't continue happening. At least one other user (also new, I think) was able to publish a new page with an external link, without issue. Would it help if they publish the page first, and then add the link as a second edit? Maybe @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] could also help? Thank you so much! -- [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 02:28, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Greg at Higher Math}} For me the first step is to see the context of the effort. Do you have a reference to the page where this incident occurred? Another issue to be sorted out is any degree of commercialization associated with your project. I am not an expert in such matters, but my guess is that paid workers should be allowed to make such edits under certain circumstances. {{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I don't know if we are supposed to hold this discussion here or move it to [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action]].--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 10:35, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :{{At|Greg at Higher Math}} Wikiversity is bombarded with spamming attempts to create pages with external links. We have filters in place to block this behavior. Please instruct users to create pages without external links and then add links later. Have them start with a clean introductory paragraph, for example. :There are other abuse filters new users may encounter as well. There are work-arounds, but all of them take some time and require some patience. Most importantly, remind users that everything about Wikiversity is volunteer-driven. It may become necessary for you to apply as a [[Wikiversity:Curators|curator]] to fully support these new users. :Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:56, 18 August 2022 (UTC) ::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] and @[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]: Thank you both for your rapid replies! I'll reply about each point in turn. ::* Eventmath is not commercial in any way. Everything we produce is free and open access, and all content is provided by volunteers. The only exception is [[metawiki:Grants:Project/Eventmath|grant funding from the Wikimedia Foundation]], for project creation and leadership. We are in the early stages of discussing leadership roles for other contributors. ::* Here's the context. To create a new Eventmath lesson plan, contributors follow the guidance on our [[Eventmath/Contributing|Contributing page]]. The key step is to enter a title into an input box and click "Create lesson plan." This opens an editor on a new page with the entered title, and the editor is preloaded with our [[Template:Eventmath lesson plan|lesson plan template]]. Unfortunately, I can't link to the specific page in question, since the user was unable to publish it. ::* I've advised the user to publish the page first, and then add the external link afterward. I'll revise the on-wiki instructions accordingly once we confirm that there are no other problems for the next set of new users. ::* Applying to become a curator sounds like a good idea. For example, we've had a user accidentally make [[Eventmath/Lesson plans/Impact|a page with a title unrelated to their topic]], and then create [[Eventmath/Lesson plans/Using inclusion-exclusion to understand COVID reinfection|a new page with an accurate title]]. My understanding is that a redirect would be inappropriate, since the title of the first page is not related in any way to the second page; also, there is no content on the first page that needs to be retained (the only custom content in the lesson plan is a link, which is also in the second page). ::** I read about curatorship at the link you provided; '''are there any expectations regarding the time commitment'''? I want to be sure I can follow through on the responsibilities. ::** Since I already mentioned it, '''would you be able to delete the page with the inaccurate title'''? I'd be happy to submit a separate request if that is better. ::* I appreciate the heads-up about other abuse filters, and it's always inspiring to me that Wikiversity is run by volunteers, so I'll be sure to remind everyone of this. ::Thanks again! ::-- [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 16:51, 18 August 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]]: :::Curators are volunteers. They contribute whatever time they can / wish to. :::The easiest way to get a page deleted is to add {{tlx|Delete|reason}} at the top of the page. I deleted the page you had linked. :::Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:57, 18 August 2022 (UTC) == To know about You. == Hai, Dave Braunschweig, are You a Wikipedia Administrator. [[Special:Contributions/2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A|2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A]] ([[User talk:2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A|discuss]]) 16:04, 21 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Yadhu Krishna BP|Yadhu Krishna BP]]: No. See [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:List of administrators]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:15, 21 August 2022 (UTC) b6a0coz489kdjbyjlfb6skcz9fyj7tu 0 149511 2417117 2416829 2022-08-21T23:01:13Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Warm ionized mediums */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:LW Cassiopeia Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This visual negative of the region around the astronomical object LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM) is centered on the ISM. Credit: Aladin at SIMBAD.]] The '''interstellar medium''' is the matter that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. At right is a visual negative of the LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM). Within the image are H II regions (red +s), stars (red *s), X-ray sources (Xs), infrared objects (red diamonds), molecular clouds (MolClds), reflection nebulae (RfNebs), dark nebulae (DkNebs), and the interstellar medium (ISM). {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Stars}} In astronomy, the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[w:Intergalactic medium|intergalactic space]]. ==Mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums|Mediums}} '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding environment is called a '''medium'''. Cyclotron radiation from [[w:Plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the interstellar medium is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields. ==Interstellars== {{main|Stars/Interstellars|Interstellars}} '''Def.''' # between the stars or # among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm³ and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Astrochemistry== {{main|Astrochemistry}} A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH₃)_nNH₄⁺, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range."<ref name=Martinez>{{ cite journal |author=R. Martinez |author2=L. S. Farenzena |author3=P. Iza |author4=C. R. Ponciano |author5=M. G. P. Homem |author6=A. Naves de Brito |author7=K. Wien |author8=E. F. da Silveira |title=Secondary ion emission induced by fission fragment impact in CO--NH₃ and CO--NH₃--H₂O ices: modification in the CO--NH₃ ice structure |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |month=October |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1333-41 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jms.1241/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1002/jms.1241 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-12 }}</ref> For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH₃–H₂O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."<ref name=Martinez/> The [[w:cyanide radical|cyanide radical]] CN^- has been identified in interstellar space.<ref name=Pieniazek>{{ cite journal |author=Piotr A. Pieniazek |author2=Stephen E. Bradforth |author3=Anna I. Krylov |title=Spectroscopy of the Cyano Radical in an Aqueous Environment |date=2005-12-07 |publisher=Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California |pages=4854–65 |issue=14 |location=Los Angeles, California |volume=110 |url=pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp0545952 |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry. A |pmid=16599455 |doi=10.1021/jp0545952 }}</ref> The cyanide radical (called cyanogen) is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.<ref name=Roth>{{ cite journal | title = Interstellar Cyanogen and the Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation | author = Roth, K. C. |author2=Meyer, D. M. |author3=Hawkins, I. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | year = 1993 | volume = 413 | issue = 2 | pages = L67–L71 | doi = 10.1086/186961 | bibcode = 1993ApJ...413L..67R | url = http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1993ApJ...413L..67R&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf }}</ref> There are 110 currently known interstellar molecules. "An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."<ref name=Ehrenfreund>{{ cite book |author=Ehrenfreund P |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Botta O |title=A voyage from dark clouds to the early Earth In: ''Astrophysics of life'', proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium held in Baltimore, Maryland, May 6-9, 2002, Volume 16 of Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series |date=2005 |url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.427 |editor=Livio M |editor2=Reid IN |editor3=Sparks WB |pages=1-20 of 110 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=9780521824903 }}</ref> ==Astrophysics== {{main|Astrophysics}} '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. ==Sources== {{main|Stars/Sources|Astronomical sources|Sources}} As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."<ref name=Cole>{{ cite book |author=Steve Cole |author2=Jia-Rui C. Cook |author3=Alan Buis |title=NASA's Voyager Hits New Region at Solar System Edge |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |date=December 2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-402_AGU_Voyager.html |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> "Stars from about 8 to about 15 M_ʘ explode as supernovae, but do not have a strong stellar wind, and so explode into the interstellar medium".<ref name=Biermann>{{ cite journal |author=Biermann, P. L. |author2=Langer, N. |author3=Seo, Eun-Suk |author4=Stanev, T. |title=Cosmic rays IX. Interactions and transport of cosmic rays in the Galaxy |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=April |year=2001 |volume=369 |issue=4 |pages=269-77 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2001A&A...369..269B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010083 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-24 }}</ref> ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds|Coronal clouds}} While small coronal clouds are above the photosphere of many different visual spectral type stars, others occupy parts of the interstellar medium (ISM), extending sometimes millions of kilometers into space, or thousands of light-years, depending on the size of the associated object such as a galaxy. ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteor astronomy|Meteors}} [[Image:Hs-2009-03-a-web_print.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hubble Space Telescope image shows four high-velocity, runaway stars plowing through their local interstellar medium. Credit: NASA - Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.]] [[Image:Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]]-[[w:wavelength|wavelength]] image mosaic, taken by [[w:NASA|NASA's]] [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|GALEX]], shows a [[w:comet|comet]]-like "tail" stretching 13 [[w:light-year|light year]]s across space behind the star [[w:Mira|Mira]]. Credit: [[w:NASA|NASA]].]] [[Image:Features in Mira's Tail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A close-up view of a star racing through space faster than a speeding bullet can be seen in this image from NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/C. Martin (Caltech)/M. Seibert(OCIW).]] [[Image:Mira xray scale.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra image shows Mira A (right), a highly evolved red giant star, and Mira B (left), a white dwarf. Scalebar: 0.3 arcsec. Credit: NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska et al.]] '''Def.''' a high-velocity star moving through space with an abnormally high velocity relative to the surrounding interstellar medium is called a '''runaway star'''. "Of particular importance has been access to high resolution R~40,000-100,000 echelle spectra providing an ability to study the dynamics of hot plasma and separate multiple stellar and interstellar absorption components."<ref name=Barstow>{{ cite book |author=Martin A. Barstow |author2=L. Binette |author3=Noah Brosch |author4=F.Z. Cheng |author5=Michel Dennefeld |author6=A.I. G. de Castro |author7=H. Haubold |author8=K.A. van der Hucht |author9=N. Kappelmann |author10=P. Martinez |author11=A. Moisheev |author12=I. Pagano |author13=Erez N. Ribak |author14=J. Sahade |author15=B. I. Shustov |author16=J.-E. Solheim |author17=W. Wamsteker |author18=K. Werner |author19=Helmut Becker-Ross |author20=Stefan Florek |title=The WSO: a world-class observatory for the ultraviolet, In: ''Future EUV/UV and Visible Space Astrophysics Missions and Instrumentation'' |publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering |location= |date=February 26, 2003 |editor=J. Chris Blades |editor2=Oswald H. W. Siegmund |volume=4854 |issue=364 |pages= |url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=876587 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1117/12.459779 |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-07-15 }}</ref> At left is a radiated object, the binary star Mira, and its associated phenomena. Ultra-violet studies of Mira by NASA's [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|Galaxy Evolution Explorer]] (Galex) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, leaving a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite journal |last=Martin|first=Christopher | journal=Nature |volume=448 |title=A turbulent wake as a tracer of 30,000 years of Mira's mass loss history |doi=10.1038/nature06003 |date=August 17, 2007 |pages=780–783 |accessdate=2007-12-11 |pmid=17700694 |last2=Seibert|first2=M|last3=Neill|first3=JD|last4=Schiminovich|first4=D|last5=Forster|first5=K|last6=Rich|first6=RM|last7=Welsh|first7=BY|last8=Madore|first8=BF|last9=Wheatley|first9=JM |issue=7155 |bibcode=2007Natur.448..780M }}</ref><ref name=Minkel>Minkel, JR.[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=6AE74053-E7F2-99DF-353EB7B9AE43FCF6&chanID=sa007&ec=su_astro "Shooting Bullet Star Leaves Vast Ultraviolet Wake"], "The Scientific American", August 15, 2007 Accessed August 21, 2007.</ref> It is thought that a hot [[w:bow shock|bow-wave]] of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second (291,000 miles per hour).<ref name=Wareing07>{{ cite journal | url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-4357/670/2/L125/22252.html |author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=670 |issue=2 |title=It's a wonderful tail: the mass-loss history of Mira |doi= 10.1086/524407 |date=November 6, 2007 |pages=L125–L129 |last2=Zijlstra|first2=A. A.|last3=O'Brien|first3=T. J.|last4=Seibert|first4=M. |bibcode=2007ApJ...670L.125W |arxiv = 0710.3010 }}</ref><ref name=Clavin>{{ cite book |title=GALEX finds link between big and small stellar blasts |accessdate=2007-08-16 |author=W. Clavin |date= August 15, 2007 |publisher=California Institute of Technology |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070827103038/http://www.galex.caltech.edu/MEDIA/2007-04/images.html }}</ref> The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultra-violet observations. Mira's bow-shock will eventually evolve into a [[w:planetary nebula|planetary nebula]], the form of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the [[w:interstellar medium|interstellar medium]] (ISM).<ref name=Wareing>{{ cite journal | author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume=366 | issue=1884 | title=Wonderful Mira | doi=10.1098/rsta.2008.0167 | pmid=18812301 | date=December 13, 2008 | pages=4429–40 |bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4429W }}</ref> At second right is the only available X-ray image, by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, of Mira A on the right and Mira B (left). "Mira A is losing gas rapidly from its upper atmosphere [apparently] via a stellar wind. [Mira B is asserted to be a white dwarf. In theory] Mira B exerts a gravitational tug that creates a gaseous bridge between the two stars. Gas from the wind and bridge accumulates in an accretion disk around Mira B and collisions between rapidly moving particles in the disk produce X-rays."<ref name=Karovska>{{ cite book |author=M. Karovska |display-authors=etal |title=More Images of Mira |publisher=NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska, et al. |location= |date=April 28, 2005 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/mira/more.html |accessdate=2012-12-22 }}</ref> Mira A, spectral type M7&nbsp;IIIe<ref name=aj114_1584>{{ cite journal | last=Castelaz | first=Michael W. | coauthors=Luttermoser, Donald G. | title=Spectroscopy of Mira Variables at Different Phases. | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1997 | volume=114 | pages=1584–1591 | bibcode=1997AJ....114.1584C | doi=10.1086/118589 }}</ref>, has an effective surface temperature of 2918–3192<ref name=aaa421>{{ cite journal | last=Woodruff | first=H. C. | coauthors=Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schert, D.; Schöller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. | title=Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | year=2004 | volume=421 | issue=2 | pages=703–714 | url=http://www.eso.org/~mwittkow/publications/conferences/SPIECWo5491199.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-12-07 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20035826 | bibcode=2004A&A...421..703W |arxiv = astro-ph/0404248 }}</ref>. Mira A is not a known X-ray source according to SIMBAD, but here is shown to be one. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy|Cosmic rays}} '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy|Neutrals}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma [[w:ion|ion]] 'steals' charge from a cold neutral [[w:atom|atom]] to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams, In: ''Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial'' | author=Mike Gruntman | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two [[w:energetic neutral atom|energetic neutral atom]] (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a [[w:collimator|collimator]] that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] and [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] into [[w:ions|ions]], an [[w:electrostatic analyzer|electrostatic analyzer]] (ESA) to suppress [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because [[w:Hydrogen|[h]ydrogen]] is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high [[w:velocity|velocities]] involving little exchange of [[w:momentum|momentum]]. "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C |author7=Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month= |year=2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy|Protons}} The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in [[w:plasma (physics)|plasmas]] in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with [[electron]]s. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s, which propagate for interstellar distances. “Antiprotons have been detected in [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray [[w:proton|proton]]s with nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name=Kennedy>{{ cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |url=https://archive.org/details/arxiv-astro-ph0003485 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy|Muons}} "TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Todor Stanev |author3=Gaurang B. Yodh |title=γ ray astronomy with muons |journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology |month=April 1, |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=4475-9 |url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1 |arxiv=astro-ph/9608201 |bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy|Positrons}} "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting>{{ cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy|Gamma rays}} [[Image:Geminga-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an XMM Newton image of the Gemini gamma-ray source. Credit: P.A. Caraveo (INAF/IASF), Milan and ESA.]] [[Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This all-sky view from GLAST reveals bright gamma-ray emission in the plane of the Milky Way (center), including the bright Geminga pulsar. Credit: NASA/DOE/International LAT Team.]] Geminga may be a sort of neutron star: the decaying core of a massive star that exploded as a [[w:supernova|supernova]] about 300,000 years ago.<ref name=Darling>[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/Geminga.html Geminga], Internet Encyclopedia of Science</ref> "Geminga is a very weak neutron star and the pulsar next to us, which almost only emits extremely hard gamma-rays, but no radio waves. ... Some thousand years ago our Sun entered this [Local Bubble] several hundred light-years big area, which is nearly dust-free."<ref name=Kummer>{{ cite book |author=Juergen Kummer |title=Geminga |publisher=Internetservice Kummer + Oster GbR |location=Buchenberg Germany |date=June 27, 2006 |url=http://jumk.de/astronomie/special-stars/geminga.shtml |accessdate=2013-05-08 }}</ref> The nature of Geminga was quite unknown for 20 years after its discovery by NASA's [[w:Second Small Astronomy Satellite|Second Small Astronomy Satellite]] (SAS-2). In March 1991 the [[w:ROSAT|ROSAT]] satellite detected a [[w:Frequency|periodicity]] of 0.237 seconds in [[w:Soft X-ray emission spectroscopy|soft x-ray emission]]. This nearby explosion may be responsible for the low density of the interstellar medium in the immediate vicinity of the [[Solar System]]. This low-density area is known as the [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]].<ref name=Gehrels>{{ cite journal |author=Neil Gehrels |author2=Wan Chen |title=The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble |journal=Nature |month= |year=1993 |volume=361 |issue=6414 |pages=706-7 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6414/abs/361706a0.html |doi=10.1038/361706a0 }}</ref> Possible evidence for this includes findings by the [[w:Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo Observatory]] that local micrometre-sized interstellar meteor particles appear to originate from its direction.<ref name=Centauri>{{ cite book | url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=1741 | title=The Sun's Exotic Neighborhood | publisher=Centauri Dreams | date=2008-02-28 }}</ref> Geminga is the first example of a radio-quiet pulsar, and serves as an illustration of the difficulty of associating gamma-ray emission with objects known at other wavelengths: either no credible object is detected in the error region of the gamma-ray source, or a number are present and some characteristic of the gamma-ray source, such as periodicity or variability, must be identified in one of the prospective candidates (or vice-versa as in the case of Geminga). {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy|X-rays}} "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy|Ultraviolets}} '''Def.''' "the spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side at about λ3000 by the onset of atmospheric ozone absorption and on the short wavelength side at λ912 by the photoionization of interstellar hydrogen" is called the '''ultraviolet'''.<ref name=Bless>{{ cite journal |author=R. C. Bless |author2=A. D. Code |title=Ultraviolet Astronomy |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1972 |volume=10 |issue= |pages=197-226 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1972ARA&A..10..197B |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.10.090172.001213 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Ultraviolet line spectrum measurements are used to discern the chemical composition, densities, and temperatures of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of hot young stars. [[w:Molecule|Molecular]] nitrogen and nitrogen [[w:Chemical compound|compound]]s have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer]].<ref name=Meyer>{{ cite journal |title=Abundance of Interstellar Nitrogen |author=Meyer, Daved M. |author2=Cardelli, Jason A. |author3=Sofia, Ulysses J. |year=1997 |doi=10.1086/311023 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |pages=L103–6 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710162 |bibcode=1997ApJ...490L.103M }}</ref> ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy|Visuals}} Color indices of distant objects are usually affected by [[w:extinction (astronomy)|interstellar extinction]] &mdash;i.e. they are [[w:interstellar reddening|redder]] than those of closer stars. The amount of reddening is characterized by [[w:Interstellar reddening|color excess]], defined as the difference between the '''Observed color index''' and the '''Normal color index''' (or '''Intrinsic color index'''), the hypothetical true color index of the star, unaffected by extinction. For example, we can write it for the [[w:B-V color|B-V color]]: :<math>E_{B-V} = (B-V)_{\textrm{Observed}} - (B-V)_{\textrm{Intrinsic}}</math> Molecules of "[l]arge polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) ... or their ions are also ''attractive candidates for the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible'' (DIBs) [because] # they have optically active transitions in the visible; # they can survive the UV photons in the diffuse interstellar medium; [and] # they are the most abundant among the detected molecular species after H₂ and CO."<ref name=Leger>{{ cite journal |author=A. Léger |author2=L. d'Hendecourt |title=Are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible? |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1985 |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=81-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1985A&A...146...81L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-29 }}</ref> ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy|Reds}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae¹⁷, planetary nebulae³, HII regions (Orion)¹², a Nova¹¹, Galactic cirrus¹⁴, a dark nebula⁷, Galaxies^8,6 and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)⁴. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is¹³. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy|Infrareds}} Interstellar dust can be studied by infrared spectrometry, in part because the dust is an astronomical infrared source and other infrared sources are behind the diffuse clouds of dust.<ref name=Duley>{{ cite journal |author=Duley W. W. |author2=Williams D. A. |title=The infrared spectrum of interstellar dust - Surface functional groups on carbon |journal=Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices |month=July |year=1981 |volume=196 |issue=7 |pages=269-74 |url= |bibcode=1981MNRAS.196..269D |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-06 }}</ref> '''Far-infrared astronomy''' deals with objects visible in [[w:far-infrared|far-infrared]] radiation (extending from 30 [[w:micron|µm]] towards submillimeter wavelengths around 450 µm). Huge, cold clouds of gas and dust in [[w:Milky Way|our own galaxy]], as well as in nearby [[w:galaxy|galaxies]], glow in far-infrared light. This is due to [[w:thermal radiation|thermal radiation]] of [[w:Interstellar Dust|interstellar dust]] contained in [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]]. The monochromatic flux density radiated by a greybody at frequency <math>\nu</math> through solid angle <math>\Omega</math> is given by <math>F_{\nu} = B_{\nu}(T) Q_{\nu} \Omega </math> where <math>B_{\nu}(T)</math> is the [[w:Planck's law of black body radiation|Planck function]] for a blackbody at temperature T and emissivity <math>Q_{\nu}</math>. For a uniform medium of [[w:optical depth|optical depth]] <math>\tau_{\nu}</math> [[w:radiative transfer|radiative transfer]] means that the radiation will be reduced by a factor <math>e^{-\tau_{\nu}}</math>. The optical depth is often approximated by the ratio of the emitting frequency to the frequency where <math>\tau=1</math> all raised to an exponent β. For cold dust clouds in the interstellar medium ''β'' is approximately two. Therefore Q becomes, <math>Q_{\nu}=1-e^{-\tau_{\nu}}=1-e^{-\tau_0 (\nu / \nu_{0})^{\beta}}</math>. (<math>\tau_0=1</math>, <math>\nu_0</math> is the frequency where <math>\tau_0=1</math>). ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy|Submillimeters}} Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the [[w:black body|black body]] radiation from anything with temperatures greater than about 10 [[w:kelvin|kelvin]]. While this thermal emission is very weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing the cold 10-20K dust in the interstellar medium in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant [[w:starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]]. Telescopes operating in this band include the [[w:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope|James Clerk Maxwell Telescope]], the [[w:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory|Caltech Submillimeter Observatory]] and the [[w:Submillimeter Array|Submillimeter Array]] at the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatory|Mauna Kea Observatory]] in Hawaii, the [[w:BLAST (telescope)|BLAST]] balloon borne telescope, the [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]], and the [[w:Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope|Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope]] at the [[w:Mount Graham International Observatory|Mount Graham International Observatory]] in Arizona. The [[w:Atacama Large Millimeter Array|Atacama Large Millimeter Array]], under construction, will operate in the submillimeter range. The opacity of the Earth's atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space. "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H₂/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H₂ to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s^-1 at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H₂Cl⁺, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2₁₂ − 1₀₁ lines of ortho-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ and ortho-H₂³⁷Cl⁺ are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1₁₁ − 0₀₀ transition of para-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H₂Cl⁺) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H₂CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy|Radio astronomy|Radios}} "[A] number of [[w:spectral line|spectral line]]s produced by [[w:interstellar gas|interstellar gas]], notably the [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] spectral line at 21&nbsp;cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.<ref name="shu1982">{{ cite book |author = F. H. Shu |title = The Physical Universe |publisher = University Science Books |date = 1982 |location = Mill Valley, California |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0935702059 |isbn = 0-935702-05-9 }}</ref><ref name="cox2000">{{ cite book |editor=Cox, A. N. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2000 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA124 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |page=124 |location=New York |isbn=0-387-98746-0 }}</ref> "Over the past 30 years, radioastronomy has revealed a rich variety of molecular species in the interstellar medium of our galaxy and even others."<ref name=Herschbach>{{ cite journal |author=Dudley Herschbach |title=Chemical physics: Molecular clouds, clusters, and corrals |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |month=March-May |year=1999 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=S411-S418 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |pmid= |pdf=ftp://210.45.78.225/incoming/zhangry-home/%B9%A4%D7%F7%B2%BF%B7%D6/zhangry/book/%CE%EF%C0%ED%D1%A7%CA%B7/History%20of%20Modern%20Physics/Chemica%20Physics%20and%20Biological%20Physics/Chemical%20physics.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> “[R]adio astronomy ... has resulted in the detection of over a hundred interstellar species, including [[w:Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s and ions, and organic (i.e. [[w:carbon|carbon]]-based) compounds, such as [[w:alcohol|alcohol]]s, [[w:acid|acid]]s, [[w:aldehyde|aldehyde]]s, and [[w:ketone|ketone]]s. One of the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric [[w:dipole|dipole]] moment), is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar [[w:glycine|glycine]],<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |display-authors=etal |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest [[w:amino acid|amino acid]], but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |display-authors=etal |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> One of the reasons why this detection [is] controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like [[w:rotational spectroscopy|rotational spectroscopy]]) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids. ==Regions== {{main|Stars/Regions|Regions}} '''Def.''' a region between clouds of stars is called an '''intercloud region'''. "As the sun moves in its path through the galaxy, it will not always be immersed in the tenuous intercloud region of the interstellar medium."<ref name=AmericanGeophysicalUnion>{{ cite journal |author=American Geophysical Union |title= |journal=Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics |month= |year=1977 |volume=15 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Reviews_of_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics.html?id=KqxPAAAAYAAJ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-01 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} '''Def.''' the boundary marking one of the outer limits of the Sun's influence, where the solar wind dramatically slows is called '''termination shock'''. ==Comets== {{main|Comets}} Due to a need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres, emission lines in cometary spectra are being studied.<ref name=Federman>{{ cite journal |author=S.R. Federman, David L. Lambert |title=The need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres |journal=Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena |month=May |year=2002 |volume=123 |issue=2-3 |pages=161-71 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368204802000178 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |pdf=http://144.206.159.178/FT/578/62760/14353822.pdf |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres|Heliospheres}} [[Image:Solar wind at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|Plot shows the decreased detection of [[w:solar wind|solar wind]] particles by ''[[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]'' starting in August 2012. Credit: NASA.]] '''Def.''' the region of space where interstellar medium is blown away by solar wind; the boundary, heliopause, is often considered the edge of the Solar System is called the '''heliosphere'''. The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in [[w:outer space|space]] "blown" into the interstellar medium (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]) by the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. On September 12, 2013 it was announced that the previous year, starting on August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 entered the interstellar medium.<ref name=atlast>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space (Sept. 2013)]</ref> Outside the heliosphere the plasma density increased by about forty times.<ref name=interstellar>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space - Sept 12, 2013]</ref> '''Def.''' the boundary of heliosphere where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium is called the '''heliopause'''. '''Def.''' a zone between the termination shock and the heliopause, in the heliosphere, at the outer border of the Solar System, where the solar wind is dramatically slower than within the termination shock is called a '''heliosheath'''. The '''heliosheath''' is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 80 to 100 [[w:astronomical unit|astronomical unit]]s (AU) at its closest point. The flow of ISM into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.<ref name=flow>[http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/interstellar-wind-changed-direction-over-40-years/ Eleven Spacecraft Show Interstellar Wind Changed Direction Over 40 Years - Sept 5, 2013]</ref> By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time.<ref name=flow/> The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s.<ref name=flow/> {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. ==Interstellar clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds|Interstellar clouds}} "Carbon monoxide is the second most abundant molecule, after H₂, in interstellar clouds. In diffuse clouds, the amount of CO is mainly derived from measurements of absorption at UV wavelengths."<ref name=Federman/> ==Local hot bubbles== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Bubbles/Locals/Hot|Local hot bubbles}} [[Image:Local_bubble.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Local Hot Bubble is hot X-ray emitting gas within the Local Bubble pictured as an artist's impression. Credit: NASA.]] The 'local hot bubble' is a "hot X-ray emitting plasma within the local environment [the ISM] of the Sun."<ref name=Kappes>{{ cite journal |author=M. Kappes |author2=J. Kerp |author3=P. Richter |title=The composition of the interstellar medium towards the Lockman Hole H I, UV and X-ray observations |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=2003 |volume=405 |issue=7 |pages=607-16 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2003A&A...405..607K |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030610 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-19 }}</ref> "This coronal gas fills the irregularly shaped local void of matter (McCammon & Sanders 1990) - frequently called the Local Hot Bubble (LHB)."<ref name=Kappes/> The Sun's hot [[w:corona|corona]] continuously expands in space creating the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]], a stream of charged particles that extends to the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] at roughly 100 [[w:astronomical units|astronomical units]]. The bubble in the [[interstellar medium]] formed by the solar wind, the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]], is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.<ref>{{ cite book |date=22 April 2003 |title=A Star with two North Poles |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name=Riley>{{ cite journal |last=Riley |first=P. |last2=Linker |first2=J. A. |last3=Mikić |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations |url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=107 |issue=A7 |pages=SSH 8–1 |bibcode=2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R |doi=10.1029/2001JA000299 |id=CiteID 1136 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Epsilon Eridani== {{main|Stars/Epsilon Eridani|Epsilon Eridani}} The [[w:stellar wind|stellar wind]] emitted by Epsilon Eridani expands until it collides with the surrounding interstellar medium of sparse gas and dust, resulting in a bubble of heated hydrogen gas. The [[w:absorption spectrum|absorption spectrum]] from this gas has been measured with the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]], allowing the properties of the stellar wind to be estimated.<ref name=mnras385_4_1691>{{ cite journal | author=J.-U. Ness, C. Jordan | title=The corona and upper transition region of ε Eridani | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=385 | issue=4 | pages=1691–708 | month=April | year=2008 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12757.x | bibcode=2008MNRAS.385.1691N | arxiv=0711.3805 }}</ref> Epsilon Eridani's hot corona results in a mass loss rate from the star's stellar wind that is 30 times higher than the Sun's. This wind is generating an [[w:Stellar wind bubble|astrosphere]] (the equivalent of the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]] that surrounds the Sun) that spans about 8,000&nbsp;AU and contains a [[w:bow shock|bow shock]] that lies 1,600&nbsp;AU from the star. At its estimated distance from Earth, this astrosphere spans 42&nbsp;arcminutes, which is wider than the apparent size of the full Moon.<ref name=apj574_1>{{ cite journal | author=Brian E. Wood |author2=Hans-Reinhard Müller |author3=Gary P. Zank |author4=Jeffrey L. Linsky | title=Measured mass-loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | month=July | year=2002 | volume=574 | issue=1 | pages=1–2 | doi=10.1086/340797 | bibcode=2002ApJ...574..412W | arxiv=astro-ph/0203437 }} See p. 10.</ref> ==H I regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H I regions|H I regions}} An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July |year=1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> ==Cold neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Cold neutrals|Cold neutral mediums}} H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ==Warm neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Warm neutrals|Warm neutral mediums}} The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> ==Warm ionized mediums== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ==Hot ionized mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Hot ions|Hot ionized mediums}} "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10⁶-10⁷ K which emits X-rays. The ISM is [[w:turbulence|turbulent]] and full of structure on all spatial scales. [[w:Star formation|Stars are born]] deep inside large complexes of [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]], typically a few [[w:parsec|parsec]]s in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. [[w:Stellar wind|Stellar wind]]s from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant [[w:HII region|HII region]]s surrounding them) and [[w:shock wave|shock wave]]s created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are [[w:stellar wind bubble|stellar wind bubble]]s and [[w:superbubble|superbubble]]s of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the [[w:Local Interstellar Cloud|Local Interstellar Cloud]], a denser region in the low-density [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]]."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ==H II regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H II regions|H II regions}} [[Image:Messier 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a three-color composite of the sky region of Messier 17. Credit: ESO.]] An '''H&nbsp;II region''' is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized [[w:gas|gas]] in which [[w:star formation|star formation]] has recently taken place. At right is an image in three-color infrared of an H II region excited by a cluster of young, hot stars. The region is in Messier 17 (M 17). A large silhouette disc occurs to the southwest of the cluster center. This image is obtained with the ISAAC near-infrared instrument at the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope at Paranal. {{clear}} ==Protoplanetary disks== {{main|Protoplanetary disks}} In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]'', discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of [[w:organic compounds|organic compounds]], including two that contain biologically usable [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]]; indigenous [[w:aliphatic compound|aliphatic hydrocarbons]] with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse [[interstellar medium]]; abundant amorphous [[w:silicate|silicate]]s in addition to crystalline silicates such as [[w:olivine|olivine]] and [[w:pyroxene|pyroxene]], proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced [[w:spectroscopic|spectroscopic]]ally from ground observations;<ref name=Nottingham>{{ cite book |title=The building blocks of planets within the `terrestrial' region of protoplanetary disks |url=http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2004Natur.432..479V&amp;db_key=AST |publisher=nottingham.ac.uk |accessdate=2008-03-04 }}</ref> hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited [[w:CHON|pure carbon (CHON)]] was also found in the samples returned; [[w:methylamine|methylamine]] and [[w:ethylamine|ethylamine]] was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles. ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Planetary|Planetary nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[commons:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Dark nebulas== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Darks|Dark nebulas}} "The 1<sub>11</sub> → 1<sub>10</sub> rotational transition of formaldehyde (H<sub>2</sub>CO) [occurs] in absorption in the direction of four dark nebulae. The radiation ... being absorbed appears to be the isotropic microwave background".<ref name=Palmer>{{ cite journal |author=Patrick Palmer |author2=B. Zuckerman |author3=David Buhl |author4=Lewis E. Snyder |title=Formaldehyde Absorption in Dark Nebulae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June |year=1969 |volume=156 |issue=6 |pages=L147-50 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1969ApJ...156L.147P |doi=10.1086/180368 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-03 }}</ref> One of the dark nebulae sampled, per [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] is TGU H1211 P5. ==Molecular clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Moleculars|Molecular clouds}} [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H<sub>2</sub>). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H<sub>2</sub> is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H<sub>2</sub> [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10<sup>2</sup> - 10<sup>6</sup> atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors/Clouds/Molecules/Giants|Giant molecular clouds}} A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10<sup>3</sup>–10<sup>7</sup> times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10<sup>2</sup>–10<sup>3</sup> particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10<sup>4</sup>–10<sup>6</sup> particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Galactic center== {{main|Milky Way/Galactic center|Galactic center}} [[Image:H-alpha Sky Survey Milky Way center.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Milky Way is viewed by H-Alpha Sky Survey. Credit: Douglas Finkbeiner.]] "Spectra of the helium 2.06 µm and hydrogen 2.17 µm lines ... confirm the existence of an extended region of high-velocity redshifted line emission centered near [Sgr A<sup>*</sup>/IRS 16]."<ref name=Geballe>{{ cite journal |author=T. R. Geballe |author2=K. Krisciunas |author3=J. A. Bailey |author4=R. Wade |title=Mapping of infrared helium and hydrogen line profiles in the central few arcseconds of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=April 1, |year=1991 |volume=370 |issue=4 |pages=L73-6 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1991ApJ...370L..73G |doi=10.1086/185980 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-03 }}</ref> "The central 0.1 parsecs of the Milky Way host a supermassive black hole identified with the position of the radio and infrared source Sagittarius A* (refs. <sup>1,2</sup>), a cluster of young, massive stars (the S stars<sup>3</sup>) and various gaseous features<sup>4,5</sup>. [Two] unusual objects have been found to be closely orbiting Sagittarius A*: the so-called G sources, G1 and G2. These objects are unresolved (having a size of the order of 100 astronomical units, except at periapse, where the tidal interaction with the black hole stretches them along the orbit) and they show both thermal dust emission and line emission from ionized gas<sup>6,7,8,9,10</sup>. G1 and G2 [...] appear to be tidally interacting with the supermassive Galactic black hole, possibly enhancing its accretion activity. [The] G objects show the characteristics of gas and dust clouds but display the dynamical properties of stellar-mass objects. [Four] additional G objects, all lying within 0.04 parsecs of the black hole [have been found]. The widely varying orbits derived for the six G objects demonstrate that they were commonly but separately formed."<ref name=Ciurlo>{{ cite journal |author=Anna Ciurlo |author2=Randall D. Campbell |author3=Mark R. Morris |author4=Tuan Do |author5=Andrea M. Ghez |author6=Aurélien Hees |author7=Breann N. Sitarski |author8=Kelly Kosmo O’Neil |author9=Devin S. Chu |author10=Gregory D. Martinez |author11=Smadar Naoz |author12=Alexander P. Stephan |title=A population of dust-enshrouded objects orbiting the Galactic black hole |journal=Nature |date=15 January 2020 |volume=577 |issue= |pages=337-40 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1883-y |pmid= |accessdate=19 January 2020 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Supernova remnants== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Supernova remnants|Supernova remnants}} [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Crab Nebula]] is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: .]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10<sup>38</sup> erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from <sup>56</sup>Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper |editor2=Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Diffuse interstellar mediums== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Diffuse|Diffuse interstellar mediums}} [[Image:Ngc1999.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]/Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 image of NGC 1999 includes a vast hole of empty space. Credit: NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI).]] A discovery by the [ [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]] infrared telescope,] in conjunction with other ground based telescopes, determined that black patches of space in certain areas encompassing a star formation are not [[w:dark nebula|dark nebula]]e but actually vast holes of empty space. The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated, although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas, as well as, powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole. "This [is] a previously unknown and unexpected step in the star-forming process.<ref name=MSNBChole>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37088640/ns/technology_and_science-space/ Telescope discovers surprising hole in space], MSNBC, by Space.com, 11-05-2010</ref> The star is [[w:V280 Orionis|V280 Orionis]]. "To measure the spectrum of the diffuse X-ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range 0.07 to 1 keV, NASA launched a [[w:Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant 9]] from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico on May 1, 2008.<ref name=McCammon>{{ cite book |author=B. Wright |title=36.223 UH MCCAMMON/UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN |url=http://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/news/story83.html }}</ref> The Principal Investigator for the mission is Dr. Dan McCammon of the University of Wisconsin."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Satellites== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Satellites}} The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H<sub>2</sub>O), isotopic water (H<sub>2</sub><sup>18</sup>O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (<sup>13</sup>CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I). ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and [[w:temperature|temperature]]s of [[w:star|star]]s and [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]]s. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. [[w:Interstellar formaldehyde|Interstellar formaldehyde]] was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. ==Balloons== {{main|Stars/Balloons|Balloons}} [[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]] [[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]] The '''Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope''' ('''BLAST''') is a [[w:Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] [[w:telescope|telescope]] that hangs from a [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitude balloon]]. It has a 2 meter primary mirror that directs light into [[w:bolometer|bolometer]] arrays operating at 250, 350, and 500&nbsp;µm. BLAST's primary science goals are:<ref>[http://blastexperiment.info/ BLAST Public Webpage]</ref> *Measure photometric [[w:redshift|redshift]]s, rest-frame [[w:Far infrared|FIR]] luminosities and star formation rates of high-redshift [[w:starburst galaxies|starburst galaxies]], thereby constraining the evolutionary history of those galaxies that produce the FIR/submillimeter background. *Measure cold pre-stellar sources associated with the earliest stages of [[w:star formation|star]] and [[w:planet formation|planet formation]]. *Make high-resolution maps of diffuse galactic emission in the interstellar medium over a wide range of galactic latitudes. {{clear}} ==Sounding rockets== {{main|Stars/Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets}} [[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|150px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]] "In astronomy, the interstellar medium (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[intergalactic medium]]. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name=Spitzer1978>{{ cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.5182 |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Telescopes== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Telescopes|Telescopes}} "The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # With an interstellar medium, propagation of electromagnetic radiation may not be the same as in a theory. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Intergalactic medium]] * [[Interplanetary medium]] * [[Radiation chemistry]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search] * [http://books.google.com/ Google Books] * [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search] * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR] * [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals] * [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink] * [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search] * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Stars resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Interstellar medium}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astronomy learning projects/Resources]] [[Category:Astronomy/Resources]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Resources]] [[Category:Charges/Resources]] [[Category:Entities/Resources]] [[Category:Gases/Resources]] [[Category:Locations/Resources]] [[Category:Plasmas/Resources]] [[Category:Regions/Resources]] [[Category:Resources last modified in January 2020]] s62pdthl3rxuvw1cd470lxpi80je6pi 2417120 2417117 2022-08-21T23:04:07Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Hot ionized mediums */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:LW Cassiopeia Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This visual negative of the region around the astronomical object LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM) is centered on the ISM. Credit: Aladin at SIMBAD.]] The '''interstellar medium''' is the matter that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. At right is a visual negative of the LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM). Within the image are H II regions (red +s), stars (red *s), X-ray sources (Xs), infrared objects (red diamonds), molecular clouds (MolClds), reflection nebulae (RfNebs), dark nebulae (DkNebs), and the interstellar medium (ISM). {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Stars}} In astronomy, the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[w:Intergalactic medium|intergalactic space]]. ==Mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums|Mediums}} '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding environment is called a '''medium'''. Cyclotron radiation from [[w:Plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the interstellar medium is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields. ==Interstellars== {{main|Stars/Interstellars|Interstellars}} '''Def.''' # between the stars or # among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm<sup>3</sup> and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Astrochemistry== {{main|Astrochemistry}} A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range."<ref name=Martinez>{{ cite journal |author=R. Martinez |author2=L. S. Farenzena |author3=P. Iza |author4=C. R. Ponciano |author5=M. G. P. Homem |author6=A. Naves de Brito |author7=K. Wien |author8=E. F. da Silveira |title=Secondary ion emission induced by fission fragment impact in CO--NH<sub>3</sub> and CO--NH<sub>3</sub>--H<sub>2</sub>O ices: modification in the CO--NH<sub>3</sub> ice structure |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |month=October |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1333-41 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jms.1241/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1002/jms.1241 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-12 }}</ref> For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH<sub>3</sub>–H<sub>2</sub>O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."<ref name=Martinez/> The [[w:cyanide radical|cyanide radical]] CN<sup>-</sup> has been identified in interstellar space.<ref name=Pieniazek>{{ cite journal |author=Piotr A. Pieniazek |author2=Stephen E. Bradforth |author3=Anna I. Krylov |title=Spectroscopy of the Cyano Radical in an Aqueous Environment |date=2005-12-07 |publisher=Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California |pages=4854–65 |issue=14 |location=Los Angeles, California |volume=110 |url=pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp0545952 |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry. A |pmid=16599455 |doi=10.1021/jp0545952 }}</ref> The cyanide radical (called cyanogen) is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.<ref name=Roth>{{ cite journal | title = Interstellar Cyanogen and the Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation | author = Roth, K. C. |author2=Meyer, D. M. |author3=Hawkins, I. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | year = 1993 | volume = 413 | issue = 2 | pages = L67–L71 | doi = 10.1086/186961 | bibcode = 1993ApJ...413L..67R | url = http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1993ApJ...413L..67R&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf }}</ref> There are 110 currently known interstellar molecules. "An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."<ref name=Ehrenfreund>{{ cite book |author=Ehrenfreund P |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Botta O |title=A voyage from dark clouds to the early Earth In: ''Astrophysics of life'', proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium held in Baltimore, Maryland, May 6-9, 2002, Volume 16 of Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series |date=2005 |url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.427 |editor=Livio M |editor2=Reid IN |editor3=Sparks WB |pages=1-20 of 110 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=9780521824903 }}</ref> ==Astrophysics== {{main|Astrophysics}} '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. ==Sources== {{main|Stars/Sources|Astronomical sources|Sources}} As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."<ref name=Cole>{{ cite book |author=Steve Cole |author2=Jia-Rui C. Cook |author3=Alan Buis |title=NASA's Voyager Hits New Region at Solar System Edge |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |date=December 2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-402_AGU_Voyager.html |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> "Stars from about 8 to about 15 M<sub>ʘ</sub> explode as supernovae, but do not have a strong stellar wind, and so explode into the interstellar medium".<ref name=Biermann>{{ cite journal |author=Biermann, P. L. |author2=Langer, N. |author3=Seo, Eun-Suk |author4=Stanev, T. |title=Cosmic rays IX. Interactions and transport of cosmic rays in the Galaxy |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=April |year=2001 |volume=369 |issue=4 |pages=269-77 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2001A&A...369..269B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010083 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-24 }}</ref> ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds|Coronal clouds}} While small coronal clouds are above the photosphere of many different visual spectral type stars, others occupy parts of the interstellar medium (ISM), extending sometimes millions of kilometers into space, or thousands of light-years, depending on the size of the associated object such as a galaxy. ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteor astronomy|Meteors}} [[Image:Hs-2009-03-a-web_print.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hubble Space Telescope image shows four high-velocity, runaway stars plowing through their local interstellar medium. Credit: NASA - Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.]] [[Image:Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]]-[[w:wavelength|wavelength]] image mosaic, taken by [[w:NASA|NASA's]] [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|GALEX]], shows a [[w:comet|comet]]-like "tail" stretching 13 [[w:light-year|light year]]s across space behind the star [[w:Mira|Mira]]. Credit: [[w:NASA|NASA]].]] [[Image:Features in Mira's Tail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A close-up view of a star racing through space faster than a speeding bullet can be seen in this image from NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/C. Martin (Caltech)/M. Seibert(OCIW).]] [[Image:Mira xray scale.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra image shows Mira A (right), a highly evolved red giant star, and Mira B (left), a white dwarf. Scalebar: 0.3 arcsec. Credit: NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska et al.]] '''Def.''' a high-velocity star moving through space with an abnormally high velocity relative to the surrounding interstellar medium is called a '''runaway star'''. "Of particular importance has been access to high resolution R~40,000-100,000 echelle spectra providing an ability to study the dynamics of hot plasma and separate multiple stellar and interstellar absorption components."<ref name=Barstow>{{ cite book |author=Martin A. Barstow |author2=L. Binette |author3=Noah Brosch |author4=F.Z. Cheng |author5=Michel Dennefeld |author6=A.I. G. de Castro |author7=H. Haubold |author8=K.A. van der Hucht |author9=N. Kappelmann |author10=P. Martinez |author11=A. Moisheev |author12=I. Pagano |author13=Erez N. Ribak |author14=J. Sahade |author15=B. I. Shustov |author16=J.-E. Solheim |author17=W. Wamsteker |author18=K. Werner |author19=Helmut Becker-Ross |author20=Stefan Florek |title=The WSO: a world-class observatory for the ultraviolet, In: ''Future EUV/UV and Visible Space Astrophysics Missions and Instrumentation'' |publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering |location= |date=February 26, 2003 |editor=J. Chris Blades |editor2=Oswald H. W. Siegmund |volume=4854 |issue=364 |pages= |url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=876587 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1117/12.459779 |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-07-15 }}</ref> At left is a radiated object, the binary star Mira, and its associated phenomena. Ultra-violet studies of Mira by NASA's [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|Galaxy Evolution Explorer]] (Galex) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, leaving a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite journal |last=Martin|first=Christopher | journal=Nature |volume=448 |title=A turbulent wake as a tracer of 30,000 years of Mira's mass loss history |doi=10.1038/nature06003 |date=August 17, 2007 |pages=780–783 |accessdate=2007-12-11 |pmid=17700694 |last2=Seibert|first2=M|last3=Neill|first3=JD|last4=Schiminovich|first4=D|last5=Forster|first5=K|last6=Rich|first6=RM|last7=Welsh|first7=BY|last8=Madore|first8=BF|last9=Wheatley|first9=JM |issue=7155 |bibcode=2007Natur.448..780M }}</ref><ref name=Minkel>Minkel, JR.[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=6AE74053-E7F2-99DF-353EB7B9AE43FCF6&chanID=sa007&ec=su_astro "Shooting Bullet Star Leaves Vast Ultraviolet Wake"], "The Scientific American", August 15, 2007 Accessed August 21, 2007.</ref> It is thought that a hot [[w:bow shock|bow-wave]] of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second (291,000 miles per hour).<ref name=Wareing07>{{ cite journal | url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-4357/670/2/L125/22252.html |author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=670 |issue=2 |title=It's a wonderful tail: the mass-loss history of Mira |doi= 10.1086/524407 |date=November 6, 2007 |pages=L125–L129 |last2=Zijlstra|first2=A. A.|last3=O'Brien|first3=T. J.|last4=Seibert|first4=M. |bibcode=2007ApJ...670L.125W |arxiv = 0710.3010 }}</ref><ref name=Clavin>{{ cite book |title=GALEX finds link between big and small stellar blasts |accessdate=2007-08-16 |author=W. Clavin |date= August 15, 2007 |publisher=California Institute of Technology |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070827103038/http://www.galex.caltech.edu/MEDIA/2007-04/images.html }}</ref> The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultra-violet observations. Mira's bow-shock will eventually evolve into a [[w:planetary nebula|planetary nebula]], the form of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the [[w:interstellar medium|interstellar medium]] (ISM).<ref name=Wareing>{{ cite journal | author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume=366 | issue=1884 | title=Wonderful Mira | doi=10.1098/rsta.2008.0167 | pmid=18812301 | date=December 13, 2008 | pages=4429–40 |bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4429W }}</ref> At second right is the only available X-ray image, by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, of Mira A on the right and Mira B (left). "Mira A is losing gas rapidly from its upper atmosphere [apparently] via a stellar wind. [Mira B is asserted to be a white dwarf. In theory] Mira B exerts a gravitational tug that creates a gaseous bridge between the two stars. Gas from the wind and bridge accumulates in an accretion disk around Mira B and collisions between rapidly moving particles in the disk produce X-rays."<ref name=Karovska>{{ cite book |author=M. Karovska |display-authors=etal |title=More Images of Mira |publisher=NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska, et al. |location= |date=April 28, 2005 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/mira/more.html |accessdate=2012-12-22 }}</ref> Mira A, spectral type M7&nbsp;IIIe<ref name=aj114_1584>{{ cite journal | last=Castelaz | first=Michael W. | coauthors=Luttermoser, Donald G. | title=Spectroscopy of Mira Variables at Different Phases. | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1997 | volume=114 | pages=1584–1591 | bibcode=1997AJ....114.1584C | doi=10.1086/118589 }}</ref>, has an effective surface temperature of 2918–3192<ref name=aaa421>{{ cite journal | last=Woodruff | first=H. C. | coauthors=Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schert, D.; Schöller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. | title=Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | year=2004 | volume=421 | issue=2 | pages=703–714 | url=http://www.eso.org/~mwittkow/publications/conferences/SPIECWo5491199.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-12-07 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20035826 | bibcode=2004A&A...421..703W |arxiv = astro-ph/0404248 }}</ref>. Mira A is not a known X-ray source according to SIMBAD, but here is shown to be one. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy|Cosmic rays}} '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm<sup>-3</sup>] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''<sup>-0.6</sup> g cm<sup>-2</sup> for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm<sup>-2</sup> below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy|Neutrals}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma [[w:ion|ion]] 'steals' charge from a cold neutral [[w:atom|atom]] to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams, In: ''Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial'' | author=Mike Gruntman | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two [[w:energetic neutral atom|energetic neutral atom]] (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a [[w:collimator|collimator]] that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] and [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] into [[w:ions|ions]], an [[w:electrostatic analyzer|electrostatic analyzer]] (ESA) to suppress [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because [[w:Hydrogen|[h]ydrogen]] is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high [[w:velocity|velocities]] involving little exchange of [[w:momentum|momentum]]. "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C |author7=Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month= |year=2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy|Protons}} The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in [[w:plasma (physics)|plasmas]] in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with [[electron]]s. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s, which propagate for interstellar distances. “Antiprotons have been detected in [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray [[w:proton|proton]]s with nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name=Kennedy>{{ cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |url=https://archive.org/details/arxiv-astro-ph0003485 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy|Muons}} "TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Todor Stanev |author3=Gaurang B. Yodh |title=γ ray astronomy with muons |journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology |month=April 1, |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=4475-9 |url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1 |arxiv=astro-ph/9608201 |bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy|Positrons}} "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting>{{ cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy|Gamma rays}} [[Image:Geminga-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an XMM Newton image of the Gemini gamma-ray source. Credit: P.A. Caraveo (INAF/IASF), Milan and ESA.]] [[Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This all-sky view from GLAST reveals bright gamma-ray emission in the plane of the Milky Way (center), including the bright Geminga pulsar. Credit: NASA/DOE/International LAT Team.]] Geminga may be a sort of neutron star: the decaying core of a massive star that exploded as a [[w:supernova|supernova]] about 300,000 years ago.<ref name=Darling>[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/Geminga.html Geminga], Internet Encyclopedia of Science</ref> "Geminga is a very weak neutron star and the pulsar next to us, which almost only emits extremely hard gamma-rays, but no radio waves. ... Some thousand years ago our Sun entered this [Local Bubble] several hundred light-years big area, which is nearly dust-free."<ref name=Kummer>{{ cite book |author=Juergen Kummer |title=Geminga |publisher=Internetservice Kummer + Oster GbR |location=Buchenberg Germany |date=June 27, 2006 |url=http://jumk.de/astronomie/special-stars/geminga.shtml |accessdate=2013-05-08 }}</ref> The nature of Geminga was quite unknown for 20 years after its discovery by NASA's [[w:Second Small Astronomy Satellite|Second Small Astronomy Satellite]] (SAS-2). In March 1991 the [[w:ROSAT|ROSAT]] satellite detected a [[w:Frequency|periodicity]] of 0.237 seconds in [[w:Soft X-ray emission spectroscopy|soft x-ray emission]]. This nearby explosion may be responsible for the low density of the interstellar medium in the immediate vicinity of the [[Solar System]]. This low-density area is known as the [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]].<ref name=Gehrels>{{ cite journal |author=Neil Gehrels |author2=Wan Chen |title=The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble |journal=Nature |month= |year=1993 |volume=361 |issue=6414 |pages=706-7 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6414/abs/361706a0.html |doi=10.1038/361706a0 }}</ref> Possible evidence for this includes findings by the [[w:Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo Observatory]] that local micrometre-sized interstellar meteor particles appear to originate from its direction.<ref name=Centauri>{{ cite book | url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=1741 | title=The Sun's Exotic Neighborhood | publisher=Centauri Dreams | date=2008-02-28 }}</ref> Geminga is the first example of a radio-quiet pulsar, and serves as an illustration of the difficulty of associating gamma-ray emission with objects known at other wavelengths: either no credible object is detected in the error region of the gamma-ray source, or a number are present and some characteristic of the gamma-ray source, such as periodicity or variability, must be identified in one of the prospective candidates (or vice-versa as in the case of Geminga). {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy|X-rays}} "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy|Ultraviolets}} '''Def.''' "the spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side at about λ3000 by the onset of atmospheric ozone absorption and on the short wavelength side at λ912 by the photoionization of interstellar hydrogen" is called the '''ultraviolet'''.<ref name=Bless>{{ cite journal |author=R. C. Bless |author2=A. D. Code |title=Ultraviolet Astronomy |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1972 |volume=10 |issue= |pages=197-226 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1972ARA&A..10..197B |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.10.090172.001213 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Ultraviolet line spectrum measurements are used to discern the chemical composition, densities, and temperatures of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of hot young stars. [[w:Molecule|Molecular]] nitrogen and nitrogen [[w:Chemical compound|compound]]s have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer]].<ref name=Meyer>{{ cite journal |title=Abundance of Interstellar Nitrogen |author=Meyer, Daved M. |author2=Cardelli, Jason A. |author3=Sofia, Ulysses J. |year=1997 |doi=10.1086/311023 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |pages=L103–6 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710162 |bibcode=1997ApJ...490L.103M }}</ref> ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy|Visuals}} Color indices of distant objects are usually affected by [[w:extinction (astronomy)|interstellar extinction]] &mdash;i.e. they are [[w:interstellar reddening|redder]] than those of closer stars. The amount of reddening is characterized by [[w:Interstellar reddening|color excess]], defined as the difference between the '''Observed color index''' and the '''Normal color index''' (or '''Intrinsic color index'''), the hypothetical true color index of the star, unaffected by extinction. For example, we can write it for the [[w:B-V color|B-V color]]: :<math>E_{B-V} = (B-V)_{\textrm{Observed}} - (B-V)_{\textrm{Intrinsic}}</math> Molecules of "[l]arge polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) ... or their ions are also ''attractive candidates for the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible'' (DIBs) [because] # they have optically active transitions in the visible; # they can survive the UV photons in the diffuse interstellar medium; [and] # they are the most abundant among the detected molecular species after H<sub>2</sub> and CO."<ref name=Leger>{{ cite journal |author=A. Léger |author2=L. d'Hendecourt |title=Are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible? |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1985 |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=81-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1985A&A...146...81L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-29 }}</ref> ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy|Reds}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae<sup>17</sup>, planetary nebulae<sup>3</sup>, HII regions (Orion)<sup>12</sup>, a Nova<sup>11</sup>, Galactic cirrus<sup>14</sup>, a dark nebula<sup>7</sup>, Galaxies<sup>8,6</sup> and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)<sup>4</sup>. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is<sup>13</sup>. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy|Infrareds}} Interstellar dust can be studied by infrared spectrometry, in part because the dust is an astronomical infrared source and other infrared sources are behind the diffuse clouds of dust.<ref name=Duley>{{ cite journal |author=Duley W. W. |author2=Williams D. A. |title=The infrared spectrum of interstellar dust - Surface functional groups on carbon |journal=Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices |month=July |year=1981 |volume=196 |issue=7 |pages=269-74 |url= |bibcode=1981MNRAS.196..269D |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-06 }}</ref> '''Far-infrared astronomy''' deals with objects visible in [[w:far-infrared|far-infrared]] radiation (extending from 30 [[w:micron|µm]] towards submillimeter wavelengths around 450 µm). Huge, cold clouds of gas and dust in [[w:Milky Way|our own galaxy]], as well as in nearby [[w:galaxy|galaxies]], glow in far-infrared light. This is due to [[w:thermal radiation|thermal radiation]] of [[w:Interstellar Dust|interstellar dust]] contained in [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]]. The monochromatic flux density radiated by a greybody at frequency <math>\nu</math> through solid angle <math>\Omega</math> is given by <math>F_{\nu} = B_{\nu}(T) Q_{\nu} \Omega </math> where <math>B_{\nu}(T)</math> is the [[w:Planck's law of black body radiation|Planck function]] for a blackbody at temperature T and emissivity <math>Q_{\nu}</math>. For a uniform medium of [[w:optical depth|optical depth]] <math>\tau_{\nu}</math> [[w:radiative transfer|radiative transfer]] means that the radiation will be reduced by a factor <math>e^{-\tau_{\nu}}</math>. The optical depth is often approximated by the ratio of the emitting frequency to the frequency where <math>\tau=1</math> all raised to an exponent β. For cold dust clouds in the interstellar medium ''β'' is approximately two. Therefore Q becomes, <math>Q_{\nu}=1-e^{-\tau_{\nu}}=1-e^{-\tau_0 (\nu / \nu_{0})^{\beta}}</math>. (<math>\tau_0=1</math>, <math>\nu_0</math> is the frequency where <math>\tau_0=1</math>). ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy|Submillimeters}} Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the [[w:black body|black body]] radiation from anything with temperatures greater than about 10 [[w:kelvin|kelvin]]. While this thermal emission is very weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing the cold 10-20K dust in the interstellar medium in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant [[w:starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]]. Telescopes operating in this band include the [[w:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope|James Clerk Maxwell Telescope]], the [[w:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory|Caltech Submillimeter Observatory]] and the [[w:Submillimeter Array|Submillimeter Array]] at the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatory|Mauna Kea Observatory]] in Hawaii, the [[w:BLAST (telescope)|BLAST]] balloon borne telescope, the [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]], and the [[w:Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope|Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope]] at the [[w:Mount Graham International Observatory|Mount Graham International Observatory]] in Arizona. The [[w:Atacama Large Millimeter Array|Atacama Large Millimeter Array]], under construction, will operate in the submillimeter range. The opacity of the Earth's atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space. "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H<sub>2</sub>/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H<sub>2</sub> to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s<sup>-1</sup> at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H<sub>2</sub>Cl<sup>+</sup>, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2<sub>12</sub> − 1<sub>01</sub> lines of ortho-H<sub>2</sub><sup>35</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> and ortho-H<sub>2</sub><sup>37</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1<sub>11</sub> − 0<sub>00</sub> transition of para-H<sub>2</sub><sup>35</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H<sub>2</sub>Cl<sup>+</sup>) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H<sub>2</sub>CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy|Radio astronomy|Radios}} "[A] number of [[w:spectral line|spectral line]]s produced by [[w:interstellar gas|interstellar gas]], notably the [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] spectral line at 21&nbsp;cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.<ref name="shu1982">{{ cite book |author = F. H. Shu |title = The Physical Universe |publisher = University Science Books |date = 1982 |location = Mill Valley, California |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0935702059 |isbn = 0-935702-05-9 }}</ref><ref name="cox2000">{{ cite book |editor=Cox, A. N. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2000 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA124 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |page=124 |location=New York |isbn=0-387-98746-0 }}</ref> "Over the past 30 years, radioastronomy has revealed a rich variety of molecular species in the interstellar medium of our galaxy and even others."<ref name=Herschbach>{{ cite journal |author=Dudley Herschbach |title=Chemical physics: Molecular clouds, clusters, and corrals |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |month=March-May |year=1999 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=S411-S418 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |pmid= |pdf=ftp://210.45.78.225/incoming/zhangry-home/%B9%A4%D7%F7%B2%BF%B7%D6/zhangry/book/%CE%EF%C0%ED%D1%A7%CA%B7/History%20of%20Modern%20Physics/Chemica%20Physics%20and%20Biological%20Physics/Chemical%20physics.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> “[R]adio astronomy ... has resulted in the detection of over a hundred interstellar species, including [[w:Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s and ions, and organic (i.e. [[w:carbon|carbon]]-based) compounds, such as [[w:alcohol|alcohol]]s, [[w:acid|acid]]s, [[w:aldehyde|aldehyde]]s, and [[w:ketone|ketone]]s. One of the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric [[w:dipole|dipole]] moment), is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar [[w:glycine|glycine]],<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |display-authors=etal |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest [[w:amino acid|amino acid]], but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |display-authors=etal |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> One of the reasons why this detection [is] controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like [[w:rotational spectroscopy|rotational spectroscopy]]) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids. ==Regions== {{main|Stars/Regions|Regions}} '''Def.''' a region between clouds of stars is called an '''intercloud region'''. "As the sun moves in its path through the galaxy, it will not always be immersed in the tenuous intercloud region of the interstellar medium."<ref name=AmericanGeophysicalUnion>{{ cite journal |author=American Geophysical Union |title= |journal=Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics |month= |year=1977 |volume=15 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Reviews_of_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics.html?id=KqxPAAAAYAAJ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-01 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} '''Def.''' the boundary marking one of the outer limits of the Sun's influence, where the solar wind dramatically slows is called '''termination shock'''. ==Comets== {{main|Comets}} Due to a need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres, emission lines in cometary spectra are being studied.<ref name=Federman>{{ cite journal |author=S.R. Federman, David L. Lambert |title=The need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres |journal=Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena |month=May |year=2002 |volume=123 |issue=2-3 |pages=161-71 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368204802000178 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |pdf=http://144.206.159.178/FT/578/62760/14353822.pdf |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres|Heliospheres}} [[Image:Solar wind at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|Plot shows the decreased detection of [[w:solar wind|solar wind]] particles by ''[[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]'' starting in August 2012. Credit: NASA.]] '''Def.''' the region of space where interstellar medium is blown away by solar wind; the boundary, heliopause, is often considered the edge of the Solar System is called the '''heliosphere'''. The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in [[w:outer space|space]] "blown" into the interstellar medium (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]) by the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. On September 12, 2013 it was announced that the previous year, starting on August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 entered the interstellar medium.<ref name=atlast>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space (Sept. 2013)]</ref> Outside the heliosphere the plasma density increased by about forty times.<ref name=interstellar>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space - Sept 12, 2013]</ref> '''Def.''' the boundary of heliosphere where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium is called the '''heliopause'''. '''Def.''' a zone between the termination shock and the heliopause, in the heliosphere, at the outer border of the Solar System, where the solar wind is dramatically slower than within the termination shock is called a '''heliosheath'''. The '''heliosheath''' is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 80 to 100 [[w:astronomical unit|astronomical unit]]s (AU) at its closest point. The flow of ISM into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.<ref name=flow>[http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/interstellar-wind-changed-direction-over-40-years/ Eleven Spacecraft Show Interstellar Wind Changed Direction Over 40 Years - Sept 5, 2013]</ref> By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time.<ref name=flow/> The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s.<ref name=flow/> {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. ==Interstellar clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds|Interstellar clouds}} "Carbon monoxide is the second most abundant molecule, after H<sub>2</sub>, in interstellar clouds. In diffuse clouds, the amount of CO is mainly derived from measurements of absorption at UV wavelengths."<ref name=Federman/> ==Local hot bubbles== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Bubbles/Locals/Hot|Local hot bubbles}} [[Image:Local_bubble.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Local Hot Bubble is hot X-ray emitting gas within the Local Bubble pictured as an artist's impression. Credit: NASA.]] The 'local hot bubble' is a "hot X-ray emitting plasma within the local environment [the ISM] of the Sun."<ref name=Kappes>{{ cite journal |author=M. Kappes |author2=J. Kerp |author3=P. Richter |title=The composition of the interstellar medium towards the Lockman Hole H I, UV and X-ray observations |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=2003 |volume=405 |issue=7 |pages=607-16 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2003A&A...405..607K |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030610 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-19 }}</ref> "This coronal gas fills the irregularly shaped local void of matter (McCammon & Sanders 1990) - frequently called the Local Hot Bubble (LHB)."<ref name=Kappes/> The Sun's hot [[w:corona|corona]] continuously expands in space creating the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]], a stream of charged particles that extends to the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] at roughly 100 [[w:astronomical units|astronomical units]]. The bubble in the [[interstellar medium]] formed by the solar wind, the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]], is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.<ref>{{ cite book |date=22 April 2003 |title=A Star with two North Poles |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name=Riley>{{ cite journal |last=Riley |first=P. |last2=Linker |first2=J. A. |last3=Mikić |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations |url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=107 |issue=A7 |pages=SSH 8–1 |bibcode=2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R |doi=10.1029/2001JA000299 |id=CiteID 1136 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Epsilon Eridani== {{main|Stars/Epsilon Eridani|Epsilon Eridani}} The [[w:stellar wind|stellar wind]] emitted by Epsilon Eridani expands until it collides with the surrounding interstellar medium of sparse gas and dust, resulting in a bubble of heated hydrogen gas. The [[w:absorption spectrum|absorption spectrum]] from this gas has been measured with the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]], allowing the properties of the stellar wind to be estimated.<ref name=mnras385_4_1691>{{ cite journal | author=J.-U. Ness, C. Jordan | title=The corona and upper transition region of ε Eridani | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=385 | issue=4 | pages=1691–708 | month=April | year=2008 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12757.x | bibcode=2008MNRAS.385.1691N | arxiv=0711.3805 }}</ref> Epsilon Eridani's hot corona results in a mass loss rate from the star's stellar wind that is 30 times higher than the Sun's. This wind is generating an [[w:Stellar wind bubble|astrosphere]] (the equivalent of the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]] that surrounds the Sun) that spans about 8,000&nbsp;AU and contains a [[w:bow shock|bow shock]] that lies 1,600&nbsp;AU from the star. At its estimated distance from Earth, this astrosphere spans 42&nbsp;arcminutes, which is wider than the apparent size of the full Moon.<ref name=apj574_1>{{ cite journal | author=Brian E. Wood |author2=Hans-Reinhard Müller |author3=Gary P. Zank |author4=Jeffrey L. Linsky | title=Measured mass-loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | month=July | year=2002 | volume=574 | issue=1 | pages=1–2 | doi=10.1086/340797 | bibcode=2002ApJ...574..412W | arxiv=astro-ph/0203437 }} See p. 10.</ref> ==H I regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H I regions|H I regions}} An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10<sup>−4</sup> (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July |year=1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> ==Cold neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Cold neutrals|Cold neutral mediums}} H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ==Warm neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Warm neutrals|Warm neutral mediums}} The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> ==Warm ionized mediums== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ==Hot ionized mediums== "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10<sup>6</sup>-10<sup>7</sup> K which emits X-rays. The ISM is [[w:turbulence|turbulent]] and full of structure on all spatial scales. [[w:Star formation|Stars are born]] deep inside large complexes of [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]], typically a few [[w:parsec|parsec]]s in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. [[w:Stellar wind|Stellar wind]]s from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant [[w:HII region|HII region]]s surrounding them) and [[w:shock wave|shock wave]]s created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are [[w:stellar wind bubble|stellar wind bubble]]s and [[w:superbubble|superbubble]]s of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the [[w:Local Interstellar Cloud|Local Interstellar Cloud]], a denser region in the low-density [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]]."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ==H II regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H II regions|H II regions}} [[Image:Messier 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a three-color composite of the sky region of Messier 17. Credit: ESO.]] An '''H&nbsp;II region''' is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized [[w:gas|gas]] in which [[w:star formation|star formation]] has recently taken place. At right is an image in three-color infrared of an H II region excited by a cluster of young, hot stars. The region is in Messier 17 (M 17). A large silhouette disc occurs to the southwest of the cluster center. This image is obtained with the ISAAC near-infrared instrument at the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope at Paranal. {{clear}} ==Protoplanetary disks== {{main|Protoplanetary disks}} In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]'', discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of [[w:organic compounds|organic compounds]], including two that contain biologically usable [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]]; indigenous [[w:aliphatic compound|aliphatic hydrocarbons]] with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse [[interstellar medium]]; abundant amorphous [[w:silicate|silicate]]s in addition to crystalline silicates such as [[w:olivine|olivine]] and [[w:pyroxene|pyroxene]], proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced [[w:spectroscopic|spectroscopic]]ally from ground observations;<ref name=Nottingham>{{ cite book |title=The building blocks of planets within the `terrestrial' region of protoplanetary disks |url=http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2004Natur.432..479V&amp;db_key=AST |publisher=nottingham.ac.uk |accessdate=2008-03-04 }}</ref> hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited [[w:CHON|pure carbon (CHON)]] was also found in the samples returned; [[w:methylamine|methylamine]] and [[w:ethylamine|ethylamine]] was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles. ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Planetary|Planetary nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[commons:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Dark nebulas== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Darks|Dark nebulas}} "The 1₁₁ → 1₁₀ rotational transition of formaldehyde (H₂CO) [occurs] in absorption in the direction of four dark nebulae. The radiation ... being absorbed appears to be the isotropic microwave background".<ref name=Palmer>{{ cite journal |author=Patrick Palmer |author2=B. Zuckerman |author3=David Buhl |author4=Lewis E. Snyder |title=Formaldehyde Absorption in Dark Nebulae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June |year=1969 |volume=156 |issue=6 |pages=L147-50 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1969ApJ...156L.147P |doi=10.1086/180368 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-03 }}</ref> One of the dark nebulae sampled, per [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] is TGU H1211 P5. ==Molecular clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Moleculars|Molecular clouds}} [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors/Clouds/Molecules/Giants|Giant molecular clouds}} A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10³–10⁷ times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10²–10³ particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10⁴–10⁶ particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Galactic center== {{main|Milky Way/Galactic center|Galactic center}} [[Image:H-alpha Sky Survey Milky Way center.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Milky Way is viewed by H-Alpha Sky Survey. Credit: Douglas Finkbeiner.]] "Spectra of the helium 2.06 µm and hydrogen 2.17 µm lines ... confirm the existence of an extended region of high-velocity redshifted line emission centered near [Sgr A^*/IRS 16]."<ref name=Geballe>{{ cite journal |author=T. R. Geballe |author2=K. Krisciunas |author3=J. A. Bailey |author4=R. Wade |title=Mapping of infrared helium and hydrogen line profiles in the central few arcseconds of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=April 1, |year=1991 |volume=370 |issue=4 |pages=L73-6 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1991ApJ...370L..73G |doi=10.1086/185980 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-03 }}</ref> "The central 0.1 parsecs of the Milky Way host a supermassive black hole identified with the position of the radio and infrared source Sagittarius A* (refs. ^1,2), a cluster of young, massive stars (the S stars³) and various gaseous features^4,5. [Two] unusual objects have been found to be closely orbiting Sagittarius A*: the so-called G sources, G1 and G2. These objects are unresolved (having a size of the order of 100 astronomical units, except at periapse, where the tidal interaction with the black hole stretches them along the orbit) and they show both thermal dust emission and line emission from ionized gas^6,7,8,9,10. G1 and G2 [...] appear to be tidally interacting with the supermassive Galactic black hole, possibly enhancing its accretion activity. [The] G objects show the characteristics of gas and dust clouds but display the dynamical properties of stellar-mass objects. [Four] additional G objects, all lying within 0.04 parsecs of the black hole [have been found]. The widely varying orbits derived for the six G objects demonstrate that they were commonly but separately formed."<ref name=Ciurlo>{{ cite journal |author=Anna Ciurlo |author2=Randall D. Campbell |author3=Mark R. Morris |author4=Tuan Do |author5=Andrea M. Ghez |author6=Aurélien Hees |author7=Breann N. Sitarski |author8=Kelly Kosmo O’Neil |author9=Devin S. Chu |author10=Gregory D. Martinez |author11=Smadar Naoz |author12=Alexander P. Stephan |title=A population of dust-enshrouded objects orbiting the Galactic black hole |journal=Nature |date=15 January 2020 |volume=577 |issue= |pages=337-40 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1883-y |pmid= |accessdate=19 January 2020 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Supernova remnants== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Supernova remnants|Supernova remnants}} [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Crab Nebula]] is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: .]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10³⁸ erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from ⁵⁶Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper |editor2=Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Diffuse interstellar mediums== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Diffuse|Diffuse interstellar mediums}} [[Image:Ngc1999.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]/Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 image of NGC 1999 includes a vast hole of empty space. Credit: NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI).]] A discovery by the [ [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]] infrared telescope,] in conjunction with other ground based telescopes, determined that black patches of space in certain areas encompassing a star formation are not [[w:dark nebula|dark nebula]]e but actually vast holes of empty space. The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated, although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas, as well as, powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole. "This [is] a previously unknown and unexpected step in the star-forming process.<ref name=MSNBChole>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37088640/ns/technology_and_science-space/ Telescope discovers surprising hole in space], MSNBC, by Space.com, 11-05-2010</ref> The star is [[w:V280 Orionis|V280 Orionis]]. "To measure the spectrum of the diffuse X-ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range 0.07 to 1 keV, NASA launched a [[w:Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant 9]] from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico on May 1, 2008.<ref name=McCammon>{{ cite book |author=B. Wright |title=36.223 UH MCCAMMON/UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN |url=http://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/news/story83.html }}</ref> The Principal Investigator for the mission is Dr. Dan McCammon of the University of Wisconsin."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Satellites== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Satellites}} The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (¹³CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O₂), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I). ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and [[w:temperature|temperature]]s of [[w:star|star]]s and [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]]s. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. [[w:Interstellar formaldehyde|Interstellar formaldehyde]] was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. ==Balloons== {{main|Stars/Balloons|Balloons}} [[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]] [[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]] The '''Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope''' ('''BLAST''') is a [[w:Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] [[w:telescope|telescope]] that hangs from a [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitude balloon]]. It has a 2 meter primary mirror that directs light into [[w:bolometer|bolometer]] arrays operating at 250, 350, and 500&nbsp;µm. BLAST's primary science goals are:<ref>[http://blastexperiment.info/ BLAST Public Webpage]</ref> *Measure photometric [[w:redshift|redshift]]s, rest-frame [[w:Far infrared|FIR]] luminosities and star formation rates of high-redshift [[w:starburst galaxies|starburst galaxies]], thereby constraining the evolutionary history of those galaxies that produce the FIR/submillimeter background. *Measure cold pre-stellar sources associated with the earliest stages of [[w:star formation|star]] and [[w:planet formation|planet formation]]. *Make high-resolution maps of diffuse galactic emission in the interstellar medium over a wide range of galactic latitudes. {{clear}} ==Sounding rockets== {{main|Stars/Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets}} [[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|150px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]] "In astronomy, the interstellar medium (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[intergalactic medium]]. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name=Spitzer1978>{{ cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.5182 |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Telescopes== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Telescopes|Telescopes}} "The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # With an interstellar medium, propagation of electromagnetic radiation may not be the same as in a theory. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Intergalactic medium]] * [[Interplanetary medium]] * [[Radiation chemistry]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search] * [http://books.google.com/ Google Books] * [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search] * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR] * [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals] * [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink] * [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search] * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Stars resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Interstellar medium}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astronomy learning projects/Resources]] [[Category:Astronomy/Resources]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Resources]] [[Category:Charges/Resources]] [[Category:Entities/Resources]] [[Category:Gases/Resources]] [[Category:Locations/Resources]] [[Category:Plasmas/Resources]] [[Category:Regions/Resources]] [[Category:Resources last modified in January 2020]] kzlb3ovyjtshhxene9e18x811di8iip 2417121 2417120 2022-08-21T23:06:49Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* H II regions */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:LW Cassiopeia Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This visual negative of the region around the astronomical object LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM) is centered on the ISM. Credit: Aladin at SIMBAD.]] The '''interstellar medium''' is the matter that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. At right is a visual negative of the LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM). Within the image are H II regions (red +s), stars (red *s), X-ray sources (Xs), infrared objects (red diamonds), molecular clouds (MolClds), reflection nebulae (RfNebs), dark nebulae (DkNebs), and the interstellar medium (ISM). {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Stars}} In astronomy, the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[w:Intergalactic medium|intergalactic space]]. ==Mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums|Mediums}} '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding environment is called a '''medium'''. Cyclotron radiation from [[w:Plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the interstellar medium is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields. ==Interstellars== {{main|Stars/Interstellars|Interstellars}} '''Def.''' # between the stars or # among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm³ and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Astrochemistry== {{main|Astrochemistry}} A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH₃)_nNH₄⁺, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range."<ref name=Martinez>{{ cite journal |author=R. Martinez |author2=L. S. Farenzena |author3=P. Iza |author4=C. R. Ponciano |author5=M. G. P. Homem |author6=A. Naves de Brito |author7=K. Wien |author8=E. F. da Silveira |title=Secondary ion emission induced by fission fragment impact in CO--NH₃ and CO--NH₃--H₂O ices: modification in the CO--NH₃ ice structure |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |month=October |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1333-41 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jms.1241/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1002/jms.1241 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-12 }}</ref> For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH₃–H₂O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."<ref name=Martinez/> The [[w:cyanide radical|cyanide radical]] CN^- has been identified in interstellar space.<ref name=Pieniazek>{{ cite journal |author=Piotr A. Pieniazek |author2=Stephen E. Bradforth |author3=Anna I. Krylov |title=Spectroscopy of the Cyano Radical in an Aqueous Environment |date=2005-12-07 |publisher=Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California |pages=4854–65 |issue=14 |location=Los Angeles, California |volume=110 |url=pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp0545952 |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry. A |pmid=16599455 |doi=10.1021/jp0545952 }}</ref> The cyanide radical (called cyanogen) is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.<ref name=Roth>{{ cite journal | title = Interstellar Cyanogen and the Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation | author = Roth, K. C. |author2=Meyer, D. M. |author3=Hawkins, I. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | year = 1993 | volume = 413 | issue = 2 | pages = L67–L71 | doi = 10.1086/186961 | bibcode = 1993ApJ...413L..67R | url = http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1993ApJ...413L..67R&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf }}</ref> There are 110 currently known interstellar molecules. "An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."<ref name=Ehrenfreund>{{ cite book |author=Ehrenfreund P |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Botta O |title=A voyage from dark clouds to the early Earth In: ''Astrophysics of life'', proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium held in Baltimore, Maryland, May 6-9, 2002, Volume 16 of Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series |date=2005 |url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.427 |editor=Livio M |editor2=Reid IN |editor3=Sparks WB |pages=1-20 of 110 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=9780521824903 }}</ref> ==Astrophysics== {{main|Astrophysics}} '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. ==Sources== {{main|Stars/Sources|Astronomical sources|Sources}} As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."<ref name=Cole>{{ cite book |author=Steve Cole |author2=Jia-Rui C. Cook |author3=Alan Buis |title=NASA's Voyager Hits New Region at Solar System Edge |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |date=December 2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-402_AGU_Voyager.html |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> "Stars from about 8 to about 15 M_ʘ explode as supernovae, but do not have a strong stellar wind, and so explode into the interstellar medium".<ref name=Biermann>{{ cite journal |author=Biermann, P. L. |author2=Langer, N. |author3=Seo, Eun-Suk |author4=Stanev, T. |title=Cosmic rays IX. Interactions and transport of cosmic rays in the Galaxy |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=April |year=2001 |volume=369 |issue=4 |pages=269-77 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2001A&A...369..269B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010083 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-24 }}</ref> ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds|Coronal clouds}} While small coronal clouds are above the photosphere of many different visual spectral type stars, others occupy parts of the interstellar medium (ISM), extending sometimes millions of kilometers into space, or thousands of light-years, depending on the size of the associated object such as a galaxy. ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteor astronomy|Meteors}} [[Image:Hs-2009-03-a-web_print.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hubble Space Telescope image shows four high-velocity, runaway stars plowing through their local interstellar medium. Credit: NASA - Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.]] [[Image:Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]]-[[w:wavelength|wavelength]] image mosaic, taken by [[w:NASA|NASA's]] [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|GALEX]], shows a [[w:comet|comet]]-like "tail" stretching 13 [[w:light-year|light year]]s across space behind the star [[w:Mira|Mira]]. Credit: [[w:NASA|NASA]].]] [[Image:Features in Mira's Tail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A close-up view of a star racing through space faster than a speeding bullet can be seen in this image from NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/C. Martin (Caltech)/M. Seibert(OCIW).]] [[Image:Mira xray scale.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra image shows Mira A (right), a highly evolved red giant star, and Mira B (left), a white dwarf. Scalebar: 0.3 arcsec. Credit: NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska et al.]] '''Def.''' a high-velocity star moving through space with an abnormally high velocity relative to the surrounding interstellar medium is called a '''runaway star'''. "Of particular importance has been access to high resolution R~40,000-100,000 echelle spectra providing an ability to study the dynamics of hot plasma and separate multiple stellar and interstellar absorption components."<ref name=Barstow>{{ cite book |author=Martin A. Barstow |author2=L. Binette |author3=Noah Brosch |author4=F.Z. Cheng |author5=Michel Dennefeld |author6=A.I. G. de Castro |author7=H. Haubold |author8=K.A. van der Hucht |author9=N. Kappelmann |author10=P. Martinez |author11=A. Moisheev |author12=I. Pagano |author13=Erez N. Ribak |author14=J. Sahade |author15=B. I. Shustov |author16=J.-E. Solheim |author17=W. Wamsteker |author18=K. Werner |author19=Helmut Becker-Ross |author20=Stefan Florek |title=The WSO: a world-class observatory for the ultraviolet, In: ''Future EUV/UV and Visible Space Astrophysics Missions and Instrumentation'' |publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering |location= |date=February 26, 2003 |editor=J. Chris Blades |editor2=Oswald H. W. Siegmund |volume=4854 |issue=364 |pages= |url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=876587 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1117/12.459779 |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-07-15 }}</ref> At left is a radiated object, the binary star Mira, and its associated phenomena. Ultra-violet studies of Mira by NASA's [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|Galaxy Evolution Explorer]] (Galex) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, leaving a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite journal |last=Martin|first=Christopher | journal=Nature |volume=448 |title=A turbulent wake as a tracer of 30,000 years of Mira's mass loss history |doi=10.1038/nature06003 |date=August 17, 2007 |pages=780–783 |accessdate=2007-12-11 |pmid=17700694 |last2=Seibert|first2=M|last3=Neill|first3=JD|last4=Schiminovich|first4=D|last5=Forster|first5=K|last6=Rich|first6=RM|last7=Welsh|first7=BY|last8=Madore|first8=BF|last9=Wheatley|first9=JM |issue=7155 |bibcode=2007Natur.448..780M }}</ref><ref name=Minkel>Minkel, JR.[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=6AE74053-E7F2-99DF-353EB7B9AE43FCF6&chanID=sa007&ec=su_astro "Shooting Bullet Star Leaves Vast Ultraviolet Wake"], "The Scientific American", August 15, 2007 Accessed August 21, 2007.</ref> It is thought that a hot [[w:bow shock|bow-wave]] of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second (291,000 miles per hour).<ref name=Wareing07>{{ cite journal | url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-4357/670/2/L125/22252.html |author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=670 |issue=2 |title=It's a wonderful tail: the mass-loss history of Mira |doi= 10.1086/524407 |date=November 6, 2007 |pages=L125–L129 |last2=Zijlstra|first2=A. A.|last3=O'Brien|first3=T. J.|last4=Seibert|first4=M. |bibcode=2007ApJ...670L.125W |arxiv = 0710.3010 }}</ref><ref name=Clavin>{{ cite book |title=GALEX finds link between big and small stellar blasts |accessdate=2007-08-16 |author=W. Clavin |date= August 15, 2007 |publisher=California Institute of Technology |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070827103038/http://www.galex.caltech.edu/MEDIA/2007-04/images.html }}</ref> The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultra-violet observations. Mira's bow-shock will eventually evolve into a [[w:planetary nebula|planetary nebula]], the form of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the [[w:interstellar medium|interstellar medium]] (ISM).<ref name=Wareing>{{ cite journal | author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume=366 | issue=1884 | title=Wonderful Mira | doi=10.1098/rsta.2008.0167 | pmid=18812301 | date=December 13, 2008 | pages=4429–40 |bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4429W }}</ref> At second right is the only available X-ray image, by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, of Mira A on the right and Mira B (left). "Mira A is losing gas rapidly from its upper atmosphere [apparently] via a stellar wind. [Mira B is asserted to be a white dwarf. In theory] Mira B exerts a gravitational tug that creates a gaseous bridge between the two stars. Gas from the wind and bridge accumulates in an accretion disk around Mira B and collisions between rapidly moving particles in the disk produce X-rays."<ref name=Karovska>{{ cite book |author=M. Karovska |display-authors=etal |title=More Images of Mira |publisher=NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska, et al. |location= |date=April 28, 2005 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/mira/more.html |accessdate=2012-12-22 }}</ref> Mira A, spectral type M7&nbsp;IIIe<ref name=aj114_1584>{{ cite journal | last=Castelaz | first=Michael W. | coauthors=Luttermoser, Donald G. | title=Spectroscopy of Mira Variables at Different Phases. | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1997 | volume=114 | pages=1584–1591 | bibcode=1997AJ....114.1584C | doi=10.1086/118589 }}</ref>, has an effective surface temperature of 2918–3192<ref name=aaa421>{{ cite journal | last=Woodruff | first=H. C. | coauthors=Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schert, D.; Schöller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. | title=Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | year=2004 | volume=421 | issue=2 | pages=703–714 | url=http://www.eso.org/~mwittkow/publications/conferences/SPIECWo5491199.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-12-07 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20035826 | bibcode=2004A&A...421..703W |arxiv = astro-ph/0404248 }}</ref>. Mira A is not a known X-ray source according to SIMBAD, but here is shown to be one. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy|Cosmic rays}} '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy|Neutrals}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma [[w:ion|ion]] 'steals' charge from a cold neutral [[w:atom|atom]] to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams, In: ''Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial'' | author=Mike Gruntman | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two [[w:energetic neutral atom|energetic neutral atom]] (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a [[w:collimator|collimator]] that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] and [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] into [[w:ions|ions]], an [[w:electrostatic analyzer|electrostatic analyzer]] (ESA) to suppress [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because [[w:Hydrogen|[h]ydrogen]] is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high [[w:velocity|velocities]] involving little exchange of [[w:momentum|momentum]]. "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C |author7=Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month= |year=2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy|Protons}} The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in [[w:plasma (physics)|plasmas]] in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with [[electron]]s. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s, which propagate for interstellar distances. “Antiprotons have been detected in [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray [[w:proton|proton]]s with nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name=Kennedy>{{ cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |url=https://archive.org/details/arxiv-astro-ph0003485 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy|Muons}} "TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Todor Stanev |author3=Gaurang B. Yodh |title=γ ray astronomy with muons |journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology |month=April 1, |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=4475-9 |url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1 |arxiv=astro-ph/9608201 |bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy|Positrons}} "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting>{{ cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy|Gamma rays}} [[Image:Geminga-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an XMM Newton image of the Gemini gamma-ray source. Credit: P.A. Caraveo (INAF/IASF), Milan and ESA.]] [[Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This all-sky view from GLAST reveals bright gamma-ray emission in the plane of the Milky Way (center), including the bright Geminga pulsar. Credit: NASA/DOE/International LAT Team.]] Geminga may be a sort of neutron star: the decaying core of a massive star that exploded as a [[w:supernova|supernova]] about 300,000 years ago.<ref name=Darling>[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/Geminga.html Geminga], Internet Encyclopedia of Science</ref> "Geminga is a very weak neutron star and the pulsar next to us, which almost only emits extremely hard gamma-rays, but no radio waves. ... Some thousand years ago our Sun entered this [Local Bubble] several hundred light-years big area, which is nearly dust-free."<ref name=Kummer>{{ cite book |author=Juergen Kummer |title=Geminga |publisher=Internetservice Kummer + Oster GbR |location=Buchenberg Germany |date=June 27, 2006 |url=http://jumk.de/astronomie/special-stars/geminga.shtml |accessdate=2013-05-08 }}</ref> The nature of Geminga was quite unknown for 20 years after its discovery by NASA's [[w:Second Small Astronomy Satellite|Second Small Astronomy Satellite]] (SAS-2). In March 1991 the [[w:ROSAT|ROSAT]] satellite detected a [[w:Frequency|periodicity]] of 0.237 seconds in [[w:Soft X-ray emission spectroscopy|soft x-ray emission]]. This nearby explosion may be responsible for the low density of the interstellar medium in the immediate vicinity of the [[Solar System]]. This low-density area is known as the [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]].<ref name=Gehrels>{{ cite journal |author=Neil Gehrels |author2=Wan Chen |title=The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble |journal=Nature |month= |year=1993 |volume=361 |issue=6414 |pages=706-7 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6414/abs/361706a0.html |doi=10.1038/361706a0 }}</ref> Possible evidence for this includes findings by the [[w:Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo Observatory]] that local micrometre-sized interstellar meteor particles appear to originate from its direction.<ref name=Centauri>{{ cite book | url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=1741 | title=The Sun's Exotic Neighborhood | publisher=Centauri Dreams | date=2008-02-28 }}</ref> Geminga is the first example of a radio-quiet pulsar, and serves as an illustration of the difficulty of associating gamma-ray emission with objects known at other wavelengths: either no credible object is detected in the error region of the gamma-ray source, or a number are present and some characteristic of the gamma-ray source, such as periodicity or variability, must be identified in one of the prospective candidates (or vice-versa as in the case of Geminga). {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy|X-rays}} "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy|Ultraviolets}} '''Def.''' "the spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side at about λ3000 by the onset of atmospheric ozone absorption and on the short wavelength side at λ912 by the photoionization of interstellar hydrogen" is called the '''ultraviolet'''.<ref name=Bless>{{ cite journal |author=R. C. Bless |author2=A. D. Code |title=Ultraviolet Astronomy |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1972 |volume=10 |issue= |pages=197-226 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1972ARA&A..10..197B |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.10.090172.001213 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Ultraviolet line spectrum measurements are used to discern the chemical composition, densities, and temperatures of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of hot young stars. [[w:Molecule|Molecular]] nitrogen and nitrogen [[w:Chemical compound|compound]]s have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer]].<ref name=Meyer>{{ cite journal |title=Abundance of Interstellar Nitrogen |author=Meyer, Daved M. |author2=Cardelli, Jason A. |author3=Sofia, Ulysses J. |year=1997 |doi=10.1086/311023 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |pages=L103–6 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710162 |bibcode=1997ApJ...490L.103M }}</ref> ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy|Visuals}} Color indices of distant objects are usually affected by [[w:extinction (astronomy)|interstellar extinction]] &mdash;i.e. they are [[w:interstellar reddening|redder]] than those of closer stars. The amount of reddening is characterized by [[w:Interstellar reddening|color excess]], defined as the difference between the '''Observed color index''' and the '''Normal color index''' (or '''Intrinsic color index'''), the hypothetical true color index of the star, unaffected by extinction. For example, we can write it for the [[w:B-V color|B-V color]]: :<math>E_{B-V} = (B-V)_{\textrm{Observed}} - (B-V)_{\textrm{Intrinsic}}</math> Molecules of "[l]arge polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) ... or their ions are also ''attractive candidates for the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible'' (DIBs) [because] # they have optically active transitions in the visible; # they can survive the UV photons in the diffuse interstellar medium; [and] # they are the most abundant among the detected molecular species after H₂ and CO."<ref name=Leger>{{ cite journal |author=A. Léger |author2=L. d'Hendecourt |title=Are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible? |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1985 |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=81-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1985A&A...146...81L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-29 }}</ref> ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy|Reds}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae¹⁷, planetary nebulae³, HII regions (Orion)¹², a Nova¹¹, Galactic cirrus¹⁴, a dark nebula⁷, Galaxies^8,6 and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)⁴. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is¹³. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy|Infrareds}} Interstellar dust can be studied by infrared spectrometry, in part because the dust is an astronomical infrared source and other infrared sources are behind the diffuse clouds of dust.<ref name=Duley>{{ cite journal |author=Duley W. W. |author2=Williams D. A. |title=The infrared spectrum of interstellar dust - Surface functional groups on carbon |journal=Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices |month=July |year=1981 |volume=196 |issue=7 |pages=269-74 |url= |bibcode=1981MNRAS.196..269D |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-06 }}</ref> '''Far-infrared astronomy''' deals with objects visible in [[w:far-infrared|far-infrared]] radiation (extending from 30 [[w:micron|µm]] towards submillimeter wavelengths around 450 µm). Huge, cold clouds of gas and dust in [[w:Milky Way|our own galaxy]], as well as in nearby [[w:galaxy|galaxies]], glow in far-infrared light. This is due to [[w:thermal radiation|thermal radiation]] of [[w:Interstellar Dust|interstellar dust]] contained in [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]]. The monochromatic flux density radiated by a greybody at frequency <math>\nu</math> through solid angle <math>\Omega</math> is given by <math>F_{\nu} = B_{\nu}(T) Q_{\nu} \Omega </math> where <math>B_{\nu}(T)</math> is the [[w:Planck's law of black body radiation|Planck function]] for a blackbody at temperature T and emissivity <math>Q_{\nu}</math>. For a uniform medium of [[w:optical depth|optical depth]] <math>\tau_{\nu}</math> [[w:radiative transfer|radiative transfer]] means that the radiation will be reduced by a factor <math>e^{-\tau_{\nu}}</math>. The optical depth is often approximated by the ratio of the emitting frequency to the frequency where <math>\tau=1</math> all raised to an exponent β. For cold dust clouds in the interstellar medium ''β'' is approximately two. Therefore Q becomes, <math>Q_{\nu}=1-e^{-\tau_{\nu}}=1-e^{-\tau_0 (\nu / \nu_{0})^{\beta}}</math>. (<math>\tau_0=1</math>, <math>\nu_0</math> is the frequency where <math>\tau_0=1</math>). ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy|Submillimeters}} Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the [[w:black body|black body]] radiation from anything with temperatures greater than about 10 [[w:kelvin|kelvin]]. While this thermal emission is very weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing the cold 10-20K dust in the interstellar medium in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant [[w:starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]]. Telescopes operating in this band include the [[w:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope|James Clerk Maxwell Telescope]], the [[w:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory|Caltech Submillimeter Observatory]] and the [[w:Submillimeter Array|Submillimeter Array]] at the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatory|Mauna Kea Observatory]] in Hawaii, the [[w:BLAST (telescope)|BLAST]] balloon borne telescope, the [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]], and the [[w:Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope|Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope]] at the [[w:Mount Graham International Observatory|Mount Graham International Observatory]] in Arizona. The [[w:Atacama Large Millimeter Array|Atacama Large Millimeter Array]], under construction, will operate in the submillimeter range. The opacity of the Earth's atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space. "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H₂/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H₂ to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s^-1 at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H₂Cl⁺, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2₁₂ − 1₀₁ lines of ortho-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ and ortho-H₂³⁷Cl⁺ are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1₁₁ − 0₀₀ transition of para-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H₂Cl⁺) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H₂CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy|Radio astronomy|Radios}} "[A] number of [[w:spectral line|spectral line]]s produced by [[w:interstellar gas|interstellar gas]], notably the [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] spectral line at 21&nbsp;cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.<ref name="shu1982">{{ cite book |author = F. H. Shu |title = The Physical Universe |publisher = University Science Books |date = 1982 |location = Mill Valley, California |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0935702059 |isbn = 0-935702-05-9 }}</ref><ref name="cox2000">{{ cite book |editor=Cox, A. N. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2000 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA124 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |page=124 |location=New York |isbn=0-387-98746-0 }}</ref> "Over the past 30 years, radioastronomy has revealed a rich variety of molecular species in the interstellar medium of our galaxy and even others."<ref name=Herschbach>{{ cite journal |author=Dudley Herschbach |title=Chemical physics: Molecular clouds, clusters, and corrals |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |month=March-May |year=1999 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=S411-S418 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |pmid= |pdf=ftp://210.45.78.225/incoming/zhangry-home/%B9%A4%D7%F7%B2%BF%B7%D6/zhangry/book/%CE%EF%C0%ED%D1%A7%CA%B7/History%20of%20Modern%20Physics/Chemica%20Physics%20and%20Biological%20Physics/Chemical%20physics.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> “[R]adio astronomy ... has resulted in the detection of over a hundred interstellar species, including [[w:Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s and ions, and organic (i.e. [[w:carbon|carbon]]-based) compounds, such as [[w:alcohol|alcohol]]s, [[w:acid|acid]]s, [[w:aldehyde|aldehyde]]s, and [[w:ketone|ketone]]s. One of the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric [[w:dipole|dipole]] moment), is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar [[w:glycine|glycine]],<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |display-authors=etal |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest [[w:amino acid|amino acid]], but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |display-authors=etal |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> One of the reasons why this detection [is] controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like [[w:rotational spectroscopy|rotational spectroscopy]]) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids. ==Regions== {{main|Stars/Regions|Regions}} '''Def.''' a region between clouds of stars is called an '''intercloud region'''. "As the sun moves in its path through the galaxy, it will not always be immersed in the tenuous intercloud region of the interstellar medium."<ref name=AmericanGeophysicalUnion>{{ cite journal |author=American Geophysical Union |title= |journal=Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics |month= |year=1977 |volume=15 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Reviews_of_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics.html?id=KqxPAAAAYAAJ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-01 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} '''Def.''' the boundary marking one of the outer limits of the Sun's influence, where the solar wind dramatically slows is called '''termination shock'''. ==Comets== {{main|Comets}} Due to a need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres, emission lines in cometary spectra are being studied.<ref name=Federman>{{ cite journal |author=S.R. Federman, David L. Lambert |title=The need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres |journal=Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena |month=May |year=2002 |volume=123 |issue=2-3 |pages=161-71 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368204802000178 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |pdf=http://144.206.159.178/FT/578/62760/14353822.pdf |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres|Heliospheres}} [[Image:Solar wind at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|Plot shows the decreased detection of [[w:solar wind|solar wind]] particles by ''[[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]'' starting in August 2012. Credit: NASA.]] '''Def.''' the region of space where interstellar medium is blown away by solar wind; the boundary, heliopause, is often considered the edge of the Solar System is called the '''heliosphere'''. The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in [[w:outer space|space]] "blown" into the interstellar medium (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]) by the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. On September 12, 2013 it was announced that the previous year, starting on August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 entered the interstellar medium.<ref name=atlast>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space (Sept. 2013)]</ref> Outside the heliosphere the plasma density increased by about forty times.<ref name=interstellar>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space - Sept 12, 2013]</ref> '''Def.''' the boundary of heliosphere where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium is called the '''heliopause'''. '''Def.''' a zone between the termination shock and the heliopause, in the heliosphere, at the outer border of the Solar System, where the solar wind is dramatically slower than within the termination shock is called a '''heliosheath'''. The '''heliosheath''' is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 80 to 100 [[w:astronomical unit|astronomical unit]]s (AU) at its closest point. The flow of ISM into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.<ref name=flow>[http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/interstellar-wind-changed-direction-over-40-years/ Eleven Spacecraft Show Interstellar Wind Changed Direction Over 40 Years - Sept 5, 2013]</ref> By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time.<ref name=flow/> The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s.<ref name=flow/> {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. ==Interstellar clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds|Interstellar clouds}} "Carbon monoxide is the second most abundant molecule, after H₂, in interstellar clouds. In diffuse clouds, the amount of CO is mainly derived from measurements of absorption at UV wavelengths."<ref name=Federman/> ==Local hot bubbles== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Bubbles/Locals/Hot|Local hot bubbles}} [[Image:Local_bubble.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Local Hot Bubble is hot X-ray emitting gas within the Local Bubble pictured as an artist's impression. Credit: NASA.]] The 'local hot bubble' is a "hot X-ray emitting plasma within the local environment [the ISM] of the Sun."<ref name=Kappes>{{ cite journal |author=M. Kappes |author2=J. Kerp |author3=P. Richter |title=The composition of the interstellar medium towards the Lockman Hole H I, UV and X-ray observations |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=2003 |volume=405 |issue=7 |pages=607-16 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2003A&A...405..607K |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030610 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-19 }}</ref> "This coronal gas fills the irregularly shaped local void of matter (McCammon & Sanders 1990) - frequently called the Local Hot Bubble (LHB)."<ref name=Kappes/> The Sun's hot [[w:corona|corona]] continuously expands in space creating the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]], a stream of charged particles that extends to the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] at roughly 100 [[w:astronomical units|astronomical units]]. The bubble in the [[interstellar medium]] formed by the solar wind, the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]], is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.<ref>{{ cite book |date=22 April 2003 |title=A Star with two North Poles |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name=Riley>{{ cite journal |last=Riley |first=P. |last2=Linker |first2=J. A. |last3=Mikić |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations |url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=107 |issue=A7 |pages=SSH 8–1 |bibcode=2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R |doi=10.1029/2001JA000299 |id=CiteID 1136 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Epsilon Eridani== {{main|Stars/Epsilon Eridani|Epsilon Eridani}} The [[w:stellar wind|stellar wind]] emitted by Epsilon Eridani expands until it collides with the surrounding interstellar medium of sparse gas and dust, resulting in a bubble of heated hydrogen gas. The [[w:absorption spectrum|absorption spectrum]] from this gas has been measured with the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]], allowing the properties of the stellar wind to be estimated.<ref name=mnras385_4_1691>{{ cite journal | author=J.-U. Ness, C. Jordan | title=The corona and upper transition region of ε Eridani | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=385 | issue=4 | pages=1691–708 | month=April | year=2008 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12757.x | bibcode=2008MNRAS.385.1691N | arxiv=0711.3805 }}</ref> Epsilon Eridani's hot corona results in a mass loss rate from the star's stellar wind that is 30 times higher than the Sun's. This wind is generating an [[w:Stellar wind bubble|astrosphere]] (the equivalent of the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]] that surrounds the Sun) that spans about 8,000&nbsp;AU and contains a [[w:bow shock|bow shock]] that lies 1,600&nbsp;AU from the star. At its estimated distance from Earth, this astrosphere spans 42&nbsp;arcminutes, which is wider than the apparent size of the full Moon.<ref name=apj574_1>{{ cite journal | author=Brian E. Wood |author2=Hans-Reinhard Müller |author3=Gary P. Zank |author4=Jeffrey L. Linsky | title=Measured mass-loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | month=July | year=2002 | volume=574 | issue=1 | pages=1–2 | doi=10.1086/340797 | bibcode=2002ApJ...574..412W | arxiv=astro-ph/0203437 }} See p. 10.</ref> ==H I regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H I regions|H I regions}} An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July |year=1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> ==Cold neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Cold neutrals|Cold neutral mediums}} H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ==Warm neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Warm neutrals|Warm neutral mediums}} The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> ==Warm ionized mediums== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ==Hot ionized mediums== "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10⁶-10⁷ K which emits X-rays. The ISM is [[w:turbulence|turbulent]] and full of structure on all spatial scales. [[w:Star formation|Stars are born]] deep inside large complexes of [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]], typically a few [[w:parsec|parsec]]s in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. [[w:Stellar wind|Stellar wind]]s from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant [[w:HII region|HII region]]s surrounding them) and [[w:shock wave|shock wave]]s created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are [[w:stellar wind bubble|stellar wind bubble]]s and [[w:superbubble|superbubble]]s of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the [[w:Local Interstellar Cloud|Local Interstellar Cloud]], a denser region in the low-density [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]]."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ==H II regions== [[Image:Messier 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a three-color composite of the sky region of Messier 17. Credit: ESO.]] An '''H&nbsp;II region''' is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place. At right is an image in three-color infrared of an H II region excited by a cluster of young, hot stars. The region is in Messier 17 (M 17). A large silhouette disc occurs to the southwest of the cluster center. This image is obtained with the ISAAC near-infrared instrument at the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope at Paranal. {{clear}} ==Protoplanetary disks== {{main|Protoplanetary disks}} In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]'', discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of [[w:organic compounds|organic compounds]], including two that contain biologically usable [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]]; indigenous [[w:aliphatic compound|aliphatic hydrocarbons]] with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse [[interstellar medium]]; abundant amorphous [[w:silicate|silicate]]s in addition to crystalline silicates such as [[w:olivine|olivine]] and [[w:pyroxene|pyroxene]], proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced [[w:spectroscopic|spectroscopic]]ally from ground observations;<ref name=Nottingham>{{ cite book |title=The building blocks of planets within the `terrestrial' region of protoplanetary disks |url=http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2004Natur.432..479V&amp;db_key=AST |publisher=nottingham.ac.uk |accessdate=2008-03-04 }}</ref> hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited [[w:CHON|pure carbon (CHON)]] was also found in the samples returned; [[w:methylamine|methylamine]] and [[w:ethylamine|ethylamine]] was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles. ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Planetary|Planetary nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[commons:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Dark nebulas== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Darks|Dark nebulas}} "The 1<sub>11</sub> → 1<sub>10</sub> rotational transition of formaldehyde (H<sub>2</sub>CO) [occurs] in absorption in the direction of four dark nebulae. The radiation ... being absorbed appears to be the isotropic microwave background".<ref name=Palmer>{{ cite journal |author=Patrick Palmer |author2=B. Zuckerman |author3=David Buhl |author4=Lewis E. Snyder |title=Formaldehyde Absorption in Dark Nebulae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June |year=1969 |volume=156 |issue=6 |pages=L147-50 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1969ApJ...156L.147P |doi=10.1086/180368 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-03 }}</ref> One of the dark nebulae sampled, per [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] is TGU H1211 P5. ==Molecular clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Moleculars|Molecular clouds}} [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H<sub>2</sub>). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H<sub>2</sub> is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H<sub>2</sub> [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10<sup>2</sup> - 10<sup>6</sup> atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors/Clouds/Molecules/Giants|Giant molecular clouds}} A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10<sup>3</sup>–10<sup>7</sup> times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10<sup>2</sup>–10<sup>3</sup> particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10<sup>4</sup>–10<sup>6</sup> particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Galactic center== {{main|Milky Way/Galactic center|Galactic center}} [[Image:H-alpha Sky Survey Milky Way center.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Milky Way is viewed by H-Alpha Sky Survey. Credit: Douglas Finkbeiner.]] "Spectra of the helium 2.06 µm and hydrogen 2.17 µm lines ... confirm the existence of an extended region of high-velocity redshifted line emission centered near [Sgr A<sup>*</sup>/IRS 16]."<ref name=Geballe>{{ cite journal |author=T. R. Geballe |author2=K. Krisciunas |author3=J. A. Bailey |author4=R. Wade |title=Mapping of infrared helium and hydrogen line profiles in the central few arcseconds of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=April 1, |year=1991 |volume=370 |issue=4 |pages=L73-6 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1991ApJ...370L..73G |doi=10.1086/185980 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-03 }}</ref> "The central 0.1 parsecs of the Milky Way host a supermassive black hole identified with the position of the radio and infrared source Sagittarius A* (refs. <sup>1,2</sup>), a cluster of young, massive stars (the S stars<sup>3</sup>) and various gaseous features<sup>4,5</sup>. [Two] unusual objects have been found to be closely orbiting Sagittarius A*: the so-called G sources, G1 and G2. These objects are unresolved (having a size of the order of 100 astronomical units, except at periapse, where the tidal interaction with the black hole stretches them along the orbit) and they show both thermal dust emission and line emission from ionized gas<sup>6,7,8,9,10</sup>. G1 and G2 [...] appear to be tidally interacting with the supermassive Galactic black hole, possibly enhancing its accretion activity. [The] G objects show the characteristics of gas and dust clouds but display the dynamical properties of stellar-mass objects. [Four] additional G objects, all lying within 0.04 parsecs of the black hole [have been found]. The widely varying orbits derived for the six G objects demonstrate that they were commonly but separately formed."<ref name=Ciurlo>{{ cite journal |author=Anna Ciurlo |author2=Randall D. Campbell |author3=Mark R. Morris |author4=Tuan Do |author5=Andrea M. Ghez |author6=Aurélien Hees |author7=Breann N. Sitarski |author8=Kelly Kosmo O’Neil |author9=Devin S. Chu |author10=Gregory D. Martinez |author11=Smadar Naoz |author12=Alexander P. Stephan |title=A population of dust-enshrouded objects orbiting the Galactic black hole |journal=Nature |date=15 January 2020 |volume=577 |issue= |pages=337-40 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1883-y |pmid= |accessdate=19 January 2020 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Supernova remnants== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Supernova remnants|Supernova remnants}} [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Crab Nebula]] is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: .]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10<sup>38</sup> erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from <sup>56</sup>Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper |editor2=Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Diffuse interstellar mediums== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Diffuse|Diffuse interstellar mediums}} [[Image:Ngc1999.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]/Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 image of NGC 1999 includes a vast hole of empty space. Credit: NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI).]] A discovery by the [ [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]] infrared telescope,] in conjunction with other ground based telescopes, determined that black patches of space in certain areas encompassing a star formation are not [[w:dark nebula|dark nebula]]e but actually vast holes of empty space. The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated, although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas, as well as, powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole. "This [is] a previously unknown and unexpected step in the star-forming process.<ref name=MSNBChole>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37088640/ns/technology_and_science-space/ Telescope discovers surprising hole in space], MSNBC, by Space.com, 11-05-2010</ref> The star is [[w:V280 Orionis|V280 Orionis]]. "To measure the spectrum of the diffuse X-ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range 0.07 to 1 keV, NASA launched a [[w:Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant 9]] from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico on May 1, 2008.<ref name=McCammon>{{ cite book |author=B. Wright |title=36.223 UH MCCAMMON/UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN |url=http://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/news/story83.html }}</ref> The Principal Investigator for the mission is Dr. Dan McCammon of the University of Wisconsin."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Satellites== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Satellites}} The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H<sub>2</sub>O), isotopic water (H<sub>2</sub><sup>18</sup>O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (<sup>13</sup>CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I). ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and [[w:temperature|temperature]]s of [[w:star|star]]s and [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]]s. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. [[w:Interstellar formaldehyde|Interstellar formaldehyde]] was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. ==Balloons== {{main|Stars/Balloons|Balloons}} [[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]] [[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]] The '''Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope''' ('''BLAST''') is a [[w:Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] [[w:telescope|telescope]] that hangs from a [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitude balloon]]. It has a 2 meter primary mirror that directs light into [[w:bolometer|bolometer]] arrays operating at 250, 350, and 500&nbsp;µm. BLAST's primary science goals are:<ref>[http://blastexperiment.info/ BLAST Public Webpage]</ref> *Measure photometric [[w:redshift|redshift]]s, rest-frame [[w:Far infrared|FIR]] luminosities and star formation rates of high-redshift [[w:starburst galaxies|starburst galaxies]], thereby constraining the evolutionary history of those galaxies that produce the FIR/submillimeter background. *Measure cold pre-stellar sources associated with the earliest stages of [[w:star formation|star]] and [[w:planet formation|planet formation]]. *Make high-resolution maps of diffuse galactic emission in the interstellar medium over a wide range of galactic latitudes. {{clear}} ==Sounding rockets== {{main|Stars/Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets}} [[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|150px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]] "In astronomy, the interstellar medium (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[intergalactic medium]]. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name=Spitzer1978>{{ cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.5182 |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Telescopes== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Telescopes|Telescopes}} "The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # With an interstellar medium, propagation of electromagnetic radiation may not be the same as in a theory. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Intergalactic medium]] * [[Interplanetary medium]] * [[Radiation chemistry]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search] * [http://books.google.com/ Google Books] * [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search] * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR] * [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals] * [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink] * [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search] * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Stars resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Interstellar medium}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astronomy learning projects/Resources]] [[Category:Astronomy/Resources]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Resources]] [[Category:Charges/Resources]] [[Category:Entities/Resources]] [[Category:Gases/Resources]] [[Category:Locations/Resources]] [[Category:Plasmas/Resources]] [[Category:Regions/Resources]] [[Category:Resources last modified in January 2020]] 23q0zs65f0ukbop6viw4d82tfnhxoav 2417123 2417121 2022-08-21T23:08:56Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:LW Cassiopeia Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This visual negative of the region around the astronomical object LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM) is centered on the ISM. Credit: Aladin at SIMBAD.]] The '''interstellar medium''' is the matter that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. At right is a visual negative of the LW Cassiopeia Nebula (ISM). Within the image are H II regions (red +s), stars (red *s), X-ray sources (Xs), infrared objects (red diamonds), molecular clouds (MolClds), reflection nebulae (RfNebs), dark nebulae (DkNebs), and the interstellar medium (ISM). {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Stars}} In astronomy, the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[w:Intergalactic medium|intergalactic space]]. ==Mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums|Mediums}} '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding environment is called a '''medium'''. Cyclotron radiation from [[w:Plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the interstellar medium is an important source of information about distant magnetic fields. ==Interstellars== {{main|Stars/Interstellars|Interstellars}} '''Def.''' # between the stars or # among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm<sup>3</sup> and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Astrochemistry== {{main|Astrochemistry}} A particular subject of interest is the cluster ion series (NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>, since it is the dominant group of ions over the whole investigated temperature range."<ref name=Martinez>{{ cite journal |author=R. Martinez |author2=L. S. Farenzena |author3=P. Iza |author4=C. R. Ponciano |author5=M. G. P. Homem |author6=A. Naves de Brito |author7=K. Wien |author8=E. F. da Silveira |title=Secondary ion emission induced by fission fragment impact in CO--NH<sub>3</sub> and CO--NH<sub>3</sub>--H<sub>2</sub>O ices: modification in the CO--NH<sub>3</sub> ice structure |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |month=October |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1333-41 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jms.1241/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1002/jms.1241 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-12 }}</ref> For astrochemisty, "[t]hese studies are expected to throw light on the sputtering from planetary and interstellar ices and the possible formation of new organic molecules in CO--NH<sub>3</sub>–H<sub>2</sub>O ice by megaelectronvolt ion bombardment."<ref name=Martinez/> The [[w:cyanide radical|cyanide radical]] CN<sup>-</sup> has been identified in interstellar space.<ref name=Pieniazek>{{ cite journal |author=Piotr A. Pieniazek |author2=Stephen E. Bradforth |author3=Anna I. Krylov |title=Spectroscopy of the Cyano Radical in an Aqueous Environment |date=2005-12-07 |publisher=Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California |pages=4854–65 |issue=14 |location=Los Angeles, California |volume=110 |url=pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp0545952 |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry. A |pmid=16599455 |doi=10.1021/jp0545952 }}</ref> The cyanide radical (called cyanogen) is used to measure the temperature of interstellar gas clouds.<ref name=Roth>{{ cite journal | title = Interstellar Cyanogen and the Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation | author = Roth, K. C. |author2=Meyer, D. M. |author3=Hawkins, I. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | year = 1993 | volume = 413 | issue = 2 | pages = L67–L71 | doi = 10.1086/186961 | bibcode = 1993ApJ...413L..67R | url = http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1993ApJ...413L..67R&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf }}</ref> There are 110 currently known interstellar molecules. "An important goal for theoretical astrochemistry is to elucidate which organics are of true interstellar origin, and to identify possible interstellar precursors and reaction pathways for those molecules which are the result of aqueous alterations."<ref name=Ehrenfreund>{{ cite book |author=Ehrenfreund P |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Botta O |title=A voyage from dark clouds to the early Earth In: ''Astrophysics of life'', proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium held in Baltimore, Maryland, May 6-9, 2002, Volume 16 of Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series |date=2005 |url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.427 |editor=Livio M |editor2=Reid IN |editor3=Sparks WB |pages=1-20 of 110 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=9780521824903 }}</ref> ==Astrophysics== {{main|Astrophysics}} '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. ==Sources== {{main|Stars/Sources|Astronomical sources|Sources}} As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."<ref name=Cole>{{ cite book |author=Steve Cole |author2=Jia-Rui C. Cook |author3=Alan Buis |title=NASA's Voyager Hits New Region at Solar System Edge |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |date=December 2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-402_AGU_Voyager.html |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> "Stars from about 8 to about 15 M<sub>ʘ</sub> explode as supernovae, but do not have a strong stellar wind, and so explode into the interstellar medium".<ref name=Biermann>{{ cite journal |author=Biermann, P. L. |author2=Langer, N. |author3=Seo, Eun-Suk |author4=Stanev, T. |title=Cosmic rays IX. Interactions and transport of cosmic rays in the Galaxy |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=April |year=2001 |volume=369 |issue=4 |pages=269-77 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2001A&A...369..269B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20010083 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-24 }}</ref> ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds|Coronal clouds}} While small coronal clouds are above the photosphere of many different visual spectral type stars, others occupy parts of the interstellar medium (ISM), extending sometimes millions of kilometers into space, or thousands of light-years, depending on the size of the associated object such as a galaxy. ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteor astronomy|Meteors}} [[Image:Hs-2009-03-a-web_print.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hubble Space Telescope image shows four high-velocity, runaway stars plowing through their local interstellar medium. Credit: NASA - Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.]] [[Image:Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]]-[[w:wavelength|wavelength]] image mosaic, taken by [[w:NASA|NASA's]] [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|GALEX]], shows a [[w:comet|comet]]-like "tail" stretching 13 [[w:light-year|light year]]s across space behind the star [[w:Mira|Mira]]. Credit: [[w:NASA|NASA]].]] [[Image:Features in Mira's Tail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A close-up view of a star racing through space faster than a speeding bullet can be seen in this image from NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/C. Martin (Caltech)/M. Seibert(OCIW).]] [[Image:Mira xray scale.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra image shows Mira A (right), a highly evolved red giant star, and Mira B (left), a white dwarf. Scalebar: 0.3 arcsec. Credit: NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska et al.]] '''Def.''' a high-velocity star moving through space with an abnormally high velocity relative to the surrounding interstellar medium is called a '''runaway star'''. "Of particular importance has been access to high resolution R~40,000-100,000 echelle spectra providing an ability to study the dynamics of hot plasma and separate multiple stellar and interstellar absorption components."<ref name=Barstow>{{ cite book |author=Martin A. Barstow |author2=L. Binette |author3=Noah Brosch |author4=F.Z. Cheng |author5=Michel Dennefeld |author6=A.I. G. de Castro |author7=H. Haubold |author8=K.A. van der Hucht |author9=N. Kappelmann |author10=P. Martinez |author11=A. Moisheev |author12=I. Pagano |author13=Erez N. Ribak |author14=J. Sahade |author15=B. I. Shustov |author16=J.-E. Solheim |author17=W. Wamsteker |author18=K. Werner |author19=Helmut Becker-Ross |author20=Stefan Florek |title=The WSO: a world-class observatory for the ultraviolet, In: ''Future EUV/UV and Visible Space Astrophysics Missions and Instrumentation'' |publisher=The International Society for Optical Engineering |location= |date=February 26, 2003 |editor=J. Chris Blades |editor2=Oswald H. W. Siegmund |volume=4854 |issue=364 |pages= |url=http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=876587 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1117/12.459779 |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-07-15 }}</ref> At left is a radiated object, the binary star Mira, and its associated phenomena. Ultra-violet studies of Mira by NASA's [[w:Galaxy Evolution Explorer|Galaxy Evolution Explorer]] (Galex) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, leaving a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite journal |last=Martin|first=Christopher | journal=Nature |volume=448 |title=A turbulent wake as a tracer of 30,000 years of Mira's mass loss history |doi=10.1038/nature06003 |date=August 17, 2007 |pages=780–783 |accessdate=2007-12-11 |pmid=17700694 |last2=Seibert|first2=M|last3=Neill|first3=JD|last4=Schiminovich|first4=D|last5=Forster|first5=K|last6=Rich|first6=RM|last7=Welsh|first7=BY|last8=Madore|first8=BF|last9=Wheatley|first9=JM |issue=7155 |bibcode=2007Natur.448..780M }}</ref><ref name=Minkel>Minkel, JR.[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=6AE74053-E7F2-99DF-353EB7B9AE43FCF6&chanID=sa007&ec=su_astro "Shooting Bullet Star Leaves Vast Ultraviolet Wake"], "The Scientific American", August 15, 2007 Accessed August 21, 2007.</ref> It is thought that a hot [[w:bow shock|bow-wave]] of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second (291,000 miles per hour).<ref name=Wareing07>{{ cite journal | url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1538-4357/670/2/L125/22252.html |author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=670 |issue=2 |title=It's a wonderful tail: the mass-loss history of Mira |doi= 10.1086/524407 |date=November 6, 2007 |pages=L125–L129 |last2=Zijlstra|first2=A. A.|last3=O'Brien|first3=T. J.|last4=Seibert|first4=M. |bibcode=2007ApJ...670L.125W |arxiv = 0710.3010 }}</ref><ref name=Clavin>{{ cite book |title=GALEX finds link between big and small stellar blasts |accessdate=2007-08-16 |author=W. Clavin |date= August 15, 2007 |publisher=California Institute of Technology |url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070827103038/http://www.galex.caltech.edu/MEDIA/2007-04/images.html }}</ref> The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultra-violet observations. Mira's bow-shock will eventually evolve into a [[w:planetary nebula|planetary nebula]], the form of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the [[w:interstellar medium|interstellar medium]] (ISM).<ref name=Wareing>{{ cite journal | author=Christopher Wareing | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume=366 | issue=1884 | title=Wonderful Mira | doi=10.1098/rsta.2008.0167 | pmid=18812301 | date=December 13, 2008 | pages=4429–40 |bibcode = 2008RSPTA.366.4429W }}</ref> At second right is the only available X-ray image, by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, of Mira A on the right and Mira B (left). "Mira A is losing gas rapidly from its upper atmosphere [apparently] via a stellar wind. [Mira B is asserted to be a white dwarf. In theory] Mira B exerts a gravitational tug that creates a gaseous bridge between the two stars. Gas from the wind and bridge accumulates in an accretion disk around Mira B and collisions between rapidly moving particles in the disk produce X-rays."<ref name=Karovska>{{ cite book |author=M. Karovska |display-authors=etal |title=More Images of Mira |publisher=NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Karovska, et al. |location= |date=April 28, 2005 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/mira/more.html |accessdate=2012-12-22 }}</ref> Mira A, spectral type M7&nbsp;IIIe<ref name=aj114_1584>{{ cite journal | last=Castelaz | first=Michael W. | coauthors=Luttermoser, Donald G. | title=Spectroscopy of Mira Variables at Different Phases. | journal=The Astronomical Journal | year=1997 | volume=114 | pages=1584–1591 | bibcode=1997AJ....114.1584C | doi=10.1086/118589 }}</ref>, has an effective surface temperature of 2918–3192<ref name=aaa421>{{ cite journal | last=Woodruff | first=H. C. | coauthors=Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schert, D.; Schöller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. | title=Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | year=2004 | volume=421 | issue=2 | pages=703–714 | url=http://www.eso.org/~mwittkow/publications/conferences/SPIECWo5491199.pdf |format=PDF | accessdate=2007-12-07 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20035826 | bibcode=2004A&A...421..703W |arxiv = astro-ph/0404248 }}</ref>. Mira A is not a known X-ray source according to SIMBAD, but here is shown to be one. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy|Cosmic rays}} '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm<sup>-3</sup>] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''<sup>-0.6</sup> g cm<sup>-2</sup> for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm<sup>-2</sup> below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy|Neutrals}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma [[w:ion|ion]] 'steals' charge from a cold neutral [[w:atom|atom]] to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams, In: ''Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial'' | author=Mike Gruntman | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.]] [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two [[w:energetic neutral atom|energetic neutral atom]] (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a [[w:collimator|collimator]] that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] and [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] into [[w:ions|ions]], an [[w:electrostatic analyzer|electrostatic analyzer]] (ESA) to suppress [[w:ultraviolet|ultraviolet]] light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because [[w:Hydrogen|[h]ydrogen]] is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high [[w:velocity|velocities]] involving little exchange of [[w:momentum|momentum]]. "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C |author7=Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month= |year=2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy|Protons}} The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in [[w:plasma (physics)|plasmas]] in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with [[electron]]s. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s, which propagate for interstellar distances. “Antiprotons have been detected in [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray [[w:proton|proton]]s with nuclei in the interstellar medium, via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name=Kennedy>{{ cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |url=https://archive.org/details/arxiv-astro-ph0003485 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy|Muons}} "TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Todor Stanev |author3=Gaurang B. Yodh |title=γ ray astronomy with muons |journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology |month=April 1, |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=4475-9 |url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1 |arxiv=astro-ph/9608201 |bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy|Positrons}} "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting>{{ cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy|Gamma rays}} [[Image:Geminga-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an XMM Newton image of the Gemini gamma-ray source. Credit: P.A. Caraveo (INAF/IASF), Milan and ESA.]] [[Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This all-sky view from GLAST reveals bright gamma-ray emission in the plane of the Milky Way (center), including the bright Geminga pulsar. Credit: NASA/DOE/International LAT Team.]] Geminga may be a sort of neutron star: the decaying core of a massive star that exploded as a [[w:supernova|supernova]] about 300,000 years ago.<ref name=Darling>[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/Geminga.html Geminga], Internet Encyclopedia of Science</ref> "Geminga is a very weak neutron star and the pulsar next to us, which almost only emits extremely hard gamma-rays, but no radio waves. ... Some thousand years ago our Sun entered this [Local Bubble] several hundred light-years big area, which is nearly dust-free."<ref name=Kummer>{{ cite book |author=Juergen Kummer |title=Geminga |publisher=Internetservice Kummer + Oster GbR |location=Buchenberg Germany |date=June 27, 2006 |url=http://jumk.de/astronomie/special-stars/geminga.shtml |accessdate=2013-05-08 }}</ref> The nature of Geminga was quite unknown for 20 years after its discovery by NASA's [[w:Second Small Astronomy Satellite|Second Small Astronomy Satellite]] (SAS-2). In March 1991 the [[w:ROSAT|ROSAT]] satellite detected a [[w:Frequency|periodicity]] of 0.237 seconds in [[w:Soft X-ray emission spectroscopy|soft x-ray emission]]. This nearby explosion may be responsible for the low density of the interstellar medium in the immediate vicinity of the [[Solar System]]. This low-density area is known as the [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]].<ref name=Gehrels>{{ cite journal |author=Neil Gehrels |author2=Wan Chen |title=The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble |journal=Nature |month= |year=1993 |volume=361 |issue=6414 |pages=706-7 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v361/n6414/abs/361706a0.html |doi=10.1038/361706a0 }}</ref> Possible evidence for this includes findings by the [[w:Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo Observatory]] that local micrometre-sized interstellar meteor particles appear to originate from its direction.<ref name=Centauri>{{ cite book | url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=1741 | title=The Sun's Exotic Neighborhood | publisher=Centauri Dreams | date=2008-02-28 }}</ref> Geminga is the first example of a radio-quiet pulsar, and serves as an illustration of the difficulty of associating gamma-ray emission with objects known at other wavelengths: either no credible object is detected in the error region of the gamma-ray source, or a number are present and some characteristic of the gamma-ray source, such as periodicity or variability, must be identified in one of the prospective candidates (or vice-versa as in the case of Geminga). {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy|X-rays}} "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy|Ultraviolets}} '''Def.''' "the spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side at about λ3000 by the onset of atmospheric ozone absorption and on the short wavelength side at λ912 by the photoionization of interstellar hydrogen" is called the '''ultraviolet'''.<ref name=Bless>{{ cite journal |author=R. C. Bless |author2=A. D. Code |title=Ultraviolet Astronomy |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1972 |volume=10 |issue= |pages=197-226 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1972ARA&A..10..197B |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.10.090172.001213 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Ultraviolet line spectrum measurements are used to discern the chemical composition, densities, and temperatures of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of hot young stars. [[w:Molecule|Molecular]] nitrogen and nitrogen [[w:Chemical compound|compound]]s have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers using the [[w:Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer]].<ref name=Meyer>{{ cite journal |title=Abundance of Interstellar Nitrogen |author=Meyer, Daved M. |author2=Cardelli, Jason A. |author3=Sofia, Ulysses J. |year=1997 |doi=10.1086/311023 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |pages=L103–6 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710162 |bibcode=1997ApJ...490L.103M }}</ref> ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy|Visuals}} Color indices of distant objects are usually affected by [[w:extinction (astronomy)|interstellar extinction]] &mdash;i.e. they are [[w:interstellar reddening|redder]] than those of closer stars. The amount of reddening is characterized by [[w:Interstellar reddening|color excess]], defined as the difference between the '''Observed color index''' and the '''Normal color index''' (or '''Intrinsic color index'''), the hypothetical true color index of the star, unaffected by extinction. For example, we can write it for the [[w:B-V color|B-V color]]: :<math>E_{B-V} = (B-V)_{\textrm{Observed}} - (B-V)_{\textrm{Intrinsic}}</math> Molecules of "[l]arge polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) ... or their ions are also ''attractive candidates for the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible'' (DIBs) [because] # they have optically active transitions in the visible; # they can survive the UV photons in the diffuse interstellar medium; [and] # they are the most abundant among the detected molecular species after H<sub>2</sub> and CO."<ref name=Leger>{{ cite journal |author=A. Léger |author2=L. d'Hendecourt |title=Are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the carriers of the diffuse interstellar bands in the visible? |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1985 |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=81-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1985A&A...146...81L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-29 }}</ref> ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy|Reds}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae<sup>17</sup>, planetary nebulae<sup>3</sup>, HII regions (Orion)<sup>12</sup>, a Nova<sup>11</sup>, Galactic cirrus<sup>14</sup>, a dark nebula<sup>7</sup>, Galaxies<sup>8,6</sup> and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)<sup>4</sup>. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is<sup>13</sup>. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy|Infrareds}} Interstellar dust can be studied by infrared spectrometry, in part because the dust is an astronomical infrared source and other infrared sources are behind the diffuse clouds of dust.<ref name=Duley>{{ cite journal |author=Duley W. W. |author2=Williams D. A. |title=The infrared spectrum of interstellar dust - Surface functional groups on carbon |journal=Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices |month=July |year=1981 |volume=196 |issue=7 |pages=269-74 |url= |bibcode=1981MNRAS.196..269D |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-06 }}</ref> '''Far-infrared astronomy''' deals with objects visible in [[w:far-infrared|far-infrared]] radiation (extending from 30 [[w:micron|µm]] towards submillimeter wavelengths around 450 µm). Huge, cold clouds of gas and dust in [[w:Milky Way|our own galaxy]], as well as in nearby [[w:galaxy|galaxies]], glow in far-infrared light. This is due to [[w:thermal radiation|thermal radiation]] of [[w:Interstellar Dust|interstellar dust]] contained in [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]]. The monochromatic flux density radiated by a greybody at frequency <math>\nu</math> through solid angle <math>\Omega</math> is given by <math>F_{\nu} = B_{\nu}(T) Q_{\nu} \Omega </math> where <math>B_{\nu}(T)</math> is the [[w:Planck's law of black body radiation|Planck function]] for a blackbody at temperature T and emissivity <math>Q_{\nu}</math>. For a uniform medium of [[w:optical depth|optical depth]] <math>\tau_{\nu}</math> [[w:radiative transfer|radiative transfer]] means that the radiation will be reduced by a factor <math>e^{-\tau_{\nu}}</math>. The optical depth is often approximated by the ratio of the emitting frequency to the frequency where <math>\tau=1</math> all raised to an exponent β. For cold dust clouds in the interstellar medium ''β'' is approximately two. Therefore Q becomes, <math>Q_{\nu}=1-e^{-\tau_{\nu}}=1-e^{-\tau_0 (\nu / \nu_{0})^{\beta}}</math>. (<math>\tau_0=1</math>, <math>\nu_0</math> is the frequency where <math>\tau_0=1</math>). ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy|Submillimeters}} Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the [[w:black body|black body]] radiation from anything with temperatures greater than about 10 [[w:kelvin|kelvin]]. While this thermal emission is very weak, observations at these frequencies are important for characterizing the cold 10-20K dust in the interstellar medium in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant [[w:starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]]. Telescopes operating in this band include the [[w:James Clerk Maxwell Telescope|James Clerk Maxwell Telescope]], the [[w:Caltech Submillimeter Observatory|Caltech Submillimeter Observatory]] and the [[w:Submillimeter Array|Submillimeter Array]] at the [[w:Mauna Kea Observatory|Mauna Kea Observatory]] in Hawaii, the [[w:BLAST (telescope)|BLAST]] balloon borne telescope, the [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]], and the [[w:Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope|Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope]] at the [[w:Mount Graham International Observatory|Mount Graham International Observatory]] in Arizona. The [[w:Atacama Large Millimeter Array|Atacama Large Millimeter Array]], under construction, will operate in the submillimeter range. The opacity of the Earth's atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space. "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H<sub>2</sub>/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H<sub>2</sub> to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s<sup>-1</sup> at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H<sub>2</sub>Cl<sup>+</sup>, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2<sub>12</sub> − 1<sub>01</sub> lines of ortho-H<sub>2</sub><sup>35</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> and ortho-H<sub>2</sub><sup>37</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1<sub>11</sub> − 0<sub>00</sub> transition of para-H<sub>2</sub><sup>35</sup>Cl<sup>+</sup> is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H<sub>2</sub>Cl<sup>+</sup>) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H<sub>2</sub>CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy|Radio astronomy|Radios}} "[A] number of [[w:spectral line|spectral line]]s produced by [[w:interstellar gas|interstellar gas]], notably the [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] spectral line at 21&nbsp;cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.<ref name="shu1982">{{ cite book |author = F. H. Shu |title = The Physical Universe |publisher = University Science Books |date = 1982 |location = Mill Valley, California |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0935702059 |isbn = 0-935702-05-9 }}</ref><ref name="cox2000">{{ cite book |editor=Cox, A. N. |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |date=2000 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA124 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |page=124 |location=New York |isbn=0-387-98746-0 }}</ref> "Over the past 30 years, radioastronomy has revealed a rich variety of molecular species in the interstellar medium of our galaxy and even others."<ref name=Herschbach>{{ cite journal |author=Dudley Herschbach |title=Chemical physics: Molecular clouds, clusters, and corrals |journal=Reviews of Modern Physics |month=March-May |year=1999 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=S411-S418 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S411 |pmid= |pdf=ftp://210.45.78.225/incoming/zhangry-home/%B9%A4%D7%F7%B2%BF%B7%D6/zhangry/book/%CE%EF%C0%ED%D1%A7%CA%B7/History%20of%20Modern%20Physics/Chemica%20Physics%20and%20Biological%20Physics/Chemical%20physics.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> “[R]adio astronomy ... has resulted in the detection of over a hundred interstellar species, including [[w:Radical (chemistry)|radical]]s and ions, and organic (i.e. [[w:carbon|carbon]]-based) compounds, such as [[w:alcohol|alcohol]]s, [[w:acid|acid]]s, [[w:aldehyde|aldehyde]]s, and [[w:ketone|ketone]]s. One of the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric [[w:dipole|dipole]] moment), is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar [[w:glycine|glycine]],<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |display-authors=etal |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest [[w:amino acid|amino acid]], but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |display-authors=etal |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> One of the reasons why this detection [is] controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like [[w:rotational spectroscopy|rotational spectroscopy]]) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids. ==Regions== {{main|Stars/Regions|Regions}} '''Def.''' a region between clouds of stars is called an '''intercloud region'''. "As the sun moves in its path through the galaxy, it will not always be immersed in the tenuous intercloud region of the interstellar medium."<ref name=AmericanGeophysicalUnion>{{ cite journal |author=American Geophysical Union |title= |journal=Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics |month= |year=1977 |volume=15 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Reviews_of_Geophysics_and_Space_Physics.html?id=KqxPAAAAYAAJ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-01 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} '''Def.''' the boundary marking one of the outer limits of the Sun's influence, where the solar wind dramatically slows is called '''termination shock'''. ==Comets== {{main|Comets}} Due to a need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres, emission lines in cometary spectra are being studied.<ref name=Federman>{{ cite journal |author=S.R. Federman, David L. Lambert |title=The need for accurate oscillator strengths and cross sections in studies of diffuse interstellar clouds and cometary atmospheres |journal=Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena |month=May |year=2002 |volume=123 |issue=2-3 |pages=161-71 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368204802000178 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |pdf=http://144.206.159.178/FT/578/62760/14353822.pdf |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres|Heliospheres}} [[Image:Solar wind at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|Plot shows the decreased detection of [[w:solar wind|solar wind]] particles by ''[[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]'' starting in August 2012. Credit: NASA.]] '''Def.''' the region of space where interstellar medium is blown away by solar wind; the boundary, heliopause, is often considered the edge of the Solar System is called the '''heliosphere'''. The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in [[w:outer space|space]] "blown" into the interstellar medium (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]) by the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. On September 12, 2013 it was announced that the previous year, starting on August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 entered the interstellar medium.<ref name=atlast>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space (Sept. 2013)]</ref> Outside the heliosphere the plasma density increased by about forty times.<ref name=interstellar>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space - Sept 12, 2013]</ref> '''Def.''' the boundary of heliosphere where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium is called the '''heliopause'''. '''Def.''' a zone between the termination shock and the heliopause, in the heliosphere, at the outer border of the Solar System, where the solar wind is dramatically slower than within the termination shock is called a '''heliosheath'''. The '''heliosheath''' is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here the wind is slowed, compressed and made turbulent by its interaction with the interstellar medium. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 80 to 100 [[w:astronomical unit|astronomical unit]]s (AU) at its closest point. The flow of ISM into the heliosphere has been measured by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.<ref name=flow>[http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/interstellar-wind-changed-direction-over-40-years/ Eleven Spacecraft Show Interstellar Wind Changed Direction Over 40 Years - Sept 5, 2013]</ref> By 2013, it was suspected that the direction of the flow had changed over time.<ref name=flow/> The flow, coming from Earth's perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by several degrees since the 1970s.<ref name=flow/> {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. ==Interstellar clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds|Interstellar clouds}} "Carbon monoxide is the second most abundant molecule, after H<sub>2</sub>, in interstellar clouds. In diffuse clouds, the amount of CO is mainly derived from measurements of absorption at UV wavelengths."<ref name=Federman/> ==Local hot bubbles== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Bubbles/Locals/Hot|Local hot bubbles}} [[Image:Local_bubble.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Local Hot Bubble is hot X-ray emitting gas within the Local Bubble pictured as an artist's impression. Credit: NASA.]] The 'local hot bubble' is a "hot X-ray emitting plasma within the local environment [the ISM] of the Sun."<ref name=Kappes>{{ cite journal |author=M. Kappes |author2=J. Kerp |author3=P. Richter |title=The composition of the interstellar medium towards the Lockman Hole H I, UV and X-ray observations |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=2003 |volume=405 |issue=7 |pages=607-16 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2003A&A...405..607K |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20030610 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-01-19 }}</ref> "This coronal gas fills the irregularly shaped local void of matter (McCammon & Sanders 1990) - frequently called the Local Hot Bubble (LHB)."<ref name=Kappes/> The Sun's hot [[w:corona|corona]] continuously expands in space creating the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]], a stream of charged particles that extends to the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] at roughly 100 [[w:astronomical units|astronomical units]]. The bubble in the [[interstellar medium]] formed by the solar wind, the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]], is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.<ref>{{ cite book |date=22 April 2003 |title=A Star with two North Poles |url=http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm |publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name=Riley>{{ cite journal |last=Riley |first=P. |last2=Linker |first2=J. A. |last3=Mikić |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations |url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=107 |issue=A7 |pages=SSH 8–1 |bibcode=2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R |doi=10.1029/2001JA000299 |id=CiteID 1136 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Epsilon Eridani== {{main|Stars/Epsilon Eridani|Epsilon Eridani}} The [[w:stellar wind|stellar wind]] emitted by Epsilon Eridani expands until it collides with the surrounding interstellar medium of sparse gas and dust, resulting in a bubble of heated hydrogen gas. The [[w:absorption spectrum|absorption spectrum]] from this gas has been measured with the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]], allowing the properties of the stellar wind to be estimated.<ref name=mnras385_4_1691>{{ cite journal | author=J.-U. Ness, C. Jordan | title=The corona and upper transition region of ε Eridani | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=385 | issue=4 | pages=1691–708 | month=April | year=2008 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12757.x | bibcode=2008MNRAS.385.1691N | arxiv=0711.3805 }}</ref> Epsilon Eridani's hot corona results in a mass loss rate from the star's stellar wind that is 30 times higher than the Sun's. This wind is generating an [[w:Stellar wind bubble|astrosphere]] (the equivalent of the [[w:heliosphere|heliosphere]] that surrounds the Sun) that spans about 8,000&nbsp;AU and contains a [[w:bow shock|bow shock]] that lies 1,600&nbsp;AU from the star. At its estimated distance from Earth, this astrosphere spans 42&nbsp;arcminutes, which is wider than the apparent size of the full Moon.<ref name=apj574_1>{{ cite journal | author=Brian E. Wood |author2=Hans-Reinhard Müller |author3=Gary P. Zank |author4=Jeffrey L. Linsky | title=Measured mass-loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | month=July | year=2002 | volume=574 | issue=1 | pages=1–2 | doi=10.1086/340797 | bibcode=2002ApJ...574..412W | arxiv=astro-ph/0203437 }} See p. 10.</ref> ==H I regions== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens/H I regions|H I regions}} An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10<sup>−4</sup> (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July |year=1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> ==Cold neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Cold neutrals|Cold neutral mediums}} H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ==Warm neutral mediums== {{main|Stars/Mediums/Warm neutrals|Warm neutral mediums}} The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> ==Warm ionized mediums== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm<sup>3</sup>, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ==Hot ionized mediums== "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10<sup>6</sup>-10<sup>7</sup> K which emits X-rays. The ISM is [[w:turbulence|turbulent]] and full of structure on all spatial scales. [[w:Star formation|Stars are born]] deep inside large complexes of [[w:molecular clouds|molecular clouds]], typically a few [[w:parsec|parsec]]s in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. [[w:Stellar wind|Stellar wind]]s from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant [[w:HII region|HII region]]s surrounding them) and [[w:shock wave|shock wave]]s created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are [[w:stellar wind bubble|stellar wind bubble]]s and [[w:superbubble|superbubble]]s of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the [[w:Local Interstellar Cloud|Local Interstellar Cloud]], a denser region in the low-density [[w:Local Bubble|Local Bubble]]."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ==H II regions== [[Image:Messier 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a three-color composite of the sky region of Messier 17. Credit: ESO.]] An '''H&nbsp;II region''' is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place. At right is an image in three-color infrared of an H II region excited by a cluster of young, hot stars. The region is in Messier 17 (M 17). A large silhouette disc occurs to the southwest of the cluster center. This image is obtained with the ISAAC near-infrared instrument at the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope at Paranal. {{clear}} ==Protoplanetary disks== {{main|Protoplanetary disks}} In December 2006, seven papers were published in the scientific journal, ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]'', discussing initial details of the sample analysis. Among the findings are: a wide range of [[w:organic compounds|organic compounds]], including two that contain biologically usable [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]]; indigenous [[w:aliphatic compound|aliphatic hydrocarbons]] with longer chain lengths than those observed in the diffuse [[interstellar medium]]; abundant amorphous [[w:silicate|silicate]]s in addition to crystalline silicates such as [[w:olivine|olivine]] and [[w:pyroxene|pyroxene]], proving consistency with the mixing of solar system and interstellar matter, previously deduced [[w:spectroscopic|spectroscopic]]ally from ground observations;<ref name=Nottingham>{{ cite book |title=The building blocks of planets within the `terrestrial' region of protoplanetary disks |url=http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2004Natur.432..479V&amp;db_key=AST |publisher=nottingham.ac.uk |accessdate=2008-03-04 }}</ref> hydrous silicates and carbonate minerals were found to be absent, suggesting a lack of aqueous processing of the cometary dust; limited [[w:CHON|pure carbon (CHON)]] was also found in the samples returned; [[w:methylamine|methylamine]] and [[w:ethylamine|ethylamine]] was found in the aerogel but was not associated with specific particles. ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Planetary|Planetary nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[commons:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Dark nebulas== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Darks|Dark nebulas}} "The 1₁₁ → 1₁₀ rotational transition of formaldehyde (H₂CO) [occurs] in absorption in the direction of four dark nebulae. The radiation ... being absorbed appears to be the isotropic microwave background".<ref name=Palmer>{{ cite journal |author=Patrick Palmer |author2=B. Zuckerman |author3=David Buhl |author4=Lewis E. Snyder |title=Formaldehyde Absorption in Dark Nebulae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June |year=1969 |volume=156 |issue=6 |pages=L147-50 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1969ApJ...156L.147P |doi=10.1086/180368 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-03 }}</ref> One of the dark nebulae sampled, per [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] is TGU H1211 P5. ==Molecular clouds== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Moleculars|Molecular clouds}} [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors/Clouds/Molecules/Giants|Giant molecular clouds}} A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10³–10⁷ times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10²–10³ particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10⁴–10⁶ particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Galactic center== {{main|Milky Way/Galactic center|Galactic center}} [[Image:H-alpha Sky Survey Milky Way center.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Milky Way is viewed by H-Alpha Sky Survey. Credit: Douglas Finkbeiner.]] "Spectra of the helium 2.06 µm and hydrogen 2.17 µm lines ... confirm the existence of an extended region of high-velocity redshifted line emission centered near [Sgr A^*/IRS 16]."<ref name=Geballe>{{ cite journal |author=T. R. Geballe |author2=K. Krisciunas |author3=J. A. Bailey |author4=R. Wade |title=Mapping of infrared helium and hydrogen line profiles in the central few arcseconds of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=April 1, |year=1991 |volume=370 |issue=4 |pages=L73-6 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1991ApJ...370L..73G |doi=10.1086/185980 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-03 }}</ref> "The central 0.1 parsecs of the Milky Way host a supermassive black hole identified with the position of the radio and infrared source Sagittarius A* (refs. ^1,2), a cluster of young, massive stars (the S stars³) and various gaseous features^4,5. [Two] unusual objects have been found to be closely orbiting Sagittarius A*: the so-called G sources, G1 and G2. These objects are unresolved (having a size of the order of 100 astronomical units, except at periapse, where the tidal interaction with the black hole stretches them along the orbit) and they show both thermal dust emission and line emission from ionized gas^6,7,8,9,10. G1 and G2 [...] appear to be tidally interacting with the supermassive Galactic black hole, possibly enhancing its accretion activity. [The] G objects show the characteristics of gas and dust clouds but display the dynamical properties of stellar-mass objects. [Four] additional G objects, all lying within 0.04 parsecs of the black hole [have been found]. The widely varying orbits derived for the six G objects demonstrate that they were commonly but separately formed."<ref name=Ciurlo>{{ cite journal |author=Anna Ciurlo |author2=Randall D. Campbell |author3=Mark R. Morris |author4=Tuan Do |author5=Andrea M. Ghez |author6=Aurélien Hees |author7=Breann N. Sitarski |author8=Kelly Kosmo O’Neil |author9=Devin S. Chu |author10=Gregory D. Martinez |author11=Smadar Naoz |author12=Alexander P. Stephan |title=A population of dust-enshrouded objects orbiting the Galactic black hole |journal=Nature |date=15 January 2020 |volume=577 |issue= |pages=337-40 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1883-y |pmid= |accessdate=19 January 2020 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Supernova remnants== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Clouds/Supernova remnants|Supernova remnants}} [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Crab Nebula]] is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: .]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10³⁸ erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from ⁵⁶Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper |editor2=Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Diffuse interstellar mediums== {{main|Stars/Interstellars/Diffuse|Diffuse interstellar mediums}} [[Image:Ngc1999.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]/Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 image of NGC 1999 includes a vast hole of empty space. Credit: NASA and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI).]] A discovery by the [ [[w:Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel Space Observatory]] infrared telescope,] in conjunction with other ground based telescopes, determined that black patches of space in certain areas encompassing a star formation are not [[w:dark nebula|dark nebula]]e but actually vast holes of empty space. The exact cause of this phenomenon is still being investigated, although it has been hypothesized that narrow jets of gas from some of the young stars in the region punctured the sheet of dust and gas, as well as, powerful radiation from a nearby mature star may have helped to create the hole. "This [is] a previously unknown and unexpected step in the star-forming process.<ref name=MSNBChole>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37088640/ns/technology_and_science-space/ Telescope discovers surprising hole in space], MSNBC, by Space.com, 11-05-2010</ref> The star is [[w:V280 Orionis|V280 Orionis]]. "To measure the spectrum of the diffuse X-ray emission from the interstellar medium over the energy range 0.07 to 1 keV, NASA launched a [[w:Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant 9]] from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico on May 1, 2008.<ref name=McCammon>{{ cite book |author=B. Wright |title=36.223 UH MCCAMMON/UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN |url=http://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/news/story83.html }}</ref> The Principal Investigator for the mission is Dr. Dan McCammon of the University of Wisconsin."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> {{clear}} ==Satellites== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Satellites}} The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (¹³CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O₂), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I). ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and [[w:temperature|temperature]]s of [[w:star|star]]s and [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]]s. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. [[w:Interstellar formaldehyde|Interstellar formaldehyde]] was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. ==Balloons== {{main|Stars/Balloons|Balloons}} [[Image:BLAST on flightline kiruna 2005.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|BLAST is hanging from the launch vehicle in [[w:Esrange|Esrange]] near [[w:Kiruna|Kiruna]], [[w:Sweden|Sweden]] before launch June 2005. Credit: [[commons:User:Mtruch|Mtruch]].]] [[Image:NASA Launches Telescope-Toting Balloon from-c3425de80831dab2a243aae9e0372fe7.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|NASA's balloon-carried BLAST sub-millimeter telescope is hoisted into launch position on Dec. 25, 2012, at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Credit: NASA/Wallops Flight Facility.]] The '''Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope''' ('''BLAST''') is a [[w:Submillimetre astronomy|submillimeter]] [[w:telescope|telescope]] that hangs from a [[w:high altitude balloon|high altitude balloon]]. It has a 2 meter primary mirror that directs light into [[w:bolometer|bolometer]] arrays operating at 250, 350, and 500&nbsp;µm. BLAST's primary science goals are:<ref>[http://blastexperiment.info/ BLAST Public Webpage]</ref> *Measure photometric [[w:redshift|redshift]]s, rest-frame [[w:Far infrared|FIR]] luminosities and star formation rates of high-redshift [[w:starburst galaxies|starburst galaxies]], thereby constraining the evolutionary history of those galaxies that produce the FIR/submillimeter background. *Measure cold pre-stellar sources associated with the earliest stages of [[w:star formation|star]] and [[w:planet formation|planet formation]]. *Make high-resolution maps of diffuse galactic emission in the interstellar medium over a wide range of galactic latitudes. {{clear}} ==Sounding rockets== {{main|Stars/Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets}} [[Image:Nike-Black Brant VC XQC launch.gif|thumb|left|150px|Carried aloft on a Nike-Black Brant VC sounding rocket, the microcalorimeter arrays observed the diffuse soft X-ray emission from a large solid angle at high galactic latitude. Credit: NASA/Wallops.]] "In astronomy, the interstellar medium (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [[intergalactic medium]]. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name=Spitzer1978>{{ cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.5182 |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Telescopes== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Telescopes|Telescopes}} "The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # With an interstellar medium, propagation of electromagnetic radiation may not be the same as in a theory. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Intergalactic medium]] * [[Interplanetary medium]] * [[Radiation chemistry]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&go=&qs=n&sk=&sc=8-15&qb=1&FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search] * [http://books.google.com/ Google Books] * [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search] * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR] * [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals] * [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink] * [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor & Francis Online] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search] * [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Stars resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Interstellar medium}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astronomy learning projects/Resources]] [[Category:Astronomy/Resources]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Resources]] [[Category:Charges/Resources]] [[Category:Entities/Resources]] [[Category:Gases/Resources]] [[Category:Locations/Resources]] [[Category:Plasmas/Resources]] [[Category:Regions/Resources]] [[Category:Resources last modified in January 2020]] r5mpku7zplncm20b4csw5j4obtr4vdh 0 149819 2417152 2242231 2022-08-22T03:06:56Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Novato-Webber-Jenniskens.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a fragment of the October 17, 2012, fireball over San Mateo, California. Credit: Petrus M. Jenniskens, SETI Institute/NASA ARC.{{tlx|free media}}]] This laboratory is an activity for you to examine a meteorite. While it is part of the astronomy course [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles|principles of radiation astronomy]], it is also independent. Information about the examination of [[Rocks/Meteorites|meteorites]] comes from the examination of pieces of rock found here on Earth. Some suggested examination entities to consider are grain size, grain shape, mass, age, impurities, minerals, and origin. More importantly, there are '''your''' examination entities. And, yes, you can create alternate examination entities. You may choose to define your examination entities or use those already mentioned. Usually, research follows someone else's ideas of how to do something. But, in this laboratory you can create these too. Search through Google scholar or your local library for meteorites and perhaps thin sections or cross sections. {{clear}} Okay, this is an astronomy [[Rocks/Meteorites|meteorites]] [[laboratory]], but you may create what a '''meteorite''' is. Yes, this laboratory is structured. I will provide one example of a meteorite, examine it benefiting from already made thin sections, and perform an analysis. The rest is up to you. Questions, if any, are best placed on the discussion page. ==Notations== You are free to create your own notation or use that already provided. ==Control groups== For creating an examination technique for your meteorite, what would make an acceptable control group? Think about a control group to compare your meteorite examination or your process of examination to. Describe it. ==Samplings== [[Image:High iron chondrite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a cross section image of a high-iron chondrite from Dar al Gani. Credit: Bernie H. Gunn.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Kieffer Sandstone thin section.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is a black and white photomicrograph of unshocked quartz grains from the Coconino sandstone in northern Arizona sufficiently far away from Meteor Crater. Credit: Susan Werner Kieffer.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] One way to look for a possible meteorite to analyze is to try Google Search Images using the key words: "thin section" and meteorite. Some of the websites available are interested in artistic qualities rather than readily analyzable qualities. The image at right from the Google search of images shows a good feature for analysis: there are a great many light gray and dark gray chondrules present. A poor feature for analysis is the over all small grain sizes making measurements difficult. A second way is to try Google Scholar Advanced Search using the same key words: "thin section" and meteorite. The image at left appears in a journal article from 1971. The image is through crossed polarizers (then referred to as crossed Nicols). It shows large grain cross sections making sizing easy and a 100 ''µ''m marker at the upper right for accurate sizing. The major weakness, of course, is that it is not from a meteorite. The sampling suggested is conducted on the web so any search engine should be good. One problem is the need to see the thin sections for the candidate meteorite. The portable document format (pdf) is often the best to have available photomicrographs of thin sections. Of ten returns from a search engine, maybe two at most are downloadable as a pdf-type file for photomicrograph extraction and analysis. {{clear}} ==Verifications== [[Image:NWA 5400 xp Hupe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a thin slice of NWA 5400 viewed under a special lighting arrangement through a microscope. Many of the strikingly colorful crystals are composed of olivine. Credit: Greg Hupe.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] As shown at right in the previous section, one feature reasonably unique to meteorite thin sections is the presence of chondrules. At right in this section is an image of a thin section of a meteorite designated Northwest Africa 5400 (NWA 5400). Meteorites are initially classified "into three broad groups: irons, stony-irons and stones."<ref name=King/> "From there, a meteorite is further classified according to the amount and kinds of minerals and metals it contains."<ref name=King/> "Hupé’s rock [at right] was classified broadly as an achondrite (AY-kon-drite), a stony meteorite from beneath an asteroid’s crust that suffered heating, melting and crystallization. Its primary ingredient is olivine, a lovely green crystalline rock found in abundance in Earth’s mantle."<ref name=King>{{ cite book |author=Bob King |title=Florida man uncovers possible Earth-related meteorite |publisher=Area Voices .com |location= |date=June 14, 2010 |url=http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2010/06/14/florida-man-uncovers-possible-earth-related-meteorite/ |accessdate=2014-03-01 }}</ref> Hupé’s "stone was closely related to both moon rocks and Earth rocks but was neither of lunar origin nor from the current Earth. Based on detailed analysis of oxygen isotopes present in the sample, the researchers offered the possibility that the sample, now officially named Northwest Africa 5400 or NWA 5400, could be a terrene meteorite or one derived from the ancient Earth around the time of its formation 4.5 billion years ago. Other possibilities include another differentiated, Earth-like body that formed in the Earth-moon neighborhood or a fragment of the material that coalesced to form the moon."<ref name=King/> Although the rock has apparently been verified as a meteorite,<ref name=Shukolyukov>{{ cite book |author=A. Shukolyukov |author2=G. Lugmair |author3=J. M. D. Day |author4=R. J. Walker |author5=D. Rumble III |author6=D. Nakashima |author7=K. Nagao |author8=A. J. Irving |title=Constraints on the Formation Age, Highly Siderophile Element Budget and Noble Gas Isotope Compositions of Northwest Africa 5400: an Ultramafic Achondrite with Terrestrial Isotopic Characteristics |publisher=41st Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |location= |date= |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/1492.pdf |accessdate=2014-03-01 }}</ref> the thin section has no marker indicating magnification. The small somewhat angular black blebs are likely made of metal. {{clear}} ==Chondrule sizings== [[Image:Chondrule size Errors.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Large errors in chondrule diameters may occur for a wide size range. Credit: Don D. Eisenhour.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Chondrules in cross section.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This diagran shows that random sectioning of chondrules produces apparent diameters less than or equal to the true diameters, D. Credit: Don D. Eisenhour.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Thin section chondrule sizing.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The diagrams show apparent chondrule diameters under various viewing conditions. Credit: Don D. Eisenhour.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Disaggregation [...] and thin-section analyses [...] are two standard methods used to obtain statistical data on chondrule sizes. Disaggregation has the advantage that chondrule diameters and abundances can be measured directly, but information on chondrule textures, compositions, and rims is not readily obtainable without subsequent sectioning. In addition, most chondrites are not amenable to disaggregation. In thin section, the compositions, textures, and rim characteristics of chondrules can be determined at the time chondrule sizes are measured. However, the diameters and relative abundances determined from thin-section measurements must be corrected for several sources of bias."<ref name=Eisenhour>{{ cite journal |author=Don D. Eisenhour |title=Determining chondrule size distributions from thin-section measurements |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |month=March |year=1996 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=243-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996M&PS...31..243E |arxiv= |bibcode=1996M&PS...31..243E |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1996.tb02019.x |pmid= |accessdate=2014-03-01 }}</ref> The first diagram on the right shows one source of bias due to a large variation in actual chondrule diameters. The top diagram at left illustrates that "random sectioning of chondrules produces apparent diameters less than or equal to the true diameters, ''D''."<ref name=Eisenhour/> The second diagram at right shows apparent "chondrule diameters under various viewing conditions. In reflected light, the probability of observing an apparent diameter between ''d''₁ and ''d''₂, where ''d''₂ < ''d''₁ < ''D'' [varies]. In transmitted light when the matrix is transparent, the observed diameter is the largest diameter occurring in thin section. If the matrix is opaque, only chondrules 1 and 2 [ar]e observed in transmitted light, resulting in an underestimation of the abundance of small chondrules."<ref name=Eisenhour/> {{clear}} ==Optical conditions== In addition to a grain size marker, or magnification marker, the image creator needs to specify the optical conditions under which the image is made. Is it reflected light, transmitted light, polarized light, crossed polarizers, thin film thickness? When all of these are properly specified the images may be used for mineral, or mineral family, identification. ==Alternate microstructures== [[Image:Motif de "Widmanstätten" ©dada 677.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of a Widmanstätten pattern of a meteorite from the African Gibeon cluster. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel baise|Daniel baise]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Widmanstätten pattern kevinzim.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image is another Widmanstätten texture in the surface of an etched meteorite from the Gibeon cluster, Namibia. Credit: [http://flickr.com/people/86624586@N00/ kevinzim / Kevin Walsh].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Laguna Manantiales iron meteorite, Santa Cruz, Argentina, 1945, showing Widmanstatten pattern - Springfield Science Museum - Springfield, MA - DSC03394.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This Widmanstätten pattern is exhibited in the Springfield Science Museum, 21 Edwards Street, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA. Credit: Daderot.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Widmanstatten hand.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Acid-etched iron meteorite slice, revealing the characteristic Widmanstatten pattern, indicative of slow cooling and crystallization within the iron-nickel cores of larger asteroids. Credit: [http://flickr.com/people/47327870@N00 Waifer X].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Widmanstätten pattern Staunton meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Widmanstätten pattern of the Staunton Meteorite, on display at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC. Credit: [[w:User:Jstuby|Jstuby]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Cutting_the_octaedron.png|thumb|left|250px|The diagrams show different cuts of the octaedron that produce different kinds of Widmanstätten patterns. Credit: [[c:User:Basilicofresco|Davide Bolsi]].{{tlx|free media}}]] These many patterns are an interleaving of kamacite and taenite bands or ribbons with a fine-grained mixture of kamacite and taenite called plessite in the gaps between the lamellae. The lowest set of diagrams at left show how the patterns display different orientation patterns based on a cubic symmetry system octahedron. {{clear}} ==Compositions== [[Image:Martian meteorite thin section.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This backscattered electron image shows fayalite–pyroxene–silica symplectite (intergrowth). Credit: Alian Wang, Karla Kuebler, Bradley Jolliff and Larry A. Haskin.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Martian meteorite, EETA 79001, has been analyzed with the Raman point-count procedure. "Raman spectra [occur] for pyroxene, olivine, maskelynite (shocked, isotropized feldspar), chromite, magnetite, ilmenite, ulvöspinel, pyroxferroite, merrillite, apatite, anatase, an Fe sulfide, calcite and hematite."<ref name=Wang>{{ cite journal |author=Alian Wang |author2=Karla Kuebler |author3=Bradley Jolliff |author4=Larry A. Haskin |title=Mineralogy of a Martian meteorite as determined by Raman spectroscopy |journal=Journal of Raman Spectroscopy |month=June |year=2004 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=504-14 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jrs.1175/abstract;jsessionid=C19DA6ABAE9EEFB335A2B055C27414B1.f02t02?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-03-03 }}</ref> "The major Raman peak of chromite from this meteorite occurs in a range from 679 to 699 cm^-1 [...], which corresponds to a (Cr + Fe³⁺)/(Cr + Fe³⁺ + Al) ratio of 0.75-1.0.⁸ Although not reported in previous studies on EETA79001, magnetite was detected in Raman point-counting measurements on EETA79001,482 rock chip [...] Magnetite and ulvöspinel [...] found in this meteorite have smaller grain sizes, are always observed in multi-phase spectra and only rarely appear insequential spectra."<ref name=Wang/> Approximate area percentages can be estimated using the thin section at right. The penetration depth of a scanning electron beam is usually ≤ 1 µm. Most of the backscattered electrons come from a shallower depth. Using the mineral determinations, the approximate mineral composition is # merrillite 35 %, # maskelynite 20 %, # pyroxene 20 %, # ulvöspinel 12 %, # symplectite 5 %, # olivine 1 %, and the remainder # about 4 %. Of the minerals present in this meteorite, only merrillite has apparently never been found in terrestrial rocks. {{clear}} ==Report== '''Title:''' Approximate mineral composition of a Martian meteorite by --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 04:19, 4 March 2014 (UTC) '''Abstract''' Several online techniques for finding a meteorite of interest with a compositional analysis are presented. Sources of potential errors are described and a Martian meteorite has been analyzed with respect to mineral composition using a thin section. '''Introduction''' Thin section analysis of meteorites is a technique in use for many decades. While reliable for specific quantities, it's potential sources of error and misunderstood conclusions should be described so that students may pick thin sections to analyze with a reasonable chance of success. '''Experiment''' Using Google as a search engine, while others will as work well, produces some potential thin sections. The challenges present in using examples are small grain size, minimum visual differentiation, lack of proper sizing markers, and limited access to the thin sections themselves due to a need for pdf type presentations. Verification that the chosen thin section is actually from a meteorite must come from the thin section primary source. The thin section of many rock types on Earth are likely to bear a striking resemblance to the thin section of a candidate meteorite. Verification usually concerns isotope ratios. Different locations of formation even within the solar system may have led to different isotope ratios. '''Results''' A candidate thin section should bear a fiducial marker allowing for magnification. Apparent grain sizes need to be large enough in the photomicrograph to permit easy sizing. The optical conditions in which the thin section was made should be adequately described. Chondrules, when present, require caution and application of sizing corrections for determining accurate diameters. Alternate microstructures due to compositional variations and meteorite likely origin present unique challenges. An acceptable photomicrograph may be generated by additional techniques rather than being strictly limited to visual surface reflection or transmissive polarized lighting. '''Discussion''' Once a reasonably good choice is made the area percentages of already identified minerals may be obtained. Each type of microstructure can be analyzed but orientation of the sectioning must be properly considered. Secondary techniques such as Raman spectroscopy or scanning electron backscattering assist in identifying minerals and differentiating them over the area of a thin section. '''Conclusion''' Once a good choice of thin section is made, an analysis may be performed that adds information about the meteorite. ==Evaluation== To assess your locator, including your justification, analysis and discussion, I will provide such an assessment of my example for comparison and consideration. '''Evaluation''' While initially the idea of examining a meteorite in thin section so as to contribute to our knowledge of any specific meteorite seems to be a good idea, it appears to be the case that the field has developed far beyond what information may be obtained by simple mineral examination in thin section with optical inspection. ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} Hypothesis: # Some meteorites may be a lot younger than expected. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation/Analysis/Laboratory|Analytical astronomy]] * [[Cosmogony laboratory|Cosmogony]] * [[Cratering laboratory|Cratering]] * [[Electric orbits]] * [[Electron beam heating/Laboratory|Electron beam heating]] * [[Galaxies/Laboratory|Galaxies]] * [[Intergalactic medium/Laboratory|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Locating the Sun]] * [[Magnetic field reversals/Laboratory|Magnetic field reversal]] * [[Meteorites/Laboratory|Meteorites]] * [[Neutrinos from the Sun]] * [[Spectrum of Vega]] * [[Standard candles/Laboratory|Standard candles]] * [[Vertical precession]] * [[X-ray classification of a star]] * [[X-ray trigonometric parallax/Laboratory|X-ray trigonometric parallax]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Chemistry resources}}{{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{tlx|Geology resources}}{{tlx|History of science resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Reasoning resources}}{{tlx|Semantics resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Meteorites}}{{Sisterlinks|Laboratory}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics/Laboratories]] [[Category:Chemicals/Laboratories]] [[Category:Chemistry/Laboratories]] [[Category:Crystallography/Laboratories]] [[Category:Geology/Laboratories]] [[Category:Minerals/Laboratories]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Laboratories]] [[Category:Rocks/Laboratories]] [[Category:Structures/Laboratories]] gpj4xylac356bpc1vovwdun0mnorfor 6 153456 2417130 1122998 2022-08-22T00:11:00Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == The image is a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. The telescope is inclined to the direction of the Sun by 15°. The plane area of the detector is 1.0 m² and protected by lead plates (Pb) to eliminate gamma-ray and muon background from the side of the detector. The anti-coincident counter (A) is used to reject the muons and gamma rays, coming from the side of the detector and the top scintillators. (P) and (G) are used to identify the proton events and gamma rays. The central scintillator blocks are optically separated into 10 units. == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = The image is a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. |Source = The schematic occurs in an article entitled, "Observation of solar neutrons associated with the large flare on 1991 June 4", by Y. Muraki, K. Murakami, M. Miyazaki, K. Mitsui. S. Shibata, S. Sakakibara, T. Sakai, T. Takahashi, T. Yamada, and K. Yamaguchi, in The Astrophysical Journal for December 1, 1992 at url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJ...400L..75M. |Date = 17 October 1990 |Author = Y. Muraki, K. Murakami, M. Miyazaki, K. Mitsui. S. Shibata, S. Sakakibara, T. Sakai, T. Takahashi, T. Yamada, and K. Yamaguchi |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} hi6nedsvyjju8zq8vqoaatxvyv434gu 6 154959 2417167 1136056 2022-08-22T03:58:06Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == This diagram shows one of the Van Allen Probes with various components labeled. == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = The diagram shows one of the Van Allen Probes with various components and subsystems labeled. |Source = Image is in an article entitled, "Van Allen Probes" at url=https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/v-w-x-y-z/van-allen-probes. |Date = November 9, 2012 |Author = Karen C. Fox |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show the diagram of one of the Van Allen Probes with various components and subsystems labeled. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} maflfvmisukvc9euy8acyqmoqzvfgd6 6 156674 2417078 1147954 2022-08-21T15:26:57Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == This is an annotated composite image of Stephan's Quintet. [[Category:Galaxies]] == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = This composite image is of Stephan's Quintet with annotations of various components. |Source = The image appears in a web white paper at url=http://astrophysics.gsfc.nasa.gov/cosmology/spirit/FIR-SIM_Crosscutting_White_Paper.pdf. |Date = May 28-30, 2008 |Author = Martin Harwit, George Helou, Lee Armus, C. Matt Bradford, Paul F. Goldsmith, Michael Hauser, David Leisawitz, Daniel F. Lester, George Rieke, and Stephen A. Rinehart |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show this composite image of Stephan's Quintet with annotations of various components. |Permission = Fair Use, as the image is in a White Paper published by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center it is most likely Public Domain. }} {{Fairuse}} 10q98453gliyszgw8a0hbl7tmw9jb7e 0 157093 2417159 2408465 2022-08-22T03:28:25Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Dark matter simulation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|These computer simulations show a swarm of dark matter clumps around our Milky Way galaxy. Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown and J. Tumlinson (STScI).{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Principles of radiation astronomy]]''' is a course of forty-eight lectures, sixteen mini-lectures for quiz sections, three ''hourly'' quizzes that are timed at an hour, a mid-term that covers the first half of the course, and a final which covers everything in the course. This is the mid-term quiz. It covers the first twenty-four lectures, the first eight mini-lectures, problem sets, lessons, and laboratories, except where noted in the course [[Principles of Radiation Astronomy/Syllabus|syllabus]]. You are free to take this quiz based on these at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lectures and the rest, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles/Midterm quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Courses/Principles/Midterm quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. The quiz is timed at 3 hours. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Yes or No, A calculation of energy is not possible unless a mass is involved. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Bombardment by protostellar { cosmic rays (i) } may make the rock { precursors (i) } of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions { CAIs (i) } and chondrules radioactive, producing { radionuclides (i) } found in meteorites that are difficult to obtain with other mechanisms. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} At the high end of the proton energy spectrum (above ≈ 10¹⁸ eV) the { Larmor (i) } radius deflection becomes { small (i) } enough that proton astronomy becomes { possible (i) }. {Which of the following may be characteristic of magnetohydrodynamics? |type="[]"} + driven by current gradients - neutral atoms + closed tube loops + twisted flux + open field lines + synchrotron radiation {True or False, Van Allen radiation belt electrons are constantly removed by collisions with atmospheric neutrals, losses to the magnetopause, and outward radial diffusion. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the type of cosmic-ray detector with each of the possibilities below: visible tracks - A diffusion cloud chamber - B bubbles - C a grid of uninsulated electric wires - D similar to the Haverah Park experiment - E fluorescence detectors - F spark chamber { D (i) }. continuously sensitized to radiation { B (i) }. Pierre Auger Observatory { F (i) }. bubble chamber { C (i) }. Cherenkov detector { E (i) } expansion cloud chamber { A (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An X-ray binary star exhibiting periodic and rapid increases in luminosity (typically a factor of 10 or greater) peaked in the X-ray regime is called an { X-ray burster (i) }. {Which of the following may be a type of X-ray binary? |type="[]"} - a dwarf planet - a member of the Oort belt + a soft X-ray transient - the polar regions (North and South) of Jupiter + an X-ray burster + Hercules X-1 + an X-ray emitting Be star {[[Image:Spiral Galaxy M100.jpg|right|100px]] The galaxy image at the right has approximately which type of rotational symmetry?? |type="()"} - one-fold - ⊙ + two-fold - ⊖ - three-fold - ▲ - four-fold - ◈ - five-fold - ✪ - six-fold - ✱ {{clear}} {True or False, Super soft X-ray sources have been detected in the Magellanic clouds. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} A non-SI unit of spectral X-ray flux density is called the { Jansky (i) }. {The generalization to self-gravitating continua is outlined focused on the classification problem of singularities and metamorphoses arising in the |type="{}"} { density field (i) }. {Which of the following may be characteristic of a universe? |type="[]"} + an origin + singularity + chaos + aether + local steady-state + uncountability + irrational numbers {True or False, The ''flux density'' or ''monochromatic flux'', <math>S</math>, of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance, <math>B</math>, over the source solid angle: <math>S = \iint_{\mathrm{source}} B(\Omega)\mathrm{d}\Omega = \iint_{\mathrm{source}} B(\theta,\phi)\sin\theta\,d\theta\,d\varphi</math>. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of a laboratory? |type="()"} - catching a beam + one more degree of freedom than can be measured or controlled - it may appear as a dome over a small portion of the Earth your standing on - impervious to some traveling rays - a secondary-object hazard {True or False, Although the Earth's field is generally well approximated by a magnetic dipole with its axis near the rotational axis, there are occasional dramatic events where the North and South geomagnetic poles trade places. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of geomagnetic polar reversals? |type="[]"} + the longer the period for reversal the longer the surface irradiation + the ionosphere seems to reach the surface + life-forms may suffer from radiation sickness - asteroids may strike the Earth that otherwise would not - the rotation of the Earth slows to a halt - poles of ice completely melt {Ionization within the Earth's atmosphere from cosmic rays has what property? |type="()"} - it's subject to solar eclipses - it increases underwater - cosmic rays do not penetrate the atmosphere - is higher at the base of the Eiffel tower rather than the top - is obscured by hot-air balloons + the ionization rate rises at rising elevation {[[Image:NGC 2788A.jpg|thumb|right|100px]] True or False, The galaxy image at right, NGC 2788A is a likely first neutron source in Volans. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following appear to be true for galaxy symmetry? |type="[]"} + a galaxy may have an axis of rotation that is one-fold + a galaxy may appear as a left-handed or right-handed helix even though mostly planar rather than helical + a galaxy may appear to have a two-fold axis of rotation - a galaxy may appear to have a five-fold axis of rotation with two arms on one side and three on the other + a galaxy may appear to have a three-fold axis of rotation - a galaxy may appear to have a four-fold axis of rotation with a different number of arms in each quadrant + a galaxy may appear to have a six-fold axis of rotation {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The three key parameters of a { periodic (i) } waveform are its { amplitude|volume (i) }, { phase|timing (i) } and its { frequency|pitch (i) }. {True or False, Theorists try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {A possible solution to the discrepancy between the Spite plateau abundance and the predicted value of the primordial lithium abundance is lithium depletion through? |type="{}"} { atomic diffusion|diffusion (i) } {True or False, Neutrinos emanate from a neutron star because an atomic nucleus the size hypothesized for a neutron star is unstable and the neutrons decompose giving off neutrinos. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Some neutrinos originating from the Sun may be produced by the { particle accelerator-type (i) } reactions occurring in and above the { chromosphere (i) }. Differentiating these coronal cloud-induced neutrinos from the neutrino background and those theorized to be produced within the { core (i) } of the Sun may someday be possible with neutrino astronomy. {Which of the following is not a characteristic of X-rays associated with neutron stars? |type="()"} - X-ray jets - X-ray binary + emission peaks indicative of neutron decay - X-ray burster - a low-mass X-ray binary {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Distance moduli have been estimated for NGC 6946 using its brightest { blue (i) } stars and its { HII (i) } ring. {True or False, The hot ionized medium (HIM) consists of a coronal cloud which emits X-rays. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: sources - A 339 - B satellite - C earlier designation - D actual observation dates - E 4U - F The catalog contains how many? { B (i) } Prefix for sources detected during the final observation period { F (i) }. The fourth is a catalog of X-ray { A (i) }. Uhuru was a { C (i) }. The catalog does not necessarily contain the { D (i) }. It does not contain { E (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} { No (i) } publication in print contains the identification of all of the first X-ray sources discovered for each of the 88 (or 89) constellations. {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the rocky-object Io? |type="[]"} + surface regions reflecting or emitting violet or purple - an excess brightness at or near the edge + red regions that may be phosphorus - neutron emission - polar coronal holes + meteor emission - rotation {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Intracluster medium - A Mayall's object - B M82 PAHs - C Milky Way bubbles - D Local Hot Bubble - E Stephan's Quintet - F UGC 8335 - G Arp 272 - H [[Image:Hubble Interacting Galaxy UGC 8335 (2008-04-24).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) } [[Image:Outflow from M82 galaxy.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Stephan's Quintet with annotation.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:Local_bubble.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:800 nasa structure renderin2.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. [[Image:A2199 Xray Optical2.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Hubble Interacting Galaxy NGC 6050 (2008-04-24).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:Hubble Interacting Galaxy Arp 148 (2008-04-24).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, The 35 astronomical X-ray sources detected by sounding rocket in 1967 was accomplished by the X-ray astronomy group at NRL. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of theoretical X-radiation astronomy? |type="()"} - a theory for any natural X-ray source + X-ray generation - theoretical X-ray emission - analytical models - computational numerical simulations {Which of the following are astronomical observatory phenomena associated with gamma-ray astronomy? |type="[]"} + 20 MeV electromagnetic radiation + the Second Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS-2) - micrometre-sized interstellar meteor particles - neutron irradiation + GRBs - meteor orbits + thorium on the Moon {True or False, It has recently been suggested by Cane et al. 2002 that a class of type III solar radio bursts, called type III-l, is reliably associated with intense solar energetic particle (SEP) events. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Sun - A Mercury - B Venus - C Earth - D Comets - E Mars - F Jupiter - G Saturn - H Auroral currents on the order of 10⁶ Amps { G (i) } Fluorescent radiation from oxygen at ~130 km above the surface { C (i) }. Faint halo of X-rays extending out some 7,000 km { F (i) }. Solar wind lighting up with X-rays { E (i) }. Bright X-ray arcs at low energy { D (i) }. Major source of hard X-rays { A (i) }. X-ray emission concentrated near the equator { H (i) }. Low surface iron content in minerals { B (i) }. {Object identification: |type="{}"} What "mystery object" made a sudden appearance on February 21, 2006, and was observed to have an X-ray glow around it by the X-ray observatory satellite XMM Newton in early August 2006? { SCP 06F6 (i) } {Which of the following are X-radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Sun? |type="[]"} - a core which emits neutrinos - a solar wind which emanates out the polar coronal holes - gravity - the barycenter for the solar system - polar coronal holes + coronal clouds - its position + temperatures at or above 1 MK {True or False, The symbol <math>\odot</math> may represent early Saturn. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An astronomical X-ray source may have one or more { positional|position (i) } locations, plus associated { error (i) } circles or { boxes (i) }, from which { incoming (i) } X-radiation has been { detected|detectable (i) }. {Which of the following appear to be true for NGC 6946? |type="[]"} - a core which emits neutrinos + a face-on galaxy + a spiral galaxy + two-fold rotational symmetry + three spiral arms on each side + galaxy type Sab - no HII rings + approximately 23 million light years away {True or False, X-rays span approximately three decades in wavelength, frequency, and energy. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of radiation sensitivity? |type="()"} - susceptibility + a material inert to change - physical changes from radiation - chemical changes by radiation - radiation induced change to a material {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Sa - A Sb - B Sc - C SBa - D SBb - E SBc - F Irr - G S0 - H [[Image:M101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:File-Ngc5866 hst big.png|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:M104 - Sombrero.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Starburst in NGC 4449 (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:NGC 7479 HST.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:NGC2841.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. [[Image:The VLT goes lion hunting.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:NGC 2859.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following are associated with the big bang neutrinos? |type="[]"} - a launch location + relic neutrinos + of order of the photon density + the thermal energy at which neutrinos decouple + neutrinos dynamically dominate baryons - a contracting universe {True or False, To reflect at the 79 keV level, glass layers are multi-coated with W/SiC. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are green radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Sun? |type="[]"} + the color of the upper rim as seen from Earth + an excess brightness at or near the edge of the Sun + the iron XIV green line - neutron emission + polar coronal holes - meteor emission + changes in the line-blanketing {X-ray emission dividing lines may be explained by low transition region densities leading to low emission in? |type="{}"} { coronae (i) } {True or False, A more extensive galaxy classification scheme starting from the Hubble scheme indicates that an Sab galaxy is approximately in between Sa and Sb. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is associated with the Sun as a possible first X-ray source? |type="[]"} + lofting an X-ray detector with a V-2 rocket from White Sands Proving Grounds on August 5, 1948 + in the late 1930s, "the presence of a very hot, tenuous gas surrounding the Sun ... was inferred indirectly from optical coronal lines of highly ionized species" - early theoretical estimates of black body radiation from the solar corona - “extensive 1/4 keV emission in the Galactic halo” - its overall redness has decreased - ionizing radiation that may originate deep within the Sun does not reach the bottom of a sunspot {Sprial galaxies have which of the following in common? |type="[]"} + spiral arms - a spheroidal shape - may appear lenticular - is irregular + arms of younger stars + may contain star clusters + dust lanes {Complete the text: |type="{}"} While exceptions may occur, match up the star class letter with each of the X-ray possibilities below: star class - O star class - B star class - A star class - F star class - G star class - K star class - M ''L''_X >> ''L''_v { M (i) }. constant X-ray luminosity across the class { B (i) } independent of visual luminosity { F (i) }. ''L''_X ~ 10^-3''L''_bol { G (i) }. abrupt onset of X-ray emission across the class { A (i) }. ''L''_X ~ 10^-7''L''_bol { O (i) }. ''L''_X << 10^-3''L''_bol { K (i) }. {Which of the following are X-radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the NuSTAR spacecraft? |type="[]"} + hard X-ray detectors + CdZnTe pixel detectors + CsI anti-coincidence shield - windowless < 3 keV soft X-ray detectors + 1.5" strong source positioning + 2 µs X-ray temporal resolution + 900 eV at 68 keV spectral resolution + FOV at 68 keV of 6' {True or False, The NuSTAR observatory has a 10.14 m instrument focal length for its Wolter I telescopes. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of solar green astronomy? |type="[]"} + limb faculae + polar coronal holes + black body temperature of the photosphere - the electron neutrino + iron (Fe XIV) green line - neutrons {True or False, A proton and neutron will have lower energy when their spins are anti-parallel, not parallel. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {A collimated stream, spurt or flow of liquid or gas or plasma in a narrow cone of particles? |type="{}"} { jet|a jet (i) } {Which of the following is not a characteristic of outer space? |type="()"} - gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure - similar to a laboratory vacuum + free space - imperfect vacuum - partial vacuum {That part of outer space between planets and their star(s) is called the? |type="{}"} { interplanetary medium (i) } {Which of the following are characteristic of QED vacuum? |type="[]"} + fluctuations + no photons + no matter particles + relative permittivity + relative permeability {Which of the following are characteristic of the first true astrophysical gamma-ray source? |type="[]"} + a strong 2.223 MeV emission line + a solar flare + the formation of deuterium - the electron neutrino + OSO-3 + neutrons {Complete the text: |type="{}"} X-ray astronomy consists of three fundamental parts: 1. { logical laws (i) } with respect to incoming X-rays, or X-radiation, 2. { natural X-ray sources (i) }, and 3. the { sky (i) } and associated { realms (i) } with respect to X-rays. {True or False, The weak speed of a charged particle can exceed the speed of light. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of positronium? |type="[]"} + an exotic atom - a nucleus of neutronium - a decay product of a neutron - a weak interaction + an eletromagnetic interaction + a center of mass {True or False, α Phe is a likely positron source in the constellation Pictor. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {The first astronomical X-ray source in the constellation Dorado is likely to be which of the following? |type="()"} - the Sun - the Small Magellanic Cloud - Scorpius X-1 + the Large Magellanic Cloud - the Crab Nebula {Which of the following may supply power into the Crab Nebula? |type="[]"} + an outflowing wind - particles into the pulsar + particles from the pulsar + electrons and positrons in the wind + particles coming out of the pulsar very close to light speed {True or False, The infrared spectra of olivine and enstatite are essentially unchanged after proton bombardment. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {A first X-ray source located roughly 9000 light years away in the constellation Scorpius is |type="{}"} { Scorpius X-1 | Sco X-1 (i) } {True or False, Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the discovery of the clear signatures of neutrinos produced in lightning. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Skylark - A V-2 - B Nike-Asp - C Aerobee 150 - D Black Brant XII - E Vertikal - F Terrier Sandhawk - G Wallops Flight Facility { E (i) } Woomera, Australia { A (i) }. Natal, Brazil { D (i) }. Kapustin Yar { F (i) }. White Sands Missile Range { B|D (i) }. Point Defiance { C (i) }. Barking Sands { G (i) }. White Sands Proving Grounds { B (i) }. {True or False, By crossing symmetry an elastic scattering cross section with a nucleon implies annihilation of dark matter (DM) into hadrons inside the halo, resulting in an anti-proton flux that could be constrained by data from the PAMELA collaboration if one includes a large boost factor necessary to explain the PAMELA excess in the positron fraction. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {The darker regions in X-rays at the North and South poles of the Sun are coronal holes, where the magnetic field lines are? |type="{}"} { open (i) } {True or False, HR 4731, α² Cru is an infrared source in the constellation Crux. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which phenomena are associated with the heliosphere? |type="[]"} + a region of space where the interstellar medium is blown away by the solar wind + a bubble in space + virtually all the material emanates from the Sun itself - Voyager 2 + Voyager 1 + the termination shock {True or False, For an object entering the heliosphere toward the Sun, if its mass and charge are a fraction of the Sun's, say 20 %, then the gravitational force between them is orders of magnitude greater than the electrostatic force at about 1,000 AU. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following X-ray phenomena is not a characteristic of the Helios satellites? |type="()"} + heliocentric orbit - short-lived (0.5 h) soft X-ray events - longer-lived X-ray events (3 h on average) - any steady X-ray source - XREs {True or False, For an object entering the heliosphere toward the Sun, if its mass and charge are a fraction of the Sun's, say 20 %, and its approach velocity is some 40 times the Sun's escape velocity, then the object will fly right through the solar system without achieving an orbit around the Sun, even if there are electric currents between the object and the Sun. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The standard solar models have enjoyed tremendous success recently in terms of agreement between the predicted { outer structure|structure (i) } and the results from { helioseismology|seismology (i) } but some { observed properties|properties (i) } of the Sun still defy explanation, such as the degree of { Li|lithium (i) } depletion. {[[Image:3D Vector.svg|100px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), what are the right ascension, declination, and value of a? |type="[]"} - if the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y, then RA equals 6^h + if the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y, then RA equals 3^h + the value of '''a''' is given by <math>a = \sqrt{a^2_x + a^2_y + a^2_z}</math> - if '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y equals '''a'''_z, then the declination is -45° + if '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y equals '''a'''_z, then the declination is +45° {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The ratio of neutrons to 2.2-MeV { gamma rays (i) } depends significantly on the direction of motion of the flare-accelerated particles with respect to the solar { atmosphere|photosphere (i) }. {If energy is the impetus behind all motion and activity, which of the following are associated with power? |type="[]"} - a launch location + a rate of change of the impetus with time - photon density - an acceleration of the impetus - neutrinos dynamically dominating baryons + a rate of change of mass {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the X-ray angular resolution possibilities below: Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer - A XMM-Newton - B Chandra X-ray Observatory - C Swift - D Astro-rivelatore Gamma ad Imagini Leggero (AGILE) - E Solar Heliospheric Observatory - F Suzaku - G Koronas-Foton - H 2" { D (i) } 3" { H (i) }. ~2' { G (i) }. 1" { B|F (i) }. 5.9' { E (i) }. 7' { A (i) }. 1" { B|F (i) }. 0.5" { C (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} For the direction of motion of flare-accelerated particles, consider three cases: { isotropic (i) } motion, upward-directed { motion (i) } towards the corona, and { downward (i) }-directed motion towards the photosphere. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Scorpius X-1 - A Serpens X-1 - B Circinus X-1 - C Virgo X-1 - D Taurus X-1 - E Cygnus X-1 - F Cepheus X-1 - G Sagittarius X-1 - H Crab Nebula { E (i) } Messier 87 { D (i) }. 2U 1744-26 { H (i) }. Tychos's Nova SN 1572 { G (i) }. Carina X-1 misprint { C (i) }. the first X-ray source widely accepted to be a black hole candidate { F (i) }. discovered in 1962 by a team under Riccardo Giacconi { A (i) }. not Caput { B (i) }. {Which of the following are theoretical radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Earth? |type="[]"} - a core which emits neutrinos - a charged particle wind which emanates out the polar ionosphere holes + gravity + near the barycenter for the Earth-Moon system + the swirls of tan, green, blue, and white are most likely sediment in the water - coronal clouds + chlorophyll-containing phytoplankton aloft in the upper atmosphere {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with the Earth? |type="[]"} + lightning - Van Allen radiation belts + electrons striking the ionosphere + the geocorona - ice cores - meteorites - diffuse X-ray background - hurricanes {True or False, The cosmic X-ray background has higher intensity than the cosmic radio background. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {What negatively charged particles may be used as tracers of cosmic magnetic fields? |type="{}"} { electrons (i) } {True or False, The observations of planetary motion agree with computed orbits to the accuracy of the observations. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of solar proton astronomy? |type="[]"} + the solar wind + polar coronal holes + protons originating from the photosphere - the electron neutrino + GOES 11 - neutrons {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Chemistry - A Geography - B History - C Mathematics - D Physics - E Science - F Technology - G Geology - H solar eclipses { B (i) } a spatial frequency of occurrence or extent { E (i) }. radio observations revealed a radio corona around the Sun { C (i) }. elemental abundances { A (i) }. microcalorimeter arrays { G (i) }. The Ariel V /3 A/ catalogue of X-ray sources. II - Sources at high galactic latitude |b| > 10° { F (i) }. Carancas meteorite { H (i) }. a thermal bremsstrahlung source may fit { D (i) }. {True or False, The spin carried by quarks is not sufficient to account for the total spin of protons. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The photosphere of the Sun has an effective temperature of 5577 K yet its corona has an average temperature of { 1-2 MK|1-2 x 10⁶ K (i) }. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than { direct heat conduction (i) } from the photosphere. {True or False, A quantum number that depends upon the relative number of strange quarks and anti-strange quarks is called a quarkness. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The { collimating (i) } effects of the grid { enclosure (i) } or external metal { slats (i) } determine the envelope for the { triangular (i) } transmission peaks. {An Aerobee 150 sounding rocket flight on April 25, 1965, discovered how many candidate X-ray sources? |type="{}"} { seven (i) } {Which of the following is not a characteristic of X-radiation? |type="()"} - electromagnetic radiation - ionizing radiation - emitted by a few atomic nuclei + occurs when a positron and an electron annihilate each other - only penetrates so far into a gaseous-objects atmosphere {True or False, Super soft X-ray sources are in most cases only detected below 0.5 keV. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of super soft X-radiation? |type="()"} - electromagnetic radiation - ionizing radiation - usually hidden by interstellar absorption in the galactic disk - readily evident in external galaxies + have energies in the 0.09 to 2.5 keV range {True or False, Electron density applied to free radicals is spin density. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Intragalactic super soft X-ray sources may be heavily reddened by? |type="{}"} { interstellar material|interstellar matter (i) } {True or False, Wolter Type I X-ray optics uses three reflections to focus the incoming X-rays. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with Jupiter? |type="[]"} + lightning + aurora - a geocorona - minerals high in magnesium - solar X-rays - diffuse X-ray background + a sunward region - low-oxygen conditions {Which of the following is not a characteristic of astrognosy? |type="()"} - internal structure - element composition - distributions of plasma, gases, liquids, or solids + landscape - spheres - approximate concentricity {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the type of Sun system astrogony with each of the possibilities below: Babylonian epic story of creation - A a primordial or first Greek god - B the primeval chaos - C creation of heaven and earth - D Greek god personifying the sky - E Cronus (Saturn) castrating his father - F separation of the waters by a firmament { D (i) }. Chaos magno { B (i) }. Uranus { F (i) }. watery abyss { C (i) }. ''Ouranos'' { E (i) } Enuma Elish { A (i) }. {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Sun? |type="[]"} + ultraviolet emission + X-ray emission + gamma-ray emission + neutron emission + ⁷Be emission + meteor emission {True or False, Below EeV energies ultra high energy neutrons have boosted lifetimes. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} A composite { electron density (i) } spectrum is approximately a { power (i) } law over at least the ≈ 5 decade wavenumber range 10^-13 m^-1 < wavenumber < 10^-8 m^-1 and that may extend to { higher (i) } wavenumbers. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The X-ray luminosity of the { dominant (i) } group is an order of { magnitude (i) } fainter than that of the X-ray { jet (i) }. {Many elements emit or fluoresce specific wavelengths of X-rays which in turn allow their? |type="{}"} { identification (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Regarding a blue haze layer near the south polar region of Titan, the difference in color { blue (i) } above and { orange (i) } nearer the { surface (i) } could be due to { particle size (i) } of the haze. {Which of the following are the differences between a star and an astronomical yellow source? |type="[]"} + a star may emit predominantly green rays - an astronomical yellow source is spherical - a yellow star is an astronomical yellow source + a star with nuclear fusion in its chromosphere emits neutrinos, but a yellow source with no nuclear fusion ongoing does not + a yellow source may be cloud like + an astronomical yellow source my be a rocky object {True or False, Electrons in the Earth's magnetosphere are energized by neutral particles from the Sun. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {If there was no nuclear force, all nuclei with two or more protons would fly apart because of the electromagnetic? |type="{}"} { repulsion (i) } {A natural X-ray source has been detected by an X-ray counter at a site on the ground (Earth) from what astronomical X-ray source? |type="()"} - the Sun - the ionosphere - the diffuse X-ray background - Serpens X-1 - the Moon + lightning {True or False, As gamma rays are defined to be radiation emitted from radionuclides, there are no radionuclides that emit X-rays. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of X-radiation? |type="()"} - throwing a beam - a stream of charged or neutral rays + calculating the energy of a beam - sending out a traveling ray - a secondary-object hazard {True or False, A unit vector is a direction with a magnitude of one. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not an electron volt? |type="()"} + the angular momentum of the planet Mercury around the Sun - a unit of energy - a quantity that denotes the ability to do work - 1.2 PeV - a unit dimensioned in mass, distance, and time - a unit not based on the Coulomb {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the radiation type with the satellite: meteor - A cosmic ray - B neutral atoms - C neutron - D proton - E electron - F positron - G neutrino - H gamma ray - I X-ray - J ultraviolet - K optical - L visual - M violet - N blue - O cyan - P green - Q yellow - R orange - S red - T infrared - U submillimeter - V microwave - W radio - X radar - Y superluminal - Z [[Image:JUNO - PIA13746.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { M (i) }. [[Image:RAE B.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { X (i) }. [[Image:Chandra-spacecraft labeled-en.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { J (i) }. [[Image:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Z (i) }. [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { N (i) }. [[Image:GLAST on the payload attach fitting.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { I (i) }. [[Image:Mars-express-volcanoes-sm.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Y (i) }. [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:IBEX.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:STEREO spacecraft.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { P (i) }. [[Image:GOES-P.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Aquarius SAC-D satellite.png|thumb|left|100px]] { W (i) }. [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { O (i) }. [[Image:Micrometeoroid hole.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Q (i) }. [[Image:INTEGRAL-spacecraft410.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:FUSE prelaunch crop.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { K (i) }. [[Image:Swas 1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { V (i) }. [[Image:2001 mars odyssey wizja.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Spitzer space telescope pre-launch.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { U (i) }. [[Image:TERRA_am1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { R (i) }. [[Image:Galileo Energetic Particles Detector.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) } [[Image:Landsat7photo.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { S (i) }. [[Image:Pioneer_10_on_its_kickmotor.jpg|thumb|100px|left]] { B (i) }. [[Image:Mariner 10.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { T (i) }. [[Image:HST-SM4.jpeg|thumb|left|100px]] { L (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1 % of cosmic rays. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are X-radiation astronomy phenomena associated with stellar surface fusion? |type="[]"} + luminosities below ~3 x 10³⁸ erg/s + a few SSS with luminosities ≥10³⁹ erg/s + synchrotron radiation - a photosphere - a polar diameter that exceeds ever so slightly the equatorial diameter at solar cycle minimum + super soft X-rays + hot active regions with temperatures hot enough to fuse hydrogen - sunspots at the feet of coronal loops {True or False, If stellar flares have origins similar to solar flares, then flare stars produce neutrons. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {True or False, Only relativistic neutrons would be able to reach Earth from other stars before decaying. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {True or False, An X-ray may have a wavelength as long as 10 nm. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are associated with the IceCube Neutrino Observatory? |type="[]"} + under ice + the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station + Digital Optical Modules + the counting house is on the surface above the array - the baryon neutrino + the electron neutrino {Before the current era and perhaps before 6,000 b2k which classical planet may have been observed as a pole star for the Earth? |type="{}"} { Osiris|Saturn (i) } {True or False, Wolter Type II X-ray optics uses two reflections to focus the incoming X-rays. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Optical bench - A Focal length - B CCD - C Coded aperture - D Grazing incidence - E Modulator - F Collimator - G Normal incidence - H a device for the movement of electrical charge { C (i) } gold mirrors { E (i) }. narrows a beam { G (i) }. a measure of how strongly a system converges or diverges { B (i) }. reflective multilayer optics { H (i) }. varying amplitude, phase, or frequency { F (i) }. a flat grille { D (i) }. a platform used to support systems { A (i) }. {True or False, Wolter Type III X-ray optics uses one reflection to focus the incoming X-rays. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following is not an astronomical X-ray source? |type="()"} - the planet Mercury + traces of the element gold in the Sun’s photosphere - the solar wind - Cepheus X-1 - nucleosynthesis near the surface of the Sun - lightning on Jupiter {The evolution of organics to carbonaceous material induced by proton irradiation is a well established phenomenon independent of the type of original carbon containing material. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a usual characteristic of X-ray optics? |type="()"} - grazing incidence mirrors - tungsten-silicon multilayer coatings - nested mirrors - an angular resolution + X-ray lens {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The multigrid collimator has the additional { grid (i) } inserted at a specified { intermediate (i) } position between the two grids, { aligned (i) } approximately { parallel (i) } to them, and { positioned (i) } and rotated so that each third { wire (i) } lies in a plane defined by a wire in the outer grid and a wire in the { inner (i) } grid. {True or False, The electron reflectometer (ER) aboard the Lunar Prospector determines the location and strength of magnetic fields from the energy spectrum and direction of electrons. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {True or False, The feature that makes deep inelastic lepton scattering and e⁺e^- annihilation tractable is that these processes proceed via the electromagnetic and strong interactions. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following is associated with the diffuse X-ray background? |type="[]"} - the Sun + rather consistently observed over a wide range of energies - an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates + an isotropic X-ray background flux was obtained in 1956 + an early high-energy end was obtained by instruments on board Ranger 3 + super soft X-rays are absorbed by galactic neutral hydrogen {Which of the following are theoretical radiation astronomy phenomena associated with a laboratory on Earth? |type="[]"} + a core which emits neutrinos + a charged particle wind which emanates out of a beam line + gravity + near the barycenter for the Earth-Moon system + swirls of tan, green, blue, and white in the water + electric arcs - chlorophyll-containing phytoplankton aloft in the upper atmosphere {Spin-charge separation has which characteristics? |type="[]"} + a chargon + a spinon + taking place inside solids + extremely tight confinement - neutron affinity - X-ray absorption {True or False, The first extragalactic X-ray source is the radio galaxy Messier 88. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of high-velocity stars? |type="[]"} + moving faster than 65 km/s - closer stars more affected + may point away from a stellar association + comet-like appearance - red shift - blue shift {An argon-37 atom is converted by a neutrino by the charged current interaction from what atom? |type="{}"} { chlorine-37|³⁷Cl (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the detectors or satellites below: Bonner Ball Neutron Detector - A Multi Mirror Telescope - B MAGIC telescope - C Explorer 11 - D HEAO 3 - E Helios - F Pioneer 10 - G Voyager 1 - H [[Image:Magicmirror.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) } [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Pioneer_10_on_its_kickmotor.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:Multi Mirror Telescope in 1981.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. [[Image:HEAO-3.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following phenomena are associated with the core of the Sun? |type="[]"} - origin of the magnetic field - the convection zone - the tachocline + Solar neutrinos - radiative zone + gamma-rays {True or False, During large solar flares, the region near Mercury may be strongly illuminated with solar neutrons. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of X-radiation in the IGM? |type="()"} - X-rays come from the IGM - an X-ray background + shock heating - secondary ionizations and excitations - far more likely to be absorbed by He I rather than H I {Do we know enough about the intergalactic medium to trust measurements of background sources seen through foreground |type="{}"} { structure (i) }? {Which of the following are units of distance? |type="[]"} + meter - acre + chain - acorn - tympan - гектар + reach {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the radiation letter with each of the detector possibilities below: Meteors - A Cosmic rays - B Neutrons - C Protons - D Electrons - E Positrons - F Neutrinos - G Muons - H Gamma rays - I X-rays - J Ultraviolet rays - K Optical rays - L Visual rays - M Violet rays - N Blue rays - O Cyan rays - P Green rays - Q Yellow rays - R Orange rays - S Red rays - T Infrared rays - U Submillimeter rays - V Radio rays - W Superluminal rays - X multialkali (Na-K-Sb-Cs) photocathode materials { L (i) }. F547M { Q (i) }. 511 keV gamma-ray peak { F (i) }. F675W { T (i) }. broad-band filter centered at 404 nm { N (i) }. a cloud chamber { B (i) }. ring-imaging Cherenkov { X (i) }. coherers { W (i) }. effective area is larger by 10⁴ { H (i) }. F588N { R (i) }. pyroelectrics { U (i) }. a blemish about 8,000 km long { A (i) }. a metal-mesh achromatic half-wave plate { V (i) }. coated with lithium fluoride over aluminum { K (i) }. thallium bromide (TlBr) crystals { O (i) }. F606W { S (i) }. aluminum nitride { J (i) }. heavy water { G (i) }. 18 micrometers FWHM at 490 nm { P (i) }. wide-gap II-VI semiconductor ZnO doped with Co²⁺ (Zn_1-xCo_xO) { M (i) }. a recoiling nucleus { C (i) } high-purity germanium { I (i) }. magnetic deflection to separate out incoming ions { E (i) }. 2.2-kilogauss magnet used to sweep out electrons { D (i) }. {True or False, Neutron spectroscopy has detected hydrogen and thereby water on the Moon. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following may be characteristic of hydrogen deficiency in stars? |type="[]"} + may have been consumed by nucleosynthesis + star formation in a cloud deficient in hydrogen - may point away from a stellar association + may have been formed by white dwarf mergers + may have had transfer of helium from the secondary to the primary + a possible massive convective event {The extent of the Hα absorption trough along the major axes of quenched spirals is what? |type="()"} + more truncated than the distribution of the Hα emission line for H I deficient galaxies - contributed to by the new stellar population - less truncated than the distribution of the Hα emission line for H I deficient galaxies - due to the quenching - disks building up from the outside in {True or False, A small amount of aluminum-26 is produced by collisions of magnesium atoms with cosmic-ray protons. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the gaseous-object Neptune? |type="[]"} - Voyager 2 + blue rays + clouds - neutron emission - polar coronal holes + meteor emission - rotation {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Meteors - A Cosmic rays - B Neutrons - C Protons - D Electrons - E Positrons - F Gamma rays - G Superluminals - H X-ray jets { C (i) } the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonance frequency { H (i) }. iron, nickel, cobalt, and traces of iridium { A (i) }. Sagittarius X-1 { G (i) }. escape from a typical hard low-mass X-ray binary { F (i) }. collisions with argon atoms { B (i) }. X-rays are emitted as they slow down { E (i) }. Henry Moseley using X-ray spectra { D (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Cosmic rays with energies over the { threshold (i) } energy of 5 x 10¹⁹ { eV (i) } interact with { cosmic microwave background (i) } photons to produce { pions (i) } via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance. {As an analysis method NRA may be associated with which phenomena? |type="[]"} + a concentration vs. depth distribution - charged particles in large clouds + target elements may undergo a nuclear reaction - projectile stopping power is unknown - proton elastic scattering + a nuclear method in materials science {Which of the following is not a characteristic of a theory? |type="()"} - catching a beam + one more degree of freedom than can be measured or controlled - it may appear as a dome over a small portion of the Earth your standing on - impervious to some traveling rays - a secondary-object hazard {On what date was GRB 970228 discovered? |type="()"} - August 22, 1997 + February 28, 1997 - September 7, 2002.28 - 1982 the 20th between July and September - 2009 July 22nd and 8 hours - February 14, 2014 {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with Saturn? |type="[]"} + X-radiation concentrated near equator + reflection of solar X-rays - aurora + stronger than expected reflected solar X-rays - X-rays from rings - diffuse X-ray background + soft X-ray emission + fluorescence of solar X-rays {Neutrinos detected from the solar octant may be from nucleosynthesis within the coronal cloud in the near vicinity of the Sun or perhaps from nucleosynthesis occurring within what theoretical interior structure of the Sun? |type="{}"} { the core|core (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the star pattern with the likely constellation: [[Image:Vol.png|thumb|left|100px]] - L [[Image:Eri.png|thumb|left|100px]] - M [[Image:Betelgeuse position in Orion.png|thumb|left|100px]] - N [[Image:UMa.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - O [[Image:Dra.png|thumb|left|100px]] - P [[Image:Cas.png|thumb|left|100px]] - Q [[Image:Cru.png|thumb|left|100px]] - R [[Image:Phe.png|thumb|left|100px]] - S [[Image:Peg.png|thumb|left|100px]] - T Volans { L (i) }. Cassiopeia { Q (i) }. Pegasus { T (i) }. Orion { N (i) }. Crux { R (i) }. Ursa Major { O (i) }. Phoenix { S (i) }. Draco { P (i) }. Eridanus { M (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, Aluminum-26 is generally distributed out of the plane of the Milky Way. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are involved in the weak force? |type="[]"} - a core which emits neutrinos + Fermi's β-decay theory - ²⁶Al - undetectable with balloon-borne detectors + Gamow-Teller interactions - steady enough emission to be used as a standard for X-ray emission - observed with delta-rays in 1731 + M. Fierz {True or False, A relativistic neutron may fly a megaparsec rather than undergo decay after about 14 minutes because its half-life may grow with energy. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following radiation astronomy phenomena are associated with the rocky object Mercury? |type="[]"} + apparent impact craters - an excess brightness at or near the edge - the iron XIV line + neutron emission - polar coronal holes + meteor emission - changes in the line-blanketing {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Balloons - A Sounding rockets - B Aircraft assisted launches - C Orbital rocketry - D Shuttle payload - E Heliocentric rocketry - F Exploratory rocketry - G Lunar rover - H Ranger 5 { F (i) } microcalorimeter arrays { B (i) }. MeV Auroral X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy { A (i) }. Lunokhod 2 { H (i) }. ALEXIS { C (i) }. Ulysses { G (i) }. Broad Band X-Ray Telescope { E (i) }. Solar Heliospheric Observatory { D (i) }. {True or False, Ranger 2 carried instruments that detected the X-ray background. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Ashen light is involved in which of the following? |type="[]"} + earthshine - glow of the bright part of the lunar disk + light from different parts of Earth are mixed together + mimics the Earth as a single dot - neutron astronomy - X-ray astronomy {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Whether the thermal IGM is { collisional (i) } or collisionless at scales smaller than the { Coulomb (i) } scale depends on the effect of reduced { mean free path (i) } that is mediated by the plasma { instabilities (i) }. {Which of the following are theoretical radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Sun? |type="[]"} + a core which emits neutrinos - a solar wind which emanates out the polar coronal holes + gravity + the barycenter for the solar system - polar coronal holes - coronal clouds + its position {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the star with the constellation: Capella - A Sirius - B Deneb - C Anser - D Altair - E Vega - F Vulpecula { D (i) }. Canis Major { B (i) }. Lyra { F (i) }. Cygnus { C (i) }. Aquila { E (i) } Auriga { A (i) }. {Which of the following are theoretical X-ray astronomy phenomena associated with astrophysics? |type="[]"} + a thermal plasma mechanism + idea of a close binary + synchrotron radiation + high-density wind extinction - a polar diameter that exceeds ever so slightly the equatorial diameter at solar cycle minimum - super soft X-rays - hot active regions with temperatures hot enough to fuse hydrogen - sunspots at the feet of coronal loops {The strong force is involved in which of the following phenomena? |type="[]"} + ''s''-waves + the sum of the spins - neutrinos + Pauli's exclusion principle + deuterium - radio waves {Observations of Io have benefited greatly from what phenomenon? |type="()"} - a dense, opaque atmosphere - lightning - extensive meteorite cratering - a flattening out - liquid hydrocarbon lakes + the reflected light of allotropes and compounds of sulfur {Which of the following are phenomena associated with strong forces in the IGM? |type="[]"} + stochastic acceleration + hottest clusters + scaling of the acceleration efficiency with IGM temperature - collisionless IGM - placid magnetic compressions + the smaller the mean free path - cold regions - least effective for inducing the instability {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: superluminals - A radios - B radars - C microwaves - D submillimeters - E infrareds - F reds - G oranges - H deuterium enrichment of cometary water { F (i) } interstellar-comet connection { B (i) }. a macroscopic superstring { A (i) }. force of life { H (i) }. rings of Saturn { C (i) }. volcanic activity throughout Vesta { G (i) }. a silicon composite bolometer fed by a Winston cone { E (i) }. present-day fluctuations an order of magnitude larger { D (i) }. {True or False, Cancer is said to have been the place for the Akkadian Sun of the South. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not an astronomical X-ray source? |type="()"} - Io - Comet Lulin - the Moon + Carina X-1 - Centaurus X-2 - EZ Aquarii {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena associated with an entity? |type="[]"} + discovers an X-ray source in Scorpius + a control group + synchrotron radiation - intergalactic medium - a polar diameter + super soft X-rays - hot active regions - sunspots at the feet of coronal loops {In which of the following constellations does the ecliptic and the Galaxy or the galactic plane occur? |type="[]"} + Sagittarius + Ophiuchus - Aries - Ursa Minor + Scorpius or Scorpio - Draco + Taurus {True or False, The NRL and NASA established another rocket launching facility outside Natal, Brazil to detect X-ray sources in the southern hemisphere. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the observatory facility with the observatory: Ondrejov Observatory - A Okayama Astrophysical Observatory - B Orbiting Astronomical Observatory - C Metsähovi Radio Observatory - D Tortugas Mountain Planetary Observatory - E Pierre Auger Observatory - F [[Image:MetsahoviRadioObservatory 2009 12.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Observed quasar 3C 454.3 in the spring of 2005.]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Solar Telescope3, Ondřejov Astronomical.jpg|thumb|left|100px|A solar telescope.]] { A (i) }. [[Image:PierreAugerObservatory DetectorComponents.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Detector components.]] { F (i) }. [[Image:OAO.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Data on AG Peg were obtained with the ultraviolet broad-band photometers on the second one.]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Tortugas Planetary Observatory.jpg|thumb|left|100px|The 0.6 m monitors cloud decks and equatorial activity.]] { E (i) } [[Image:NOAO 188cm telescope.jpg|thumb|left|100px|A 188 cm telescope.]] { B (i) }. {{clear}} {Complete the text: |type="{}"} To "narrow" can mean to { cause (i) } the spatial { cross section (i) } of the beam to become { smaller (i) } limit. {True or False, Due to the limited shielding provided by its relatively weak magnetic dipole moment, the surface of Mercury is everywhere subject to bombardment by cosmic rays. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not in the history of neutrino astronomy? |type="()"} - Enrico Fermi coined the term "neutrino" + Wolfgang Pauli postulated the muon neutrino - in the Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment, antineutrinos are created - a hydrogen bubble chamber was used to detect neutrinos - Niels Bohr was opposed to the neutrino interpretation of beta decay - a neutrino hitting a proton is detectable {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) are { pointlike|point-like (i) }, nonnuclear X-ray sources with { luminosities (i) } above the { Eddington (i) } limit. {Which of the following phenomena are associated with Venus? |type="[]"} + separate stars, Phosphorus, the morning star, and Hesperus, the evening star - locally available carving tools + the ionosphere was observed to become elongated downstream, rather like a long-tailed comet, during a rare period of very low density solar outflow + Lucifer, literally "Light-Bringer", and Vesper - currently dormant volcanoes only on the Sun-facing side - a breathable atmosphere {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the distance-time phenomena with the image: line of sight - A an origin - B a displacement - C one billion light years - D measuring - E acceleration - F [[Image:Superclusters atlasoftheuniverse.gif|thumb|left|100px|Celestial swiss cheese.]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Sig07-009.jpg|thumb|left|100px|A beautiful galaxy.]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Classical Kepler orbit e0.6.gif|thumb|left|100px|An elliptical orbit.]] { F (i) }. [[Image:Distancedisplacement.svg|thumb|left|100px|Closer than a route.]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Measuring Tape Inch+CM.jpg|thumb|left|100px|It's about the chains.]] { E (i) } [[Image:Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg|thumb|left|100px|Getting the numbers.]] { B (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following are characteristic of a β⁺ decay? |type="[]"} - a mu neutrino + a positron emission - a decay product of a neutron + weak interaction + an electron neutrino - comes in mutable varieties {Which of the following is not a characteristic of a control group? |type="()"} - catching a beam + one more degree of freedom than can be measured or controlled - it may appear as a dome over a small portion of the Earth your standing on - impervious to some traveling rays - a secondary-object hazard {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the celestial octant with the constellation: NQ1 - A NQ2 - B NQ3 - C NQ4 - D SQ1 - E SQ2 - F SQ3 - G SQ4 - H Musca { G (i) }. Sagitta { D (i) }. Lynx { B (i) }. Pyxis { F (i) }. Piscis Austrinus { H (i) }. Corona Borealis { C (i) }. Pictor { E (i) }. Taurus { A (i) }. {Which of the following is not a characteristic of the X-ray continuum? |type="()"} + Bragg peaks - may arise from an X-ray jet - may arise from the coronal cloud of an accretion disc - a power-law spectrum - a thermal emission at the lowest energies {Pick the characteristics of gamma-ray burst. |type="[]"} - a strong 2.223 MeV emission line + flashes of gamma rays + associated with extremely energetic explosions + most luminous events known + can last from ten milliseconds to several minutes + followed by a longer-lived "afterglow" {Which of the following may be true for the first orange source in the constellation Cancer? |type="[]"} + Cancer is along the zodiac so the Sun is a candidate + Jupiter + Uranus under special viewing conditions - intergalactic medium + Titan + beta Cancri + delta Cancri + 60 Cancri {The Sun is a natural X-ray source because X-rays originate from what astronomical X-ray source? |type="()"} + a coronal cloud about the Sun - the diffuse X-ray background - sunspots - the photosphere - nucleosynthesis in the center of the Sun - lightning {ANTARES is the name of a neutrino detector designed to be used as a directional Neutrino Telescope residing under the |type="{}"} { Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Hydrogen - H, or D Helium - He Lithium - Li Beryllium - Be Boron - B Carbon - C Nitrogen - N Oxygen - O Fluorine - F Neon - Ne consumed in chromosphere fusion to produce lithium and neutrinos { Be (i) }. isotope fusion in the chromosphere producing neutrinos { He (i) } fusion in the chromosphere producing the most neutrinos { H|D (i) }. a factor of ~200 below meteorite abundance in the Sun's photosphere { Li (i) }. detected with X-rays on the Moon { O (i) }. an organic form detected in Allan Hills 84001 probably from Mars { C (i) }. detected marginally on Venus with Chandra { N (i) }. found in the X-ray spectra of comets { Ne (i) }. consumed to produce beryllium and neutrinos { B (i) }. a surface impurity on meteorites { F (i) }. {True or False, The bottom of a sunspot ~400 km deep is cooler than the bottom of the photosphere. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} X-ray emission dividing lines may be explained by changes in a { magnetic (i) } field { structure (i) } to that of an { open (i) } topology, leading to a decrease of magnetically confined { plasma (i) }. {Chemistry phenomena associated with astronomy are |type="[]"} - at least three-quarters of the human genome + molecules + atmospheres - pressure + ions + plastic {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: X-ray burster - A gamma-ray burster - B X-ray pulsar - C SFXT - D soft X-ray transient - E diffuse X-ray background - F power law afterglow { B (i) } magnetized neutron star { C (i) }. absorbed by neutral hydrogen { F (i) }. Aquila X-1 { E (i) }. Factor of 10 or greater luminosity increase { A (i) }. thermal bremsstrahlung { D (i) }. {The MINOS experiment uses Fermilab's NuMI beam, which is an intense beam of neutrinos, that travels 455 miles (732 km) through the Earth to the? |type="{}"} { Soudan Mine|Soudan mine (i) } {Which of the following is not a characteristic of X-rays associated with atomic number? |type="()"} - emission lines + X-ray continuum - unique atomic structure - creating an electron hole - discrete energy levels {Complete the text: |type="{}"} A well-known black hole (or black hole candidate) and galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus is { Cygnus X-1 | Cyg X-1 (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the cosmogonic possibilities below: interior models of the giant planets - A high interest for cosmogony, geophysics and nuclear physics - B hierarchical accumulation - C clouds and globular clusters - D cosmic helium abundance - E deuterium fusion - F a large deficiency of light elements - G after galactic sized systems had collapsed - H the motions of hydrogen { D (i) } fornation of luminous quasars { H (i) }. stars with an initial mass less than the solar mass { G (i) }. rotating liquid drops { B|F (i) }. primordial is less than 26 per cent { E (i) }. a solar mixture of elements dominated by hydrogen and helium gas { A (i) }. around 13 Jupiter masses { F (i) }. smaller rocky objects { C (i) }. {Which of the following are phenomena associated with electromagnetic cascades? |type="[]"} + spectral and timing properties of astronomical sources + very high-energy γ-rays + the way from the source to the Earth - soft X-rays - redshifts + ambient radiation fields inside the γ-ray source - source stability - protons {The relative abundances of solar cosmic rays reflect those of the solar |type="{}"} { photosphere (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Moon - A Eros - B Io - C Ganymede - D Europa - E Titan - F X-ray producing electric arc, current spots { C (i) } reflecting solar X-rays { A (i) }. soft X-ray emission { C|E (i) }. possible soft X-ray emission { D (i) }. synchrotron X-ray diffraction of methane hydrate up to 10GPa { F (i) }. ordinary chondrite composition { B (i) }. {Which of the following are theoretical radiation astronomy phenomena associated with a star? |type="[]"} + possible orbits + a hyperbolic orbit + nuclear fusion at its core + nuclear fusion in its chromosphere + near the barycenter of its planetary system + accretion + electric arcs - impact craters - radar signature {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Both { fusion|fusion- (i) } and { accretion|accretion- (i) } powered cataclysmic { variables (i) } have been observed to be X-ray sources. {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with a superluminal? |type="[]"} + loops and rings in the X-ray emitting gas + an X-ray source + synchrotron radiation + Cherenkov radiation - signals with a velocity above c + super soft X-rays + hot active regions with temperatures hot enough to fuse hydrogen - starspots {When the Earth is viewed from space using X-ray astronomy what characteristic is readily observed? |type="()"} - the magnetic north pole - the Hudson Bay meteorite crater - the South Atlantic Anomaly - the Bermuda Triangle - solar positron events + electrons striking the ionosphere {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with the Sun? |type="[]"} + coronal cloud + hot regions of 8–20 x 10⁶ K - fluorescence of Jovian X-rays - lightning - X-rays from rings - collisions with the Jovian wind + soft X-ray emission + hard X-ray emission {True or False, Interstellar scintillation is fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of radio waves caused by scattering in the interstellar medium. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the coordinate system letter with each of the possibilities below: triclinic coordinate system - A monoclinic coordinate system - B orthorhombic coordinate system - C tetragonal coordinate system - D rhombohedral coordinate system - E hexagonal coordinate system - F [[Image:Reseaux 3D oP.png|thumb|left|100px|α = β = γ = 90° and a ≠ b ≠ c]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Reseaux 3D hP.png|thumb|left|100px|a = b ≠ c and α = β = 90°, γ = 120°]] { F (i) }. [[Image:Rhombohedral.svg|thumb|left|100px|a = b = c and α = β = γ < 120°, ≠ 90°]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Reseaux 3D tP-2011-03-12.png|thumb|left|100px|α = β = γ = 90° and a = b ≠ c]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Reseaux 3D aP.png|thumb|left|100px|a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ β ≠ γ]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Monoclinic.png|thumb|left|100px|a ≠ b ≠ c and for example α = β ≠ γ ≠ 90°]] { B (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, Aluminum-26 decays by either beta-plus or electron capture. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with the Moon? |type="[]"} + scattering of solar X-rays + reflection of solar X-rays + fluorescence of solar X-rays - lightning - X-rays from rings + collisions with solar wind + soft X-ray emission {Phenomena associated with the Milky Way are? |type="[]"} + spiral arms - a spheroidal shape + a standard to differentiate dwarf galaxies + often referred to as the Galaxy + arms of younger stars + contains star clusters + dust lanes + extended red emission (ERE) + a faint galaxy heavy with dark matter may orbit it - larger than the Andromeda galaxy {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena associated with an entity? |type="[]"} + a thermal plasma mechanism + a close binary + synchrotron radiation + high-density wind extinction - a polar diameter that exceeds ever so slightly the equatorial diameter at solar cycle minimum + super soft X-rays + hot active regions with temperatures hot enough to fuse hydrogen - sunspots at the feet of coronal loops {Sputnik I was involved in which of the following astronomies? |type="()"} - red astronomy - stellar astronomy - neutrino astronomy + radio astronomy - neutron astronomy - X-ray astronomy {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the apparent liquid-object Earth? |type="[]"} + rain + snow + hail + neutron emission - polar coronal holes + meteor emission - rotation {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the type of source with each of the possibilities below: a source - A a source or apparent source detected or created at or near the time of the event or events - B a source or apparent source that transforms or transduces anything originating from a primary source - C a source or apparent source that selects (such as through selective absorption), distills, scatters, or reflects anything from a primary or secondary source - D the point of origin of a ray, beam, or stream of small cross section traveling in a line - E a natural source in the sky especially at night - F a tertiary source { D (i) }. a primary source { B (i) }. an astronomical source { F (i) }. a secondary source { C (i) }. a radiation source { E (i) } an entity from which something comes or is acquired { A (i) }. {Background radiation may simply be any radiation that is? |type="{}"} { pervasive (i) } {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with Venus? |type="[]"} - scattering of solar X-rays - reflection of solar X-rays + fluorescence of solar X-rays + lightning - X-rays from rings - diffuse X-ray background + soft X-ray emission {True or False, An entity in X-ray astronomy is either an X-ray source or an X-ray object. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following is not a characteristic of an entity in X-ray astronomy? |type="()"} - a theory for any natural X-ray source - X-ray generation - X-ray reflection + an analytical constant - a common or ancient name {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with Mercury? |type="[]"} - lightning + surface composition - electrons striking the ionosphere - a geocorona + minerals high in magnesium + surface sulfur enrichment - diffuse X-ray background + low-oxygen conditions {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the radiation object with the likely source: [[Image:Crmo volcanic bomb 20070516123632.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - L [[Image:Circinus X-1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - M [[Image:Moon egret.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - N [[Image:Neusun1 superk1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - O [[Image:Earth in ultraviolet from the Moon (S72-40821).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - P [[Image:PIA00072.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - Q [[Image:Io Color Eclipse Movie - PIA03450.gif|thumb|left|100px]] - R [[Image:NGC 7048.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - S [[Image:HST NGC 5728 -O III- emission-line image.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - T a Craters of the Moon volcano { L (i) }. violet image of Venus { Q (i) }. active galactic nuclear region of NGC 5728 { T (i) }. cosmic-ray bombardment of the Moon's surface { N (i) }. blue lights from Io { R (i) }. neutrino profile of the solar octant { O (i) }. planetary nebula NGC 7048 { S (i) }. ultraviolet image of the Earth { P (i) }. a neutron star in a binary system { M (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following are cold dark matter gamma rays? |type="[]"} + expected signal comparable to background + annihilation radiation - a pronounced cosmic-ray halo + difficult to separate from a dark halo + dwarf spheroidals - weakly interacting massless particles {Complete the text: |type="{}"} A neutron star is a type of { stellar remnant|remnant|compact star (i) } that can result from the { gravitational collapse|collapse (i) } of a { massive star|star (i) } during a { Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic|Type II|Type Ib|Type Ic (i) } supernova event. {Which of the following is not a characteristic of a sky? |type="()"} - catching a beam + a stream of charged or neutral particles - it may appear as a dome over the Earth your standing on - impervious to some traveling rays - a secondary-object hazard {A method used to count the number of X-rays of a specific wavelength diffracted by a crystal? |type="{}"} { wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy|WDS (i) } {Electromagnetic radiation emitted by decelerating charged particles? |type="{}"} { bremsstrahlung radiation|bremsstrahlung (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: synchrotron X-rays - A power law - B inverse Compton - C thermal Bremsstrahlung - D black body - E cyclotron - F Supergiant Fast X-ray Transients { D (i) } Galactic diffuse emission { B (i) }. Crab nebula { A (i) }. continuum { C|D|E|A (i) }. accretion disk { E (i) }. strongly magnetized neutron stars { F (i) }. {Which of the following are associated with electromagnetics? |type="[]"} + angular momentum transfer + solar wind + protons + electrons - the baryon neutrino + charge neutralization {Which of the following refer to an aspect of current cosmogonic models? |type="[]"} - fragmentation of asteroids + accretion - Mars - Jupiter + transformation by accretion + kilometer-size objects - hyperbolic comets - asteroid belt + bodies comparable in size to the Earth {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Diamond nanocrystals (size 100 nm) emit bright { luminescence (i) } at 600–800 nm when exposed to green and yellow photons. The photoluminescence, arising from excitation of the { nitrogen-vacancy|nitrogen vacancy (i) } defect centers created by proton-beam { irradiation (i) } and thermal annealing, closely resembles the extended red emission (ERE) bands observed in reflection nebulae and { planetary (i) } nebulae. The central wavelength of the emission is 700 nm. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An average neutron { flux (i) } is in neutrons cm^-2 s^-1 sr^-1. {Which of the following is characteristic of the scattered disc |type="[]"} + a distant region of the solar system + the dwarf planet Eris + orbital eccentricites ranging up to 0.8 - inclinations as high as 50° + perihelia greater than 30 AU + Dysnomia {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the theoretical astronomy idea with each of the possibilities below: astronomical object - A astronomical source - B astronomical entity - C star - D interstellar medium - E material - F natural luminous body visible in the sky { D (i) }. naturally from which something comes { B (i) }. matter which may be shaped or manipulated { F (i) }. an independent, separate, or self-contained existence { C (i) }. the matter that exists in the space between the star systems { E (i) } naturally in the sky especially at night { A (i) }. {The incident beam may excite an electron in an inner shell, ejecting it from the shell while creating an? |type="{}"} { electron hole (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An electric dipole { moment (i) } may be in units of Coulomb meters. {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with Mars? |type="[]"} - scattering of solar X-rays - reflection of solar X-rays + fluorescence of solar X-rays + lightning - X-rays from rings + collisions with solar wind + soft X-ray emission {What is a pfu? |type="[]"} - a measure of neutron half-life suggested by Enrico Fermi + a particle flux + a unit per steradian (sr) - the number of bubbles generated in a hydrogen bubble chamber used to detect neutrinos - Niels Bohr was opposed to the pfu interpretation of beta decay - a measure of the scatter energy of a neutrino hitting a proton {The number and energy of the X-rays emitted from a specimen can be measured by an? |type="{}"} { energy-dispersive spectrometer|EDS|energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (i) } {Which of the following are cosmogonical phenomenon associated with the Sun, or solar system? |type="[]"} + watery abyss + aphrodite + ''Hermeneutes'' - cold dark matter + Heracles - unseen mass + Silver age {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the first astronomical source possibilities below: Meteors - A Cosmic rays - B Neutrons - C Protons - D Electrons - E Positrons - F Gamma rays - G Superluminals - H cosmic rays { C|D (i) } galactic nuclei { H (i) }. comets { A (i) }. electron-positron annihilation { G (i) }. weak force nuclear decay { F (i) }. AGNs { B (i) }. 511 keV photon pair production { E (i) }. solar wind { D (i) }. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: E0 - A E1 - B E2 - C E3 - D E4 - E E5 - F E6 - G E7 - H [[Image:Maf1atlas.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. [[Image:M32 Lanoue.png|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Messier 105 2MASS.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:Ngc185 rgb combined.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:2MASS NGC 4125 JHK.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:NGC 1427 Hubble WikiSky.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:M105 (37482401952).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. [[Image:Coma Cluster of Galaxies (visible, wide field).jpg|thumb|left|100px|at left]] { E (i) }. {{clear}} {Complete the text: |type="{}"} With the modulation collimator, the amplitude ( { intensity (i) } ) of the incoming { X-rays (i) } is reduced by the presence of { two or more (i) } diffraction gratings of { parallel wires (i) } that block or greatly reduce that portion of the { signal (i) } incident upon the wires. {True or False, An error circle on the celestial sphere about a detected X-ray source is an X-ray object. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which phenomenon are associated with cold dark matter? |type="[]"} + unseen mass - a bubble in space + range of masses of galaxies - hot neutrinos + Einstein-de-Sitter 'flat' universe + the cosmological density parameter Ω {The cosmic infrared background (CIB) causes a significant attenuation for very high energy protons through inverse Compton scattering, photopion and electron-positron pair production. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the letter of the spherical object with each of the possibilities below: Sun - A Mercury - B Venus - C Earth - D Moon - E Mars - F Ceres - G Jupiter - H Callisto - I Europa - J Ganymede - K Io - L Enceladus - M Titan - N Uranus - O Titania - P Neptune - Q Triton - R Pluto - S [[Image:Enceladus in the Visual.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { M (i) }. [[Image:Triton moon mosaic Voyager 2 (large).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { R (i) }. [[Image:Io highest resolution true color.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { L (i) }. [[Image:Vg1 1567237.tiff|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:Ceres optimized.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:Europa-moon.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { J (i) }. [[Image:Titania (moon) color cropped.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { P (i) }. [[Image:Pluto animiert.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { S (i) }. [[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Uranus2.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { O (i) }. [[Image:Moon Farside LRO.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Callisto.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { I (i) }. [[Image:Moon Ganymede by NOAA.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { K (i) }. [[Image:Neptune.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Q (i) }. [[Image:Two Halves of Titan.png|thumb|left|100px]] { N (i) }. [[Image:HI6563 fulldisk.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:2005-1103mars-full.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:Venus-real color.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, Inverse Compton scattering allows low energy electromagnetic radiation to become high energy electromagnetic radiation. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are X-radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Crab Nebula? |type="[]"} - a core which emits neutrinos + low-energy X-rays detected by the Chandra X-ray Observatory - ²⁶Al - undetectable with balloon-borne detectors + hard X-rays + steady enough emission to be used as a standard for X-ray emission - observed with X-rays in 1731 + Taurus X-1 {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The { delta-ray|delta ray (i) } tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for { direct (i) } measurements of { cosmic-ray|cosmic ray (i) } nuclei above { 1 TeV/nucleon (i) } in a series of balloon-borne experiments. {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the imaging system letter with the image possibilities below: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (EGRET) - A XMM Newton - B Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope - C Lunar Orbiter Gamma-Ray Spectrometer - D BATSE - E Mars Odyssey GRS - F GLAST - G Swift (X-ray/Gamma-ray mission) - H [[Image:PIA04256 Map of Martian Silicon at Mid-Latitudes.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) } [[Image:Geminga-1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. [[Image:Moon egret.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:GRB 080319B.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:Antimatter Explosions.ogv|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:267641main allsky labeled HI.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:7107.tnl.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Moonthorium-med.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following is not a characteristic of an entity in X-ray astronomy? |type="()"} - a theory for any natural X-ray source + produces refereed journal articles on the CGB - X-ray generation - X-ray reflection - a common or ancient name {Which of the following is not a characteristic of SFXTs? |type="()"} - short outbursts + well fitted with a thermal synchrotron spectrum - OB supergiants - X-ray binaries - a growing number of transients {Random fluctuations in the intensity of radio waves of celestial origin, on a timescale of a few seconds is referred to as interplanetary? |type="{}"} { scintillation (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Ordinary glass is partially { transparent (i) } to UVA but is { opaque (i) } to shorter wavelengths, whereas silica or { quartz (i) } glass, depending on quality, can be { transparent (i) } even to vacuum UV wavelengths. {[[Image:Focal ratio.svg|right|100px]] Which of the following are associated with the image at right? |type="[]"} + the blue object represents a plano-convex lens - the blue object represents a plano-concave lens + a simple optical system - a focal length '''D''' + an objective lens + an aperture {{clear}} {Complete the text: |type="{}"} In most photography and all { telescopy (i) }, where the subject is essentially { infinitely (i) } far away, longer focal length ( { lower (i) } optical power) leads to higher { magnification (i) } and a narrower angle of view. {In a plano-convex lens the second radius of curvature is? |type="{}"} { infinite (i) } {[[Image:Aperture diagram.svg|right|thumb|100px]] In the image at right of decreasing aperture sizes, each aperture has how much light gathering area of the previous one? |type="{}"} { half (i) } {{clear}} {True or False, The radius of the proton is 4 percent smaller than previously estimated. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The spectral region bounded on the long wavelength side by the atmospheric { ozone (i) } absorption and on the short wavelength side by the photoionization of interstellar { hydrogen (i) } is the ultraviolet. {[[Image:lens aperture side.jpg|right|thumb|100px]] In the image at right, at what f-number is the lens aperture system set at? |type="{}"} { f/11 (i) } {{clear}} {A device that narrows a beam of particles or waves is a? |type="{}"} { collimator (i) } {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the object viewed in the ultraviolet with its image: Sun's chromosphere- L calcite - M Venus - N Jupiter's aurora - O Jupiter - P Io - Q Saturn - R Betelgeuse - S Mira - T LAB-1 - U Messier 101 - V [[Image:STEREO B EUVI 171.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { L (i) }. [[Image:Opo9913e.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Q (i) }. [[Image:Mira the star-by Nasa alt crop.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { T (i) }. [[Image:Venuspioneeruv.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { N (i) }. [[Image:Aurora Saturn.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { R (i) }. [[Image:Jupiter.Aurora.HST.UV.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { O (i) }. [[Image:Lyman-alpha blob LAB-1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { U (i) } [[Image:Betelgeuse star hubble-580x580.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { S (i) }. [[Image:Hubble Space Telescope Image of Fragment BDGLNQ12R Impacts.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { P (i) }. [[Image:Calcite LongWaveUV HAGAM.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { M (i) }. [[Image:M101 UIT.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { V (i) }. {{clear}} {Which of the following radiation phenomena are associated with the ultraviolet? |type="[]"} + He II lines + B I line + Be II lines + carbon III line - Hβ emission + oxygen O I lines {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the description with each of the optical astronomy possibilities below: Palomar's 5 m - L adaptive optics poc - M AO actuators - N Mars Global Surveyor - O star-forming regio - P Warner & Swasey - Q protoplanetary nebula - R SkyMapper - S Mauna Kea - T full-color of Mercury - U Hubble Space Telescope of carbon star - V supernova remnant - W HESS - X line of sight - Y [[Image:HaleTelescope-MountPalomar.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { L (i) }. [[Image:U Camelopardalis.jpeg|thumb|left|100px]] { V (i) }. [[Image:USNO Refractor 1904.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Q (i) }. [[Image:Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope with moon.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { T (i) }. [[Image:Sig07-009.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Y (i) }. [[Image:GTC Active Optics Acutators.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { N (i) }. [[Image:Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { U (i) }. [[Image:Egg Nebula HST.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { R (i) }. [[Image:HESS-dark-full.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { X (i) }. [[Image:Earth and Moon from Mars PIA04531.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { O (i) }. [[Image:SkyMapper and 2.3m.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { S (i) }. [[Image:Grand star-forming region R136 in NGC 2070 (visible and ultraviolet, captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { P (i) }. [[Image:Supernova remnant IC 443.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { W (i) }. [[Image:AO proof of concept.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { M (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, The Russian Okno system is an optoelectronic, manually operated system for monitoring and surveillance of space objects integrated to the KRONA system of space recognition. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {The slowing down of a projectile proton due to the inelastic collisions between bound electrons in the medium and the proton moving through it? |type="{}"} { electronic stopping power (i) } {True or False, An antiproton is a proton moving backward in time. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The interstellar medium is the gas and { cosmic (i) } dust that pervade { interstellar (i) } space and is the matter that exists between the { stars|star systems (i) } within a { galaxy (i) }. It blends smoothly into the surrounding { intergalactic (i) } medium. {Which of the following is not a characteristic of a meteor in X-ray astronomy? |type="()"} - a detection of iron or nickel - determination of quantitative proportions - X-ray reflection - X-ray scattering + a meteorite impact site {True or False, To fall into the class of intermediate X-ray binaries, the X-ray source must be intermediate in luminosity. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An aerometeor is a { discrete (i) } unit of air traveling or { falling (i) } through an atmosphere. {The use of the principle of line of sight allows what phenomenon to be determined? |type="()"} + the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun - the planet Mercury is nearer to the Earth than Venus - any cumulus cloud overhead follows the Sun across the sky - the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun is in the plane of the galaxy - the surface of the photosphere of the Sun is hotter than the surface of Mars - lightning always precedes rain {True or False, The surface of the Sun is a known source of neutrons. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Lens-shaped { crystals|crystal (i) } have long been known from { Bronze (i) } Age contexts. {Which of the following may be true regarding the interacting galaxies of UGC 9618? |type="[]"} + the pair of galaxies appear to be interacting rather than a mere galaxy double + a lack of luminous sources at any wavelength in the interaction volume + asymmetry is approximately centered on the interaction volume + a common origin originally between them + the large X-ray output surrounding primarily the more central portion of the edge-on galaxy suggests a very high temperature galactic coronal cloud + the infrared portion of the composite image with ultraviolet strongly suggests that the edge-on galaxy is much cooler in general than the face-on galaxy + orange and yellow astronomy reveal that the edge-on galaxy may be composed of older or cooler stars - VV340A appears to be more than 33 % involved in the interaction {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An astronomical X-ray source catalog is a list or { table|tabulation (i) } of astronomical { objects|sources|entities (i) } that are X-ray { sources (i) }, typically grouped together because they share a common { type (i) }, morphology, { origin (i) }, means of detection, or method of { discovery (i) }. {Which of the following are X-radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the Ulysses spacecraft? |type="[]"} + hard X-ray detectors + CsI(Tl) scintillators + soft X-ray detectors - windowless soft X-ray detectors + detected soft X-ray emission inside two solar radii over the poles + higher energy X-rays detected with a maximum at about five solar radii over the poles - observed X-rays in the 1980s - discovered Circinus X-1 {True or False, The energy that occupies the same volume as the interstellar medium in the form of electromagnetic radiation is the interstellar radiation field. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {True or False, If the energy of the incoming electrons is 700 MeV and the flux is 8.48 x 10⁴ e^- cm^-2 s^-1, then the interstellar electron influx is sufficient to heat the photosphere to its effective temperature and heat the coronal clouds to at least a few MK. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of interstellar extinction? |type="[]"} + redder color indices - closer stars more affected + color excess + observed color index minus intrinsic color index - red shift - blue shift {Of the discovery of the first extrasolar X-ray source, the instrumentation had been designed for an attempt to observe X-rays from the |type="{}"} { moon (i) } {Which types of radiation astronomy directly observe the rocky-object surface of Venus? |type="[]"} - meteor astronomy - cosmic-ray astronomy - neutron astronomy - proton astronomy - beta-ray astronomy - neutrino astronomy - gamma-ray astronomy - X-ray astronomy - ultraviolet astronomy - visual astronomy - infrared astronomy - submillimeter astronomy + radio astronomy + radar astronomy + microwave astronomy - superluminal astronomy {Which of the following is not characteristic of a neutrino? |type="()"} - neutrinos are affected by the weak nuclear force + produced by a positron annihilating an electron - a decay product of a neutron - produced by the near surface fusion on the Sun - may have a mass - comes in mutable varieties {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Einstein ring - A stellar nebula - B Andromeda galaxy - C Triplet galaxies interacting - D Hubble galaxies - E Dark matter halo simulation - F Fairall 9 (Seyfert galaxy in X-rays) - G Tycho Brahe observatory, remotely controlled telescope, captured galaxy - H [[Image:Andromeda's Colorful Rings.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:Galax.png|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:A Horseshoe Einstein Ring from Hubble.JPG|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:SWIFT J0123.9-5846 Hard X-ray.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:Dark matter halo.png|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }. [[Image:AmCyc Nebula - Stellar Nebula.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }. [[Image:Dorian Gray.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Cosmic Interactions.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. {{clear}} {What are some of the characteristics of Jovian electrons? |type="[]"} + hard spectrum + Jovian electrons near Earth are on their way to the Sun + an energy power law + flux increases with 27 day periodicities - at 1 AU, flux decreases exhibit a short-term modulation of 13 minutes - come in mutable varieties {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Any of many { mathematical relationships (i) } in which something is related to something else by an equation of the form f(x) = a·x^k is called a { power law (i) }. {Space radiation may be classified according to origin as? |type="[]"} + galactic cosmic radiation - charged particles in large clouds + solar particle radiation - interaction with the geo-electric field - protons and electrons + geomagnetically trapped particle radiation {Which of the following is not a characteristic of the diffuse X-ray background? |type="()"} + a higher intensity than the CMB - isotropic X-ray flux - a wide range of energies - a general increase in intensity from the Galactic plane to the poles - a thermal emission at the lowest energies {Which of the following are X-ray astronomy phenomena that may be associated with comets? |type="[]"} - lightning + solar wind + a sunward region - a geocorona - minerals high in magnesium - solar X-rays - diffuse X-ray background - low-oxygen conditions {Which of the following are associated with X-radiation? |type="[]"} + spans three decades in wavelength + spans three decades in frequency + spans three decades in energy + emitted by ²⁶Al + coronal clouds + 60 keV electromagnetic radiation + 90 eV electromagnetic radiation - visually dark source {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the plasma-object the Sun? |type="[]"} + coronal clouds + H^1- ions + X-rays + neutron emission + polar coronal holes + meteor emission - rotation {Which of the following are determined by the CRS aboard Voyager 1? |type="[]"} + origin + acceleration process - neutrinos + life history + dynamic contribution + nucleosynthesis + behavior in the interplanetary medium - X-rays - ultraviolets - visuals - trapped particle environment + a steady rise in May 2012 of collisions with high energy particles above 70 MeV + a dramatic drop in collisions in late August </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Polling of page views may indicate if the quiz length is an issue. # Questions of greater technicality may be preferred. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 1|Hourly 1]] - resources 1-16 * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 2|Hourly 2]] - resources 17-32 * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Hourly 3|Hourly 3]] - resources 22-48 * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Final quiz|Final quiz]] * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Syllabus/Spring|Syllabus/Spring]] * [[Principles of radiation astronomy/Syllabus/Fall|Syllabus/Fall]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Radiation astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation quizzes]] 3jki0937cawqja3uw0ll1g2u1d6j0eb 0 157489 2417316 2367010 2022-08-22T07:47:49Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:LuhmanTStarCompanion (54 Psc).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows 54 Piscium, its red dwarf companion and a Saturn-sized planet. One of these may be a radio source. Credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech / T. Pyle (SSC).{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''first radio source in Pisces''' is unknown. The field of [[radio astronomy]] is the result of observations and theories about radio sources detected in the sky above. The first astronomical radio source discovered may have been the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]]. But, radio waves from the Sun are intermingled with other [[Special:Search |radiation]] so that the Sun may appear as other than a primary source for radio waves. The early use of sounding rockets and balloons to carry radio detectors high enough may have detected radio waves from the Sun as early as the 1940s. This is a lesson in map reading, coordinate matching, and researching. It is also a research project in the history of radio astronomy looking for the first astronomical radio source discovered in the constellation of Pisces. Nearly all the background you need to participate and learn by doing you've probably already been introduced to at a secondary level and perhaps even a primary education level. Some of the material and information is at the college or university level, and as you progress in finding radio sources, you'll run into concepts and experimental tests that are actual research. If stellar flares have origins similar to solar flares, then flare stars produce radio waves. {{clear}} ==First step== The first step is to succeed in finding a radio source in Pisces. Next, you'll need to determine the time stamp of its discovery and compare it with any that have already been discovered. Over the history of radio astronomy a number of sources have been found, many as point sources in the night sky. These points are located on the celestial sphere using coordinate systems. Familiarity with these coordinate systems is not a prerequisite. Here the challenge is geometrical, astrophysical, and historical. The coordinates are usually supplied by the radio source observers. ==Sources== {{main|Sources/Astronomy}} '''Def.''' a natural [[wikt:source|source]] usually of [[Special:Search |radiation]] in the sky especially at night is called an '''astronomical source'''. A source of astronomical information on older detections of radio sources is included in the '''Science''' section of the lecture/article [[radio astronomy]]. ==Traveling radio sources== Many radio sources do not remain in a constellation for lengthy periods. Some of these are the Sun and sources apparently in orbit around the Sun. The Sun travels through the 13 constellations along the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun): the 12 of the Zodiac and the constellation Ophiuchus. These are described in [[source astronomy]]. ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} To introduce yourself to some aspects of the challenge may I suggest reading the highlighted links mentioned above, and if you're curious, those listed under the section "See also" below. Radio waves are a form of radiation that is currently part of electromagnetic radiation intersecting the [[Keynote lectures/Earth|Earth]]. More information about radiation is in [[Special:Search |radiation astronomy]]. ==Pisces== [[Image:Pisces IAU.svg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) sky map of the constellation Pisces. Credit: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pisces Hevelius.jpg|thumb|250px|Pisces is in Hevelius' map (1690). Credit: Johannes Hevelius.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Wikipedia article about the constellation [[w:Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] contains a high school level description. The figure at right shows the sky map of Pisces. Around the edges of the map are coordinates related to longitude and latitude, but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours the celestial coordinates must remain fixed relative to the background light sources in the sky. Pisces is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is the Latin plural for fish. The Vernal equinox is currently located in Pisces, due south of ω Psc, and, due to precession, slowly drifting below the western fish towards Aquarius. The shape, size, and to some extent its location as a constellation has changed over time. The second figure at right is an earlier version. Pisces originates from some composition of the [[w:Babylonian constellation|Babylonian constellation]]s ''Šinunutu₄'' "the great swallow" in current western Pisces, and ''Anunitum'' the Lady of the Heaven, at the place of the northern fish. In the first Millennium BCE texts known as the ''[[w:Astronomical Diaries|Astronomical Diaries]]'', part of the constellation was also called '''DU.NU.NU''' (''Rikis-nu.mi'', "the fish cord or ribbon").<ref name=Rogers>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JBAA..108....9R Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions] by J. H. Rogers 1998, [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R&db_key=AST&page_ind=10&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES page 19] [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1998JBAA..108....9R&db_key=AST&page_ind=18&plate_select=NO&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_GIF&classic=YES page 19 (table 3, rows 2-3) and page 27]</ref> Pisces is associated with Aphrodite and Eros, the who escaped from the monster Typhon by leaping into the sea and transforming themselves into fish.<ref name=Chen>P.K. Chen, A Constellation Album: Stars and Mythology of the Night Sky, p. 94 (2007, {{ISBN|978-1931559386}}).</ref> In order not to lose each other, they tied themselves together with rope. The Romans adopted the Greek legend, with Venus and Cupid acting as the counterparts for Aphrodite and Eros. The knot of the rope is marked by Alpha Piscium (α Psc), also called Al-Rischa ("the cord" in Arabic). In 1690, the astronomer Johannes Hevelius in his ''Firmamentum Sobiescianum'' regarded the constellation Pisces as being composed of four subdivisions:<ref name="Hevelius"> Johannes Hevelius, (1690) ''Firmamentum Sobiescianum'', Leipzig, Fig.NN</ref> * '''Piscis Boreus''' (the North Fish): σ – 68 – 65 – 67 – ψ¹ – ψ² – ψ³ – χ – φ – υ – 91 – τ – 82 – 78 Psc. * '''Linum Boreum''' (the North Cord):<ref name="Hevelius" /> χ – ρ,94 – VX(97) – η – π – ο – [[Alpha Piscium|α]] Psc. * '''Linum Austrinum''' (the South Cord):<ref name="Hevelius" /> α – ξ – ν – μ – ζ – ε – δ – 41 – 35 – ω Psc. * '''Piscis Austrinus''' (the South Fish):<ref name="Hevelius" /> ω – ι – θ – 7 – β – 5 – κ,9 – λ – TX(19) Psc. In 1754, the astronomer John Hill proposed to treat part of Pisces as a separate constellation, called '''Testudo''' (the Turtle)<ref name=Allen>{{ cite book | author= Richard Hinckley Allen | date = 1963 | title = Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning | edition = Reprint | publisher = Dover Publications Inc. | location = New York City, New York | isbn = 978-0-486-21079-7 | page = 163 342}}</ref> 24 – 27 – YY(30) – 33 – 29 Psc.,<ref name=Ciofi>Ciofi, C., Torre, p., [http://astrocultura.uai.it/mitologia/antiche/costellazioniperdute2.htm Costellazioni Estinte (nate dal 1700 al 1800)]: Sezione di Ricerca per la Cultura Astronomica</ref> centred a natural but faint [[w:Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] in which the star 20&nbsp;Psc is intended to be the head of the turtle. However the proposal was largely neglected by other astronomers with the exception of Admiral Smyth, who mentioned it in his book ''The Bedford Catalogue'', and it is now [[w:Former constellations|obsolete]].<ref name=Smyth>Smyth, W. H., (1884) ''The Bedford Catalogue''</ref> The stars of Pisces were incorporated into several constellations in Chinese astronomy. Wai-ping ("Outer Enclosure") was a fence that kept a pig farmer from falling into the marshes and kept the pigs where they belonged. It was represented by Alpha, Delta, Epsilon, Zeta, Mu, Nu, and Xi Piscium. The marshes were represented by the four stars designated Phi Ceti. The northern fish of Pisces was a part of the House of the Sandal, Koui-siou. Also, in the Wikipedia article is a [[w:List of stars in Pisces|list of stars in Pisces]]. {{clear}} ==Searching catalogs== In the lecture/article [[radio astronomy]] in its science section is a list of older catalogs of radio sources. Using the constellation description in the previous section and the range of coordinates for the constellation in [[source astronomy]], scan through the coordinates for these radio sources to see if any may be within Pisces. If you find any that are, skip down to the section '''Radio sources''' in Pisces and make an entry. Be sure to check the coordinate era, most B1950 coordinates have changed slightly to the new J2000 set. Try the catalog designation at either SIMBAD website. ==Testing a source== There are many web sites that may have an radio source listed for the constellation Pisces. Some that you may wish to try are in the External links section near the bottom of this lesson. ===Wikipedia sources=== '''A. Constellation article''' Under "Notable features" in the Wikipedia article on the constellation [[w:Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is the [[w:List of stars in Pisces|list of stars in Pisces]]. Click on this link. In the table of this Wikipedia article is α Psc. To the right are coordinates: Right ascension (RA): 02^h 02^m 02.81972^s and Declination (Dec): +02° 45' 49.5410". Find these coordinates on the Pisces map at the right. To evaluate the star as a radio source, skip ahead to section "Radio sources". '''B. Wikipedia search''' Another way to look for radio sources in the constellation is to perform a search on Wikipedia. Try "radio pisces" without the quotes. This yields 134 returns which include an [[w:Outline of astronomy|outline of astronomy]], several musical groups, and many entries that mention Pisces and radio. The outline of astronomy names no radio sources. Scroll down the list of 134 looking for some clear text stating that a radio source in Pisces is discussed, like [[w:NGC 383|NGC 383]]. When you find one, skip ahead to the section "Radio sources". ===SIMBAD sources=== Another way to find possible radio sources in Pisces is to use search queries on [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD]. Click on either SIMBAD link under "External links" below, then click on "Criteria query", or "by criteria". In the tan box, type in "region(02 02 02.820 +02 45 49.54,10m)", without the quotes. This tells the SIMBAD computer you are interested in a circular region of the celestial sphere centered on the coordinates for alpha Piscium, with a radius of 10 arcminutes (10m), or try 10d for 10 degrees. Notice on the page over at the right from the tan colored box: "'''Return'''". The default is "object count". Click on "submit query". In a few moments a result something like "'''Number of objects: 6'''" should appear. Click "Back" to see the tan box again. Adding an object type such as & otype='Rad' to the region request reduces the returned number to those that are radio sources, zero within 10 m of alpha Piscium. Using 10d instead with & otype='Rad' yields 4882 radio sources But, all of the otypes listed at [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-display?data=otypes Object classification in SIMBAD] may contain radio stars, but may not state that any are radio sources. Other otypes of radio sources include Rad (radio-source), mR (metric radio-source), cm (centrimetric radio-source), mm (millimetric radio-source), smm (sub-millimetric source), HI (HI (21 cm) source, rB (radio burst), rG (radio galaxy), or Mas (maser). The SIMBAD criteria search allows you to specify spectral types for possible stars. The criteria "sptype" (the exact spectral type): returns only the objects having the requested spectral type (i.e. sptype = 'k0' does not return 'K0III',...). And, "sptypes" should be used to retrive all objects having a spectral type containing the one specified; i.e., sptypes = 'K0' will return all objects having 'K0' as a spectral type, but also 'K0III' or 'K0IIIp', ...). This may also be comgined using an "&" to pick sources you might like. Here again no information about possible radio sources may be listed. You have to click on one of objects in the list. If a flare star is a likely source of radio waves, which it may because flares also generate radio rays, then entering otype='Fl*' should locate likely radio sources. Using only otype='Fl*' on SIMBAD yields 2582 in all of SIMBAD. ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System=== In the naming of sources per constellation, the genitive is in common use. For Pisces, the genitive is Piscium. Click on the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System link below in the "External links". Try "Pisces radio waves" without the quotes, or "alpha piscium" with quotes, followed by radio. The first returns eight primary source articles that may contain radio sources in Pisces. The second returns zero. Click on a link below '''# Bibcode Authors'''. If the '''Abstract''' describes the detection of radio waves from a source in the constellation Pisces, go to the next section under "SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System". If it does not try another bibcode link. ==Radio sources== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios}} There are several ways to evaluate a radio source for the constellation Pisces. ===Wikipedia sources=== Click on the link to the Wikipedia article. After you've enjoyed reading about the source, use the 'find' command of your browser to see if this Wikipedia page mentions anything about radio waves. Does the article mention whether or not the source is a radio source? What is the current time stamp for the Wikipedia article on the source? [Hint]: look for something like "This page was last modified on 25 December 2013 at 20:12." very near the bottom of the page. For now this is an adequate time stamp. From reading the Wikipedia article on the source, if you believe the text demonstrates that the source is not a radio source in Pisces edit the "Non-radio sources in Pisces" section near the bottom of the page with an entry similar to "# Alpha Piscium 25 December 2013 at 20:12 Wikipedia article "Alpha Piscium", without the quotes, and finish the entry with four "~"s without the quotes after the period. The date included with your designation or username is a time stamp for the entry. The last portion of the entry is the source of your information. On the other hand, if there are one or more sentences in the article that you believe demonstrates that the source is a radio source in Pisces edit the section below "Radio sources in Pisces" with a similar entry. Go to the section entitled, "Challenging an entry". The Wikipedia article on Alpha Piscium mentions, "Alpha Piscium [...] is a spectroscopic binary star system with components that orbit each other every 3848.8&nbsp;days (10.5&nbsp;years).<ref name=aaa442_1_365>{{ cite journal | author=S. Jancart, A. Jorissen, C. Babusiaux, D. Pourbaix | title=Astrometric orbits of SB^9 stars | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=442 | issue=1 | pages=365–80 | month=October | year=2005 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20053003 | bibcode=2005A&A...442..365J |arxiv = astro-ph/0507695 }}</ref> The combined stellar classification of the system is K0.5&nbsp;IIIb,<ref name=aj132_1_161>{{ cite journal | author=R. O. Gray, C. J. Corbally, R. F. Garrison, M. T. McFadden, E. J. Bubar, C. E. McGahee, A. A. O'Donoghue, E. R. Knox | title=Contributions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample | journal=The Astronomical Journal | volume=132 | issue=1 | pages=161–70 |month=July |year=2006 | doi=10.1086/504637 | bibcode=2006AJ....132..161G |arxiv = astro-ph/0603770 }}</ref> which matches the spectrum of a lower luminosity giant star." From the lecture/article on [[radio astronomy]], the radio radiation band may not have an appropriate wavelength temperature pair. Is the primary star of alpha Piscium a radio star, or a radio source? ===Wikimedia commons=== Another possible website for radio sources is [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikimedia Commons]. Try entering "radio Pisces" without the quotes. This returns the one image at the top of the page. ===SIMBAD sources=== To check any source (even one from Wikipedia) on SIMBAD, click of the "External link" to the "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". At the lower right side of the SIMBAD Astronomical Database page is a "Basic search" box. There are several ways to try your target: # source name: without the quotes or # source coordinates: without the quotes, for example, "02 02 02.820 +02 45 49.54". If you are looking at a SIMBAD generated table which lists possible targets, click on one. Having SIMBAD list all of its 2582 flare stars produces an apparently formidable task. Try searching with your browser using "Psc". Many of the flare stars listed do not include a constellation designation. Letting SIMBAD plot all of these flare stars and comparing the plot with the constellation sky chart may help. There are 3511 otype='Rad' listed in SIMBAD. Plotting them may be helpful or scanning them using +2 with your browser may eventually reveal at least one radio source. If you have already found a radio source (or a table of them) using SIMBAD, click on the blue link identifier for the first to look for the date of observations. ===SIMBAD time stamp=== Peruse the SIMBAD page for a time stamp or date of last revision. [Hint: it may look something like "2012.01.09CET20:10:02" and be in the upper right.] If the entry at SIMBAD convinces you that the source is not a radio source, edit the "Non-radio sources in Pisces" section near the bottom of this page and type in an entry similar to "# Source Name 2012.01.09CET20:10:02 SIMBAD article "SIMBAD source name".", without the first set of quotes, followed by four ~s. If your SIMBAD analysis convinces you that you may have found a radio source in Pisces (did you check the coordinates vs. the map of Pisces?), make an entry something like the ones in the section "Radio sources in Pisces". ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources=== If the abstract states that a radio source in Pisces is detected or studied, consider entering it in the section "Radio sources in Pisces" below. ===Abstract time stamp=== On the abstract page is a '''Publication Date''':. This may serve as a time stamp for establishing that the source is detected as a radio source on or before the date of publication. The time stamp followed by four ~s for your verification as determiner in the section "Radio sources in Pisces" completes your entry. ==Challenging an entry== Any entry in either the section "Radio sources in Pisces" or "Non-radio sources in Pisces" can be challenged. The time stamp can be challenged to see if there is an earlier one. The source can be challenged by an earlier source. ===Wikipedia challenges=== Is Wikipedia a '[[w:Primary source|primary source]]', or does the Wikipedia article cite a source? Even though Wikipedia has an article on the source, is it a good place to stop in testing whether the source has been detected as an astronomical radio source? If the Wikipedia article cites a primary source, skip down to the section on "Primary sources". ===SIMBAD challenges=== Is SIMBAD a 'primary source'? SIMBAD is an astronomical database provided by the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. It is an authoritative source, but they do occasionally make a mistake. If you find a radio source within the constellation on SIMBAD, the next step is to find the earliest time stamp of discovery. ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System challenge=== Is the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System abstract entry a primary source? The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System is an astronomical database provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Division at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics of Harvard University. The abstract has been copied from the actual article in a scientific journal or other publication. Mistakes can be made and the article may record within its text exact dates when the observation or detection of radio waves actually occurred. Such a record may provide an earlier time stamp. ==Primary sources== Primary sources may be searched for possible additional information perhaps not yet evaluated by SIMBAD or not presented in a Wikipedia article about a source. ===Wikipedia test sources=== For a Wikipedia article that cites a primary source, scroll down to the reference and open the reference. Read through the article looking for where the source mentioned in the Wikipedia article occurs. Some primary source authors may use source designations that are not mentioned in the Wikipedia article. To look for other designations, click on the link to SIMBAD in the "External links" on this page, enter the source name from the Wikipedia article, and see if other names are mentioned in the article. When none of the names are mentioned, click on the link for "Google Advanced Search" in the list of "External links", enter the source name or designation(s) such as "Gliese 866", with radio waves to see if the source has a reference indicating it is a radio source source. And, look for the earliest one. Compose an entry using the primary source. ===SIMBAD test sources=== Further down the SIMBAD page is a list of "Identifiers". Click on the blue bold portion. On the page that appears should be a primary source listed after '''Ref:'''. Click on the blue link with the oldest year. This yields an earlier time stamp and entry citation like the current one in the section "Radio sources in Pisces". If you find another source or an earlier time stamp, compose a similar entry and edit the section. Additional information to add into the reference can be found by clicking on "ADS services" from the SIMBAD page. ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources test=== Click on either the "Electronic Refereed Journal Article (HTML)" or "Full Refereed Journal Article (PDF/Postscript)", if available. Depending on the article display, if the abstract is repeated and the article is listed as '''FREE''', click on either the PDF or HTML version. While scanning or reading the article look for "Observations" (or use the Find function of your browser) and the possible inclusion of dates for these. If more than one radio source in Pisces are detected, which one(s) would you list in the section "Radio sources in Pisces" below? An example of an article reference is provided in that section. ==Changing an entry== From your analysis of the source so far, is it a radio source? If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below "Non-radio sources in Pisces" and the answer to the above question is "no", you can edit the section with your result. Or, you can leave the entries as is and try another star. If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below "Radio sources in Pisces", edit the section with your result. Or, if you found another radio source with a comparable or earlier time stamp, edit the section with your result. ==Radio sources in Pisces== # [[w:NGC 383|NGC 383]] states, "NGC 383 is a double radio galaxy^[3] with a quasar-like appearance located in the constellation Pisces. [...] Recent discoveries by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in 2006 reveal that NGC 383 is being bisected by high energy relativistic electrons traveling at relatively high fractions of the speed of light. These relativistic electrons are detected as synchrotron radiation in the x-ray and radio wavelengths. The focus of this intense energy is the galactic center of NGC 383. The relativistic electron jets detected as synchrotron radiation extend for several thousand parsecs and then appear to dissipate at the ends in the form of streamers or filaments." The reference [3] is SIMBAD. This link is good and SIMBAD confirms that NGC 383 is a radio galaxy. The primary source article has bibcode=1992MNRAS.254..655P. It is a catalog of 800 compact radio sources. The observations were carried out between February 19 and 23, 1990. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 22:25, 27 February 2014 (UTC) ==Non-radio sources in Pisces== ==Oldest record== NGC 383 and SIMBAD confirms that NGC 383 is a radio galaxy. The primary source article has bibcode=1992MNRAS.254..655P. It is a catalog of 800 compact radio sources. The observations were carried out between February 19 and 23, 1990. ==SIMBAD annotations== For any particular source, the SIMBAD record may indicate that it is not a radio source yet above you may have found at least two refereed journal articles to indicate that it is. Use the second SIMBAD External links to directly display the SIMBAD database in France. Enter the name source you have found into the search box. Scroll down to the '''Annotations :'''. Look for the link "add an annotation to this object". With browser open to the literature citations available, click on this link. You may need to register as a user. It's free. Post your annotation containing the literature references. ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # The first radio source in Pisces may have been found in the 20's. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[First blue source in Boötes]] * [[First cyan source in Caelum]] * [[Sources/First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe|First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe]] * [[Sources/First green source in Tucana|First green source in Tucana]] * [[Sources/First infrared source in Crux|First infrared source in Crux]] * [[First neutron source in Volans]] * [[First orange source in Cancer]] * [[First positron source in Phoenix]] * [[First radio source in Pisces]] * [[First red source in Canis Major]] * [[First submillimeter source in Carina]] * [[First superluminal source in Indus]] * [[Sources/First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius|First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius]] * [[First violet source in Leo]] * [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]] * [[First yellow source in Aquila]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Constellation of Pisces}}{{Sisterlinks|Astronomical radio source}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lessons]] [[Category:Sources/Lessons]] rvauxd0k4n63p7xul2hexwx5age912s 6 157582 2417148 1154565 2022-08-22T02:34:31Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == This is a photomicrograph of quartz grains in unshocked Coconino sandstone. [[Category:Geology]] == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = This is a black and white photomicrograph of unshocked quartz grains from the Coconino sandstone in northern Arizona sufficiently far away from Meteor Crater. |Source = The image appears in the pdf of an article by Susan Werner Kieffer at url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.210.8562&rep=rep1&type=pdf. The article is entitled, "Shock metamorphism of the Coconino sandstone at Meteor Crater, Arizona". It appears in the Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 76, no. 23, 1971, pp. 5449-73. |Date = August 10, 1971 |Author = Susan Werner Kieffer |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a black and white photomicrograph of unshocked quartz grains from the Coconino sandstone in northern Arizona sufficiently far away from Meteor Crater. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} juwsk83g05nddzpiyv5zfs4f7u3yk5p 6 157584 2417149 1154576 2022-08-22T02:36:12Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == This is a thin slice of NWA 5400 viewed under a special lighting arrangement through a microscope. Many of the strikingly colorful crystals are composed of olivine. [[Category:Geology]] == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = This is a thin slice of NWA 5400 viewed under a special lighting arrangement through a microscope. Many of the strikingly colorful crystals are composed of olivine. |Source = The image occurs on a website entitled, "Florida man uncovers possible Earth-related meteorite" at url=http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2010/06/14/florida-man-uncovers-possible-earth-related-meteorite/. |Date = June 14, 2010 |Author = Greg Hupe |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a thin slice of NWA 5400 viewed under a special lighting arrangement through a microscope. Many of the strikingly colorful crystals are composed of olivine. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} 1lzpf18cx4ay3rslamoniegoik720jw 1 158983 2417095 2401235 2022-08-21T19:40:04Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Rubriq does not work since 2017 */ Removed wikitext text/x-wiki {{WikiJournal_discussions|Tubal Pregnancy with embryo (crop2).jpg}} {{Archive box| *[[/2014-2019|2014–2019]] *[[Talk:WikiJournal of Medicine/Open tasks and discussions|Open tasks and discussions]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}/join public mailing list]''' }}[[Category:WikiJournal of Medicine]] == SHERPA/RoMEO == I've submitted to the details for WikiJMed to SHERPA/RoMEO via the [http://sherpa.ac.uk/forms/new-journal.php journal submission form]. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 12:50, 2 May 2019 (UTC) :Great! [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 15:04, 10 June 2019 (UTC) == Consensus Report on Reproducibility and Replicability in Science (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine) == National Academies of Sciences, Engineering. ''Reproducibility and Replicability in Science'', 2019. https://doi.org/10.17226/25303. Below is a brief summary from the [https://www.psychologicalscience.org/ Association for Psychological Science] (APS). The National Academies pre-publication full report is available as a [https://cart.nap.edu/cart/cart.php?list=fs&action=buy%20it&record_id=25303&isbn=0-309-48613-0 print book], [https://www.nap.edu/download/25303 PDF], or to [https://www.nap.edu/read/25303 read online]. === Brief Summary === The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) has released a consensus report on reproducibility and replicability in science. The report defines key terms, examines the state of reproducibility and replicability in science, and reviews current activities aimed at strengthening the reliability of the scientific enterprise. Reproducibility and Replicability in Science, funded by the National Science Foundation and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, concludes a thorough process that spanned more than a year. The report was authored by a multidisciplinary committee including APS William James Fellow Timothy Wilson (University of Virginia) and APS Fellow Wendy Wood (University of Southern California). Recognizing that different fields use the same terms in different ways, the report established clear definitions of reproducibility and replicability. The report defines reproducibility as “achieving consistent results using the same input data, computational steps, methods, code, and conditions of analysis as prior studies—known as computational reproducibility within some fields.” Replicability is defined as “obtaining consistent results across studies that are aimed at answering the same scientific question but have obtained independent data.” The report also assesses the current state of reproducibility and replicability in science. “There is no crisis, but also no time for complacency,” said the chair of the committee, physician Harvey Fineberg, in an event marking the public release of the report. The committee concludes that efforts are needed to strengthen both reproducibility and replicability in science, recognizing that these aspects are important but not always easy to attain. Given that replicability of individual studies can vary, the report notes, integrating multiple channels of evidence from a variety of studies is essential to understanding the reliability of scientific knowledge. The study also provides suggestions for how reproducibility and replication can be improved. The report makes a variety of recommendations for scientists and researchers in presenting their research findings, suggesting that they: * Convey clear information about computational methods and data products that support published reports * Provide accurate and appropriate characterization of relevant uncertainties when they report research findings * Provide a complete description of how a reported result was reached * Avoid overstating the implications of research findings and exercise caution in their review of research-related press releases * The report also includes recommendations for universities, science funders, journalists, policymakers, and other stakeholders; it also discusses how concerns about reproducibility and replicability might have the potential to affect how the public views the scientific enterprise. To read the new National Academies report ''Reproducibility and Replicability in Science'', [https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25303/reproducibility-and-replicability-in-science click here]. [[User:Markworthen|<span style="color:#539; font-family:copperplate gothic">&nbsp; - Mark D Worthen PsyD</span>]] [[User talk:Markworthen|<span style="color:#64B; font-family:times new roman">(talk)</span>]] 14:58, 10 May 2019 (UTC) == BASE == The journal is [https://www.base-search.net/Record/7016ef9358ef46e3836d87b198f000d7bbeb7b97c280f6456b99567e5b4e44e9/ now indexed in BASE] via DOAJ. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 06:05, 7 June 2019 (UTC) :Great! [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 15:04, 10 June 2019 (UTC) == Board member re-elections == As per the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Bylaws#Section 5. Duration of Term|bylaws of WikiJMed]] "Editorial Board Members shall serve four-year terms. There is no limit to the number of terms any individual Editorial Board Member may serve." In the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Editors|editorial board of WikiJMed]], there are 2 members at the end of their terms: [[User:CFCF|Carl Fredrik Sjöland]] and [[User:Taketa|Mike Nicolaije]]. If you would like to extend your terms, we've previously simply used the same system as applications. I suggest doing this at [[Talk:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editors]] as the logical location (e.g. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editors&action=edit&section=new&preload=WikiJournal_of_Medicine%2FEditorial_board%2FApplication&summary=Editorial+board+application using this link]) [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 12:24, 14 June 2019 (UTC) :Dear T.Shafee and all, :thank you for the notice. I am not applying for a new term. I enjoyed my time on the board, with as a highlight Wikimania 2016. For the moment I would like to work on other wikiprojects. :All the best, [[User:Taketa|Taketa]] ([[User talk:Taketa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taketa|contribs]]) 14:48, 14 June 2019 (UTC) == Dyslexia article == I had some concerns about the [[WikiJournal Preprints/Dyslexia|Dyslexia article]]. The authors responded promptly, politely, and professionally to the [[Talk:WikiJournal Preprints/Dyslexia|concerns I (and others) posted]]. I can't remember the precise context, but a couple of months ago I had planned to review the article mainly for [[w:copy editing|copy editing]], but also to make sure statements were adequately supported by their cited references. Unfortunately, time constraints resulted in my failure to follow through on that commitment. At this point I don't think it's fair to the authors to drag out the review any longer. Thus, if the editors for the article—Eric Youngstrom and Jitendra Kumar Sinha—decide the article is "good to go", i.e., ready to move to [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|Stages 6 and 7]], then I support whatever decision the editors make. Part of my reasoning is that if I or anyone else discovers problems with grammar, syntax, etc. (or citations not supporting a statement) then we can judiciously edit [[w:Dyslexia|the Wikipedia article]]. Plus, it's a [[w:good article|good article]] per Wikipedia standards, and it has received extensive review. ''(I also posted what I write here to the listserv.)'' Thanks! Mark [[User:Markworthen|<span style="color:#539; font-family:copperplate gothic">&nbsp; - Mark D Worthen PsyD</span>]] [[User talk:Markworthen|<span style="color:#64B; font-family:times new roman">(talk)</span>]] 21:27, 6 August 2019 (UTC) :Note that [[User:Eyoungstrom]] stated on the mailing list that they will be doing the final proofread in the next 2 weeks. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 12:11, 25 August 2019 (UTC) == Bylaws == Hi. Just wanted to point out the following confusing sections - I think there are a few words missing (my suggested additions are underlined): * Article III Section 1 *: "{{highlight|(a) The}} voting procedures in ARTICLE IV apply to:" - I suggest removing the "(a)", since this isn't part of the list, but merely introducing the list *: "(e) Amendment of these bylaws as specified in ARTICLE {{highlight|IX<u>.</u>}}" - all the other entries have periods at the end * Article III Section 2 *: The (a)(b)(c)... suggest that voters meet ''one of'' the listed qualifications, but (g) says "Not an individual voting for herself/himself" - this suggests that anyone may vote, but only those that meet a different qualification can vote for themselves. I suggest explicitly stating that these are "or" qualifications, but that (g) is ''in addition to'' the other requirements * Article VIII Section 2 *: "The property {{highlight|of <u>Wiki.J.Med.</u> is}} irrevocably dedicated to charitable purposes and no part of the funds allotted by WikiJournal {{highlight|to <u>Wiki.J.Med.</u> shall}} ever inure to the benefit of any Editorial Board Member or to the benefit of any private individual other than compensation in a reasonable amount to its contractors for services rendered. * Article VIII Section 3 *: Upon the dissolution or winding-up of Wiki.J.Med., the resultant assets remaining after payment, or provision for payment, of all debts and liabilities {{highlight|of <u>Wiki.J.Med.</u> shall}} be distributed to WikiJournal. If this is not possible, the resultant assets shall be distributed to Wikimedia Foundation. * Article VIII Section 4 *: "No loans shall be contracted on behalf of {{highlight|the <u>Wiki.J.Med.</u> and}} no evidence of indebtedness shall be issued in its name unless authorized by a resolution of the Editorial Board." Thanks, --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 00:43, 7 August 2019 (UTC) Thank you, [[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]], for pointing these out! I'm not sure they warrant a vote on a bylaws change right now, but I've added them to [[WikiJournal User Group/Bylaws/Proposed changes]], so that they will be accounted for in the next update. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 10:34, 1 February 2020 (UTC) ==PMC aplication== {{cot}} {{:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Applications/PubMed_Central}} {{cob}} :Greetings [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]. If the next application to PMC is accepted, will all of the articles published in previous years also be indexed in PubMed/PMC? Thanks. [[User:Biosthmors|Biosthmors]] ([[User talk:Biosthmors|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Biosthmors|contribs]]) 14:59, 7 March 2021 (UTC) ::@[[User:Biosthmors|Biosthmors]]. I believe that we submit back-issues up to two years to them ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/about/guidelines/#backcontent relevant policy]). [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 03:22, 8 March 2021 (UTC) == Twitter share button code == This is not a major problem, but when someone can get to it ... The Twitter share button code for the recent (and very good!) Hepatitis D article has the old Twitter handle (@WiJouMed) in the code. That just needs to be changed to @WikiJMed. Thanks! [[User:Markworthen|<span style="color:#539; font-family:copperplate gothic">&nbsp; - Mark D Worthen PsyD</span>]] [[User talk:Markworthen|<span style="color:#64B; font-family:times new roman">(talk)</span>]] 14:04, 30 March 2020 (UTC) :Done! Luckily an easy fix to {{tlx|share}}. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 00:49, 31 March 2020 (UTC) == SCOPUS == WikiJMed to be indexed in SCOPUS. You can see the application and process [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Applications/SCOPUS|here]]. Also announced variously on [https://twitter.com/WikiJMed/status/1273595131975909377 twitter] and [https://www.facebook.com/WikiJMed/photos/a.2448190831929392/3102687373146398 FB]. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:34, 20 June 2020 (UTC) :''WikiLMed'' is now indexed in Scopus with an [https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21101024226 ID 21101024226]. It will be good to link on the journal home page. [[User:Chhandama|Chhandama]] ([[User talk:Chhandama|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Chhandama|contribs]]) 05:05, 20 October 2021 (UTC) ::@[[User:Chhandama|Chhandama]]: Good suggestion. I also took the opportunity to do a few additional layout updates [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 05:44, 23 October 2021 (UTC) == Add "Quality prose" to Author guidelines == I highly recommend that we add a new "Quality prose" section to the Author guidelines (for both Research and Review articles). Here is a draft of such a section: === Quality prose === Manuscripts submitted to the WikiJMed should exhibit clear, correct, concise, comprehensible, and consistent writing. Articles should "say what they mean and mean what they say."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-01-08|title=Wikipedia:WikiProject Guild of Copy Editors|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Guild_of_Copy_Editors&oldid=999038911|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> As the ''Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association'' states: <blockquote>The main objective of scholarly writing is clear communication, which can be achieved by presenting ideas in an orderly and concise manner. ... Precise, clear word choice and sentence structure also contribute to the creation of a substantive, impactful work.<ref>''Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association'', 7th ed., (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2020), 111.</ref></blockquote> Although WikiJMed editors will carefully review manuscripts for quality prose, we do not provide a copy editing service. In other words, submit a manuscript only after you ''know'' that your article exhibits pithy prose.<ref>''Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged'', ed. Philip B. Gove (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1961, 1993, periodically updated as Merriam-Webster Unabridged), s.v. "[https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/pithy pithy]", ("pithy ''adjective'' ... 2 : a : containing much meaning and substance in a terse concentrated form : brief and to the point : full of significance : meaty").</ref> How do you know that your prose passes muster? Ask one or two colleagues known for writing well to review your manuscript. Also seriously consider hiring a professional copy editor to review your manuscript and offer recommendations.<ref>Search results for "professional copy editor": [[google:professional+copy+editor|Google]] | [https://www.bing.com/search?q=professional+copy+editor Bing] | [https://duckduckgo.com/?q=professional+copy+editor DuckDuckGo]</ref> Here are some recommended writing resources to help you write articles that make a difference. === WRITING RESOURCES === ==== Writing resources: Books ==== Garner, Bryan A. ''Garner's Modern English Usage''. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. Stein, Sol. ''Stein on Writing''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995. Strunk, William Jr., and E. B. White. ''The Elements of Style''. 4th ed. New York: Longman, 1999. Zinsser, William. ''On Writing Well''. 7th ed., rev.. New York: Harper Collins, 2006. ==== Writing resources: Online writing labs ==== Purdue University. ''Purdue Online Writing Lab'' ("Purdue OWL"). https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. "Tips & Tools." ''The Writing Center''. https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/ ==== Writing resources: Wikipedia ==== '''[[w:WP:COPYEDIT|Basic copyediting]]''' '''[[w:WP:Writing better articles#Use clear, precise and accurate terms|Use clear, precise and accurate terms]]''' '''[[w:WP:REFERS|Use of "refers to"]]''' and related phrases such as "relates to". ====Writing resources: Dictionaries==== ===== Dictionaries: Free online ===== ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Online''. https://ahdictionary.com/ . COMMENT: The best for pithy definitions. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. https://www.merriam-webster.com/ . COMMENT: Solid, reliable definitions. ''Oxford Languages'' via Google. Search Google for the word or, if you do not see a definition right away, search for the word + "definition". COMMENT: Fast & reliable. Not as comprehensive as Merriam-Webster. Not as concise as American Heritage. ===== Dictionaries: Subscription-based online ===== ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (OED Online). https://www.oed.com/ . COMMENT: The best for etymology; eloquent. ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged'', ed. Philip B. Gove (Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam, 1961, 1993, periodically updated as ''Merriam-Webster Unabridged''), https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/ . COMMENT: Exquisitely written and comprehensive. ===== Dictionaries: Print books ===== ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''. 5th ed., rev. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018. (Usually marketed as "50th Anniversary edition.") ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged''. Edited by Philip B. Gove. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 1993. ===== Dictionaries: General comment ===== There are other good dictionaries. Find two or three you prefer by comparing definitions and related material over time. === References === {{reflist-talk}} Thank you for considering my recommendation. [[User:Markworthen|<span style="color:#539; font-family:copperplate gothic">&nbsp; - Mark D Worthen PsyD</span>]] [[User talk:Markworthen|<span style="color:#64B; font-family:times new roman">(talk)</span>]] 07:47, 7 March 2021 (UTC) :I agree with adding a quality prose / readability guideline to [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Publishing#General_guidelines]] (or as its own section). I also think it's worth including something similar for the sister journals, since it's pretty broadly relevant, so I'll also format up something to add to the central [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing]] page. The specific resources might be collapsed, linked out to, or footnoted so as not to make it too long, but make sure the material is available. I'm also a big fan of [https://www.americanscientist.org/blog/the-long-view/the-science-of-scientific-writing Gopen & Swan's 'The Science of Scientific Writing'], which I was introduced to when writing my thesis. We ideally want these sorts of issues dealt with by the authors earlier in the process than later. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 10:38, 11 March 2021 (UTC) ::I agree with everything you wrote. :0) [[User:Markworthen|<span style="color:#539; font-family:copperplate gothic">&nbsp; - Mark D Worthen PsyD</span>]] [[User talk:Markworthen|<span style="color:#64B; font-family:times new roman">(talk)</span>]] 17:00, 7 April 2021 (UTC) == Format of abstracts == Is it allowed to change the format of [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] or [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Viewer interaction with YouTube videos about hysterectomy recovery]] to the format of [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Comparison between the Lund-Browder chart and the BurnCase 3D® for consistency in estimating total body surface area burned]], because of the missing visual effect on [[WikiJournal of Medicine|the front page]] (missing ":")? [[User:Habitator terrae|Habitator terrae]] ([[User talk:Habitator terrae|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Habitator terrae|contribs]]) 21:15, 23 June 2021 (UTC) :@[[User:Habitator terrae|Habitator terrae]] Ah, I see what you mean. When the front page strips out line returns to save space, the abstract section indicators become unclear. I think you're right that those two should be formatted to add colons (and indeed that should be the standard format going forward). Since it doesn't change the meaning of the content, it's fine to make the change directly. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 03:37, 24 June 2021 (UTC) == Wikipedia integrated == What does it mean Wikipedia integrated? I don't see any explanation, what does it mean or how it works. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:15, 2 August 2021 (UTC) :There are a few aspects to it. Firstly, some of the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Publishing#Publication formats|main publication formats]] are directly converted to Wikipedia pages ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/Epidemiology of the Hepatitis D virus|example]]), and some even from [[WikiJournal of Medicine/What are Systematic Reviews?|Wikipedia pages]]. Additionally, some articles have their images integrated into Wikipedia ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/Cell disassembly during apoptosis|example]]). There's some more in-depth info and history in [[c:File:2020_WikiJournal_overview_and_comparison_(Open_Publishing_Fest)_recording.webm|this presentation from 2020]]. But good point that it's be worth linking out to more information. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:50, 2 August 2021 (UTC) I see, thanks for the explanation. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 16:41, 6 September 2021 (UTC) == Impact factor == So it is said, that the Journal was not added to the Web of Science yet. Is this per request process or do they do it automatically or how does it work? --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 06:08, 6 September 2021 (UTC) :Getting into Web of Science remains our focus. It is a manual submission process so we will try again later. It is also important to note that there are [[:w:Impact factor#Criticism|multiple, well-known criticism]] over what impact factor stands for and what are its gaps. Moreover, different engines arrive at different results. For example, Google Scholar counts every citation including student thesis, conference abstracts and government reports (which means that the impact factor may be inflated). ResearchGate lets you upload conference poster, which can serve as a way self-cite your own publications and inflate your personal impact factor. On the other hand, Web of Science tend to underestimate impact factor because it excludes things like peer-reviewed book chapters. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:39, 29 March 2022 (UTC) == Recruiting technical editors == We are hiring new [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] for the journals. Please see [https://www.linkedin.com/posts/andrewcleung_technical-editor-job-poster-activity-6912636772371828736-LteF this job posting for details.] [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 03:24, 29 March 2022 (UTC) :The application period is now closed, and we are assessing existing applications. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:33, 22 May 2022 (UTC) == Rubriq does not work since 2017 == Three is a sentence on the Wikijournal of Medicine [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editorial_guidelines#Finding_peer_reviewers|Editorial guidelines]] page "As a last possibility, authors may pay for a peer review to be performed by Rubriq (with a request to abide by the journal's peer review guidelines)." There was a link to a Wikipedia article on Rubriq: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review#Rubriq Rubriq] I have figured out that Rubriq does not work since 2017. I have edited the Wikipedia page but not the page on the Editorial guidelines of Wikijournal of Medicine. I recommend to replace the link to Rubriq to a link to another service that works (if any) or remove this advise altogether. --[[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 21:24, 2 May 2022 (UTC) :When trying to reach Rubriq, I was redirected to [https://www.researchsquare.com/publishers/editorial-services Research Square]. I'm not sure it's interchangeable though, so I've simply removed the Rubriq option from the editorial guidelines. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:39, 21 August 2022 (UTC) == The links to PubMed Central (PMC) are generating incorrectly == Hello, {{ping|Evolution and evolvability}} The links to PubMed Central (PMC) are generating incorrectly from the template ''cite journal|pmc=...'' in the WikiJournal of Medicine, for example, click the links to "PMC" at the references section at https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_Preprints/Androgen_backdoor_pathway In contrast, the links from the same template on Wikipedia are generated correctly, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway [[User:Maxim Masiutin|Maxim Masiutin]] ([[User talk:Maxim Masiutin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maxim Masiutin|contribs]]) 11:03, 19 June 2022 (UTC) tryvqezfuerkbfk9qdu80wtnwtwtccy 1 159077 2417097 2416724 2022-08-21T20:35:54Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Capitalized titles? */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) == Reference deposits == Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?). What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's "What Cites This" page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself. This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]"; its first reference is the 1907 article "Parrakeets Moulting". If you visit the Taylor & Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for "Parrakeets Moulting"], however, you can see in the righthand "Related research" module in the "Cited by" tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link "Beak and feather disease virus" and "Parrakeets Moulting"; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the "Parrakeets Moulting" page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs. One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles. If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]" has a unified reference list, but other articles like "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]" have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated "[Author], [date], p. XX" footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials. I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, "Beak and feather disease virus" is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC) : Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC) :::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]" and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) :::::::{{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Yes, I did [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Parenting stress|Parenting stress]] and another one (can't remember if it was [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Kivu Ebola Epidemic|Kivu Ebola Epidemic]] or the [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]]) as a trial to see how easy/difficult the process was. Is there a way to check back which one I did? [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:27, 19 August 2022 (UTC) ::::::::{{re|OhanaUnited}}, good question. Looking at the [http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 dates the DOIs were most recently updated], I'd guess that it was "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.002 Leptospirosis]", updated 18 July just like "Parenting stress". However, looking at [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.002 the metadata itself], it looks like only a single reference was actually deposited ("Hussain, A. (2021). Society and culture. International Journal of Scientific Research. 12 (1). 40608-40613.") and it doesn't even seem to be a reference actually cited in the article, so it may be worth it to try depositing refs for that one again. (Compare to the [https://api.crossref.org/v1/works/10.15347/wjm/2022.003 "Parenting stress" metadata] where you can see all the references properly located within the metadata itself.) I hope this is useful! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:52, 19 August 2022 (UTC) :::::::::That was indeed strange. Thanks for the detective work. I'll try Leptospirosis again this weekend and let the rest to be tackled by our technical editors. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 22:10, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == Rabeprazole? == I was just taking a look at the [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] and noticed the 2018 preprint "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]" which does not seem to be included on the tracking list despite having received two peer reviews. It also doesn't seem to have a Wikidata item, but I couldn't see anywhere that it had been declined. Just flagging it here to make sure it hasn't slipped through the cracks. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:45, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :Good catch. I'm contacting the WJM board to find out. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 19 August 2022 (UTC) {{re|Bobamnertiopsis}} Thanks for catching this. It was indeed an approved article that didn't get published because it fell through the crack. It will be published shortly. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 15:28, 20 August 2022 (UTC) == Wikipedia as a bibliographic tool for researchers? == Wikijournals give incentives for researchers to write in Wikipedia, by allowing Wikipedia articles to be peer-reviewed and officially counted as academic publications. What if in some cases, researchers did not need incentives because writing in Wikipedia would be directly useful to their own work? The idea is that they would not write on their own results or subject, but on some related subject which they would need to learn. (See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sylvain_Ribault/WP_biblio_essay this short essay] for details.) Does anyone know examples of this modus operandi? If you are a researcher, does it seem applicable in your own field of research? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 21:44, 17 August 2022 (UTC) == Capitalized titles? == Hello all, There's currently an inconsistency whether article titles are written with upper-case or lower-case first letter in its words. I think it's reasonable to have them lower-case, and Wikipedia as well as high impact scholarly journals (such as Nature and The Lancet) do the same. I think this should be added to the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing|Author guidelines]]. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:35, 21 August 2022 (UTC) n2jf5glbxptlxsd06k2zq4dsh1qjpan 10 162664 2417085 2106961 2022-08-21T16:13:14Z 2600:1700:13D2:5D10:A48E:C95E:8394:2E90 wikitext text/x-wiki 2417094 2417085 2022-08-21T18:32:41Z Hasley 2842228 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/2600:1700:13D2:5D10:A48E:C95E:8394:2E90|2600:1700:13D2:5D10:A48E:C95E:8394:2E90]] ([[User_talk:2600:1700:13D2:5D10:A48E:C95E:8394:2E90|talk]]) to last version by [[User:WOSlinker|WOSlinker]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox | name = Sciences resources | title = Sciences resources | bodyclass = hlist | titlestyle = background:#DFFF00; color:#000000; | basestyle = background:#7FFF00; | evenstyle = background:#E9FFDB; | oddstyle = background:#E3F988; | state = {{{state<includeonly>|autocollapse</includeonly>}}} | groupstyle = background:#7FFF00; color:#000000; | belowstyle = background:#7FFF00; color:#000000; | group1 = Activities | list1 = * [[Radiation/Analysis/Laboratory|Analytical astronomy]] * [[Astrognosy/Laboratory|Astrognosy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Laboratories|Astronomy laboratories]] * [[Alternative ways to become an observer|Becoming an observer]] * [[Binary Stars and Extrasolar Planets|Binary stars and extrasolar planets]] * [[Activity:Cassiopeia and Ursa Major|Cassiopeia and Ursa Major]] * [[Cosmogony/Laboratory|Cosmogony laboratory]] * [[Craters by radiation/Laboratory|Cratering laboratory]] * [[Distance to the Moon]] * [[Electric orbits]] * [[Electron beam heating/Laboratory|Electron beam heating]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Empiricisms/Laboratory|Empirical radiation astronomy]] * [[Stars/Galaxies/Laboratory|Galaxies]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Intergalactic medium/Laboratory|Intergalactic medium]] * [[International Year of Astronomy]] * [[Liquid water on Europa]] * [[Stars/Sun/Locating the Sun|Locating the Sun]] * [[Lunar Boom Town]] * [[Lunarpedia]] * [[Magnetic field reversals/Laboratory|Magnetic field reversal]] * [[Rocks/Meteorites/Laboratory|Meteorites]] * [[Stars/Sun/Neutrinos|Neutrinos from the Sun]] * [[Polar reversals]] * [[Sciences/Activities]] * [[Stars/Vega/Spectrum|Spectrum of Vega]] * [[Standard candles/Laboratory|Standard candles]] * [[Stellarium]] * [[Vertical precession]] * [[Stars/X-ray classification/Laboratory|X-ray classification of a star]] * [[X-ray trigonometric parallax/Laboratory|X-ray trigonometric parallax]] | group2 = Articles | list2 = * [[Astrosociobiology]] * [[Solar System, technical/Comets|Comets]] * [[Solar System, technical/Earth|Earth]] * [[Earth-impact events]] * [[Solar System, technical/Jupiter|Jupiter]] * [[Solar System, technical/Mars|Mars]] * [[Solar System, technical/Mercury|Mercury]] * [[Solar System, technical/Moon|Moon]] * [[Solar System, technical/Saturn|Saturn]] * [[Solar System, technical/Venus|Venus]] | group3 = Categories | list3 = * [[:Category:Anthropology|Anthropology]] * [[:Category:Archaeology|Archaeology]] * [[:Category:Radiation astronomy|Astronomy]] * [[:Category:Astrophysics|Astrophysics]] * [[:Category:Atmospheric science|Atmospheric science]] * [[:Category:Biochemistry|Biochemistry]] * [[:Category:Biology|Biology]] * [[:Category:Botany|Botany]] * [[:Category:Chemistry|Chemistry]] * [[:Category:Climatology|Climatology]] * [[:Category:Computer science|Computer science]] * [[:Category:Cosmology|Cosmology]] * [[:Category:Ecology|Ecology]] * [[:Category:Economics|Economics]] * [[:Category:Epistemology|Epistemology]] * [[:Category:Etymology|Etymology]] * [[:Category:Genetics|Genetics]] * [[:Category:Geography|Geography]] * [[:Category:Geology|Geology]] * [[:Category:History of science|History of science]] * [[:Category:Immunology|Immunology]] * [[:Category:Linguistics|Linguistics]] * [[:Category:Materials science|Materials science]] * [[:Category:Mathematics|Mathematics]] * [[:Category:Metallurgy|Metallurgy]] * [[:Category:Paleontology|Paleontology]] * [[:Category:Physics|Physics]] * [[:Category:Planetary Science|Planetary Science]] * [[:Category:Plant sciences|Plant sciences]] * [[:Category:Political science|Political science]] * [[:Category:Psychology|Psychology]] * [[:Category:Sciences|Sciences]] * [[:Category:Semantics|Semantics]] * [[:Category:Sciences|Sciences]] * [[:Category:Social psychology|Social psychology]] * [[:Category:Sociology|Sociology]] * [[:Category:Statistics|Statistics]] * [[:Category:Technology|Technology]] * [[:Category:Zoology|Zoology]] | group4 = Courses | list4 = * [[Anthropology]] * [[:Category:Astrophysics/Courses|Astrophysics/Courses]]‎ * [[Biophysics/Introduction]] * [[:Category:Chemicals/Courses|Chemicals/Courses]]‎‎ * [[Genetics/Course]] * [[:Category:Geology/Courses|Geology/Courses]]‎‎‎ * [[:Category:Materials sciences/Courses|Materials sciences/Courses]]‎ * [[Mathematical Methods in Physics]]‎ * [[Quantum physics]] * [[:Category:Radiation astronomy/Courses|Radiation astronomy courses]]‎ * [[:Category:Radiation/Courses|Radiation courses]]‎‎ * [[Sciences/Courses]] | group5 = Glossaries | list5 = * [[Astronomy glossary]] * [[Cosmic View: Glossary of Terms]] | group6 = Lectures | list6 = * [[:Category:Biology/Lectures|Biology lectures]] * [[:Category:Chemistry/Lectures|Chemistry lectures]] * [[:Category:Ecology/Lectures|Ecology lectures]] * [[:Category:Geography/Lectures|Geography lectures]] * [[:Category:Geology/Lectures|Geology lectures]] * [[:Category:Physics/Lectures|Physics lectures]] * [[:Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures|Radiation astronomy lectures]]‎ * [[:Category:Sciences/Lectures|Sciences lectures]] | group7 = Lessons | list7 = * [[First blue source in Boötes]] * [[First cyan source in Caelum]] * [[First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe]] * [[First green source in Tucana]] * [[First infrared source in Crux]] * [[First neutron source in Volans]] * [[First orange source in Cancer]] * [[First positron source in Phoenix]] * [[First radio source in Pisces]] * [[First red source in Canis Major]] * [[First submillimeter source in Carina]] * [[First superluminal source in Indus]] * [[First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius]] * [[First violet source in Leo]] * [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]] * [[First X-ray source in Antlia]] * [[First X-ray source in Apus]] * [[First yellow source in Aquila]] * [[Sciences/Lessons]] | group8 = Lists | list8 = * [[Asteroid Surveys]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Outlines|Radiation astronomy outlines]] | group9 = Portals | list9 = * [[Portal:Archeology|Archeology]] * [[Portal:Astronomy|Astronomy]] * [[Portal:Astrophysics|Astrophysics]] * [[Portal:Cosmology|Cosmology]] * [[Portal:Genetics|Genetics]] * [[Portal:Materials science|Materials sciences]] * [[Portal:Oceanography|Oceanography]] * [[Portal:Paleontology resources|Paleontology]] * [[Portal:Physics|Physics]] * [[Portal:Planetary science|Planetary sciences]] * [[Portal:Radiation astronomy|Radiation astronomy]] * [[Sciences/Portals]] | group10 = Problem sets | list10 = * [[Angular momentum and energy]] * [[Astronomy/Problems]] * [[Column densities]] * [[Cosmic circuits]] * [[Energy phantoms]] * [[Furlongs per fortnight]] * [[Lenses and focal length]] * [[Neutrino emissions]] * [[Planck's equation]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Problem set]] * [[Radiation dosage]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Mathematics/Problem set|Radiation mathematics problem set]] * [[Spectrographs]] * [[Star jumping]] * [[Synchrotron radiation]] * [[Telescopes and cameras]] * [[Unknown coordinate systems]] * [[Unusual units]] * [[Vectors and coordinates]] | group11 = Projects | list11 = * [[Neutrinos from the Sun]] * [[Stars/X-ray classification|X-ray classification of stars]] | group12 = Quizzes | list12 = * [[Astrophysics/Quiz]] * [[Biology/Quiz]] * [[Botany/Quiz]] * [[Chemistry/Quiz]] * [[Cosmogony/Quiz]] * [[Ecology/Quiz]] * [[Economics/Quiz]] * [[Geography/Quiz]] * [[Geology/Quiz]] * [[Heliophysics/Quiz]] * [[Lofting technology/Quiz]] * [[Plasmas/Magnetohydrodynamics/Quiz|Magnetohydrodynamics/Quiz]] * [[Minerals/Mineralogy/Quiz|Mineralogy/Quiz]] * [[Plasmas/Plasma objects/Nucleosynthesis/Quiz|Nucleosynthesis/Quiz]] * [[Physics/Quiz]] * [[Planets/Sciences/Quiz|Planetary science/Quiz]] * [[Psychology/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Quiz]] * [[Rocks/Quiz]] * [[Sciences/Quiz]] * [[Sciences/Quizzes]] * [[Sociology/Quiz]] * [[Zoology/Quiz]] | group13 = Schools | list13 = * [[School:Architecture|Architecture]] * [[School:Biology|Biology]] * [[School:Chemistry|Chemistry]] * [[School:Earth science|Earth sciences]] * [[School:Environmental science|Environmental sciences]] * [[School:Geography|Geography]] * [[School:Geophysics|Geophysics]] * [[School:Library and information science|Library and information sciences]] * [[School:Marine sciences|Marine sciences]] * [[School:Meteorology|Meteorology]] * [[School:Mortuary Science and Thanatology|Mortuary Sciences and Thanatology]] * [[School:Physics and Astronomy|Physics and astronomy]] * [[School:Plant sciences|Plant sciences]] * [[School:Political science|Political sciences]] * [[School:Psychology|Psychology]] * [[School:Sociology|Sociology]] * [[School:Zoology|Zoology]] }} 3jwa3y66i5ajq2ihhuxag4cbymndym2 0 166737 2417137 2399104 2022-08-22T01:56:03Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Neutrals astronomy''' is the astronomy of observing neutral atoms or molecules, their sources and apparent entities or objects of origin. {{clear}} ==Strong forces== {{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}} A "new type of neutron star model (Q stars) [is such that] high-density, electrically neutral baryonic matter is a coherent classical solution to an effective field theory of strong forces and is bound in the absence of gravity. [...] allows massive compact objects, [...] and has no macroscopic minimum mass."<ref name=Bahcall>{{ cite journal |author=Safi Bahcall |author2=Bryan W. Lynn |author3=Stephen B. Selipsky |title=New Models for Neutron Stars |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 10, 1990 |volume=362 |issue=10 |pages=251-5 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ApJ...362..251B |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...362..251B |doi=10.1086/169261 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> "Compact objects in astronomy are usually analyzed in terms of theoretical characteristics of neutron stars or black holes that are based upon calculations of equations of state for matter at very high densities. At such high densities, the effects of strong forces cannot be neglected. There are several conventional approaches to describing nuclear forces, all of which find that for a baryon number greater than ~250, a nucleus will become energetically unbound. High-density hadronic matter is not stable in these theories until there are enough baryons for gravitational binding to form a neutron star, typically with a minimum mass ≳ 0.1 ''M''_⊙ and maximum mass ≲ 3 ''M''_⊙."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Another possibility [called "baryon matter"] is that in the absence of gravity high-density baryonic matter is bound by purely strong forces. [...] nongravitationally bound bulk hadronic matter is consistent with nuclear physics data [...] and low-energy strong interaction data [...] The effective field theory approach has many successes in nuclear physics [...] suggesting that bulk hadronic matter is just as likely to be a correct description of matter at high densities as conventional, unbound hadronic matter."<ref name=Bahcall/> "The idea behind baryon matter is that a macroscopic state may exist in which a smaller effective baryon mass inside some region makes the state energetically favored over free particles. [...] This state will appear in the limit of large baryon number as an electrically neutral coherent bound state of neutrons, protons, and electrons in ''β''-decay equilibrium."<ref name=Bahcall/> ==Antiprotonic heliums== [[Image:Pbarhelium 2020.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Schematic drawing depicts an antiprotonic helium atom. Credit: [[c:user:Elena2021|Elena2021]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Antiprotonic helium is a three-body atom composed of an antiproton and an electron orbiting around a helium nucleus, is electrically neutral, both electrons and antiprotons each have a charge of −1, whereas helium nuclei have a charge of +2, and has the longest lifetime of any experimentally producible matter-antimatter bound state.<ref>{{cite book|title=PROGRESS REPORT OF THE ASACUSA AD-3 COLLABORATION|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707213409/https://cds.cern.ch/record/2799130/files/SPSC-SR-301.pdf|accessdate=30 July 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Protoniums== [[Image:Structure of Protonium.svg|thumb|226x226px|right|Diagram depicts the structure of a protonium atom. Credit: [[c:user:Nucleophysic|Nucleophysic]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Protonium (symbol: Pn), also known as antiprotonic hydrogen, is a type of exotic atom in which a proton (symbol: p) and an antiproton (symbol: {{overline|p}}) orbit each other.<ref name=Zurlo> {{cite journal |last=Zurlo |first=N. |display-authors=etal. |title=Production Of Slow Protonium In Vacuum |journal=Hyperfine Interactions |volume=172 |issue=1–3 |pages=97–105 |arxiv=0801.3193 |bibcode=2006HyInt.172...97Z |doi=10.1007/s10751-007-9529-0 |year=2006 |s2cid=119182686 }}</ref> Protonium has a mean lifetime of approximately 1.0&nbsp;μs and a binding energy of −0.75&nbsp;keV.<ref name=Raouf>{{cite journal |last=Abdel-Raouf |first=Mohamed Assad |title=Binding energy of protonium ions |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=194 |issue=7 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/194/7/072003 |year=2009 |page=072003 |bibcode=2009JPhCS.194g2003A }}</ref> Putting antiprotons and protons into the same magnetic cage was first used during the experiment ATHENA (ApparaTus for High precision Experiment on Neutral Antimatter) at the CERN laboratory in Geneva in 2002, but it was not until 2006 that scientists realized protonium was also generated during the experiment.<ref name=Venturelli>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168583X07007227 |title=Protonium production in ATHENA |author=L. Venturelli |collaboration=Athena collaboration |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B |volume=261 |issue=1–2 |date=August 2007 |pages=40–43 |doi=10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.135 |bibcode=2007NIMPB.261...40V }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons}} [[Image:Solar neutron detector.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. Credit: Y. Muraki, K. Murakami, M. Miyazaki, K. Mitsui. S. Shibata, S. Sakakibara, T. Sakai, T. Takahashi, T. Yamada, and K. Yamaguchi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] A "new detector to observe solar neutrons [has been in operation] since 1990 October 17 [...] at the Mount Norikura Cosmic Ray Laboratory (CRL) of [the] Institute for cosmic Ray Research, the University of Tokyo."<ref name=Muraki>{{ cite journal |author=Y. Muraki |author2=K. Murakami |author3=M. Miyazaki |author4=K. Mitsui. S. Shibata |author5=S. Sakakibara |author6=T. Sakai |author7=T. Takahashi |author8=T. Yamada |author9=K. Yamaguchi |title=Observation of solar neutrons associated with the large flare on 1991 June 4 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1992 |volume=400 |issue=2 |pages=L75-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJ...400L..75M |arxiv= |bibcode=1992ApJ...400L..75M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-07 }}</ref> "The solar neutron telescope [image at right] consists of 10 blocks of scintillator [...] and several lead plates which are used to place kinetic energies ''T''_n of incoming particles into three bands (50-360 MeV, 280-500 MeV, and ≥ 390 MeV)."<ref name=Muraki/> The telescope is inclined to the direction of the Sun by 15°.<ref name=Muraki/> The plane area of the detector is 1.0 m² and protected by lead plates (Pb) to eliminate gamma-ray and muon background from the side of the detector.<ref name=Muraki/> The anti-coincident counter (A) is used to reject the muons and gamma rays, coming from the side of the detector and the top scintillators.<ref name=Muraki/> (P) and (G) are used to identify the proton events and gamma rays.<ref name=Muraki/> The central scintillator blocks are optically separated into 10 units.<ref name=Muraki/> "The horizontal scintillator just above the 10 vertical scintillators distinguishes neutral particles (neutrons) from the charged particles (mainly muons, protons and electrons)."<ref name=Muraki/> The Neutron Monitor aboard ''Ulysses'' was used to measure cosmic rays as well as neutrons. {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} A "new type of neutron star model (Q stars) [is such that] high-density, electrically neutral baryonic matter is a coherent classical solution to an effective field theory of strong forces and is bound in the absence of gravity. [...] allows massive compact objects, [...] and has no macroscopic minimum mass."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Compact objects in astronomy are usually analyzed in terms of theoretical characteristics of neutron stars or black holes that are based upon calculations of equations of state for matter at very high densities. At such high densities, the effects of strong forces cannot be neglected. There are several conventional approaches to describing nuclear forces, all of which find that for a baryon number greater than ~250, a nucleus will become energetically unbound. High-density hadronic matter is not stable in these theories until there are enough baryons for gravitational binding to form a neutron star, typically with a minimum mass ≳ 0.1 ''M''_⊙ and maximum mass ≲ 3 ''M''_⊙."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Times for accumulation of chemically significant dosages on icy surfaces of Centaur, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud objects from plasma and energetic ions depend on irradiation position within or outside the heliosphere. Principal irradiation components include solar wind plasma ions, pickup ions from solar UV ionization of interstellar neutral gas, energetic ions accelerated by solar and interplanetary shocks, including the putative solar wind termination shock, and galactic cosmic ray ions from the Local Interstellar Medium (LISM)."<ref name=Cooper>{{ cite book |author=John F. Cooper |author2=Eric R. Christian |author3=John D. Richardson |author4=Chi Wang |title=Proton irradiation of Centaur, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud objects at plasma to cosmic ray energy, In: ''The First Decadal Review of the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt'' |date=2004 |pages=261-277 |volume=92 |editor=Davies J.K., Barrera L.H. |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |url=http://people.virginia.edu/~rej/papers06/Cooper2003EMP20040616.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3321-2_24 |pmid= |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> Flux spectra have been derived "from spacecraft data and models for eV to GeV protons at 40 AU, a termination shock position at 85 AU, and in the LISM."<ref name=Cooper/> "The ‘bubble’ of solar wind plasma and frozen-in magnetic fields expanding out from the solar corona, within a few radii of the Sun, to boundaries with the local interstellar gas and plasma near about 100 AU is called the heliosphere. Dependent on points of origin at the Sun, and on time phase during the eleven year cycle of solar activity, the solar wind plasma expands radially outward at speeds of 300–800 km/s. Neutral atoms flowing into the heliosphere from the Very Local Interstellar Medium (VLISM) can be ionized by solar UV, and by charge exchange with solar wind ions, then picked up by magnetic fields in the outward plasma flow. Due to inverse-square fall-off of solar wind ion density with distance from the Sun, these interstellar pickup ions increasingly contribute to the plasma pressure and become the dominant component beyond the orbit of Saturn (Burlaga et al., 1996; Whang et al., 1996). Further out near 90–100 AU (Stone, 2001; Stone and Cummings, 2001; Whang and Burlaga, 2002) the outflowing plasma is expected to encounter the solar wind termination shock where flow speeds abruptly transition to sub-sonic values ∼100 km/s. The shock position is dependent in part on the plasma and neutral gas density in the Local Interstellar Medium (LISM) and could move into the giant planet region, or even nearer to the Earth’s orbit, if the Sun passed through a region of much higher LISM density (Zank and Frisch, 1999; Frisch, 2000). Further out at 120 AU or more should be the heliopause, the contact boundary between the diverted solar wind plasma flows and the in-flowing interstellar plasma. The intervening region between the termination shock and the heliopause is called the heliosheath. In this latter region the previously radial flow of the solar wind is diverted into a direction downstream from the ∼26 km/s flow of the interstellar gas to form a huge teardrop-shaped structure called the heliotail which extends hundreds to perhaps thousands of AU from the Sun into the VLISM."<ref name=Cooper/> "Within the heliosphere the interplanetary environment of solar wind plasma, solar (SEP) and interplanetary energetic particles, and galactic cosmic rays (GCR) has long been surveyed in-situ beyond Neptune’s orbit at 30 AU, since 1983 and 1990 by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, and since 1987 and 1989 by Voyager 1 and 2. Of these, the Pioneers are no longer transmitting data and the Voyagers are now respectively at 89 and 71 AU, far beyond the 48 AU semi-major axis (a) cutoff of the Classical KBO population but within the range of aphelia 48 < Q < 103 AU for known Centaurs (perihelia at 5 < q < 35 AU) and Scattered KBOs (q > 35 AU). Voyager 1 is expected to cross the termination shock, later followed by Voyager 2, within the next several years and possibly to exit the heliosphere across the heliopause within its remaining ∼17 + years of operational lifetime. Both spacecraft will have been silent for millennia before reaching the Oort Cloud region at 104 to 105 AU. Within the next quarter century NASA may launch an interstellar probe (e.g., Mewaldt et al., 2001a) moving outward at 10 AU/year with the ultimate goal of surveying the VLISM environment out to several hundred AU. Until then, the next mission to the outer solar system is planned to be New Horizons (Stern and Spencer, 2003), which will fly by the Pluto/Charon system in 2015 and thereafter attempt several flybys of accessible KBOs. Enroute to Pluto this mission may attempt at least one Centaur flyby after swinging by Jupiter in 2007."<ref name=Cooper/> "The initial solar wind conditions at the inner boundary at 1 AU are radial outward speed V = 441 km/s, solar wind proton density N = 7.0/cc and temperature T = 9.8 × 10⁴ K, and interplanetary magnetic field = 7.0 × 10⁻⁵ Gauss. The interstellar hydrogen atoms at the solar wind termination shock are taken to have speed 20 km/s and temperature 1 × 10⁴ K, while H⁰ density, and the energy partition ratio for ions, are varied to give good fits to radial speed and temperature profiles measured by the operational plasma spectrometer on Voyager 2. Good fits are obtained for a neutral density of 0.09/cc and a partition ratio of 0.05, which means that five percent of the total energy from the pickup process goes into solar wind protons. For the LISM plasma ions, which are not included in the Wang and Richardson model, we compute convecting maxwellian (Vasyliunas, 1971) distributions for the LISM parameters T ∼ 7000 K, u ∼ 26 km/s, and N ∼ 0.1/cc of interstellar protons as derived from Wood and Linsky (1997)."<ref name=Cooper/> "For the present work we define ‘cosmic ray’ protons as being those with energies above 0.1 MeV from sources within and outside the heliosphere. Sources include solar energetic particle (SEP) events, acceleration by interplanetary shocks and the solar wind termination shock, and inward diffusion through the heliosheath of galactic cosmic rays thought mostly to be accelerated by interstellar shocks from supernova explosions. Protons and heavier ions accelerated at the termination shock, after pickup from photo-ionization of interstellar gas neutrals, are called anomalous cosmic rays (ACR)."<ref name=Cooper/> "Near solar minimum the ACR ions, including protons, are dominant components of radiation dosage outward from ∼40 AU to the outer heliosphere, while these ions largely disappear at solar maximum. There is a 22-year cycle in the polarity of the solar dipole magnetic field, which is frozen into the solar wind plasma within several radii of the Sun and thereby carried outward into the heliosphere. Due to sign-dependent transport effects, the ACR ions accelerated at the termination shock have larger fluxes, and more positive radial gradients, at 40 to 85 AU near the Ecliptic when the solar dipole moment is directed southward (qA < 0 polarity) than when it is northward (qA > 0 polarity)."<ref name=Cooper/> "For protons the primary radiation dosage process is deposition of energy within the volume of material as a function of depth. This deposition occurs either by electronic ionization of target atoms or by direct collisions with nuclei within the atoms. Nuclear collisions are purely elastic, as for billiard balls, up to some threshold energy for inelastic collisions, which can also excite or break up the struck nucleus with increasing effect at higher energies."<ref name=Cooper/> "For the 85-AU termination shock location the times at 0.1-μm depth drop to 107 to 108 years, while in the LISM the electronic time scale even at 1 cm is below the 109-year limit. Flux and dosage rates increase by orders of magnitude in this depth range from 40 AU out into the LISM. From 40 AU to the termination shock this trend reflects the positive radial intensity gradient for ACR protons diffusing inward from the shock acceleration source."<ref name=Cooper/> "Oort Cloud comets, and possibly Scattered KBOs with aphelia near the heliosheath and VLISM, are maximally irradiated, while Classical KBOs near 40 AU are minimally irradiated. Radial intensity gradients ≾􏰀 +10%/AU of ACR ions might account for spatial variations in color within this latter population, e.g., redder objects with increasing perihelia in the 32 < q < 45 AU range as reported by Doressoundiram et al. (2002) and at this conference by Doressoundiram (2003)."<ref name=Cooper/> ==Mesons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy}} '''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''. Single π⁰ production occurs "in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band neutrino beam."<ref name=Nakayama>{{ cite journal |author=S. Nakayama |author2=C. Mauger |author3=M.H. Ahn |author4=S. Aoki |author5=Y. Ashie |author6=H. Bhang |author7=S. Boyd |author8=D. Casper |author9=J.H. Choi |author10=S. Fukuda |author11=Y. Fukuda |author12=R. Gran |author13=T. Hara |author14=M. Hasegawa |author15=T. Hasegawa |author16=K. Hayashi |author17=Y. Hayato |author18=J. Hill |author19=A.K. Ichikawa |author20=A. Ikeda |author21=T. Inagaki |author22=T. Ishida |author23=T. Ishii |author24=M. Ishitsuka |author25=Y. Itow |author26=T. Iwashita |author27=H.I. Jang |author28=J.S. Jang |author29=E.J. Jeon |author30=K.K. Joo |author31=C.K. Jung |author32=T. Kajita |author33=J. Kameda |author34=K. Kaneyuki |author35=I. Kato |author36=E. Kearns |author37=A. Kibayashi |author38=D. Kielczewska |author39=B.J. Kim |author40=C.O. Kim |author41=J.Y. Kim |author42=S.B. Kim |author43=K. Kobayashi |author44=T. Kobayashi |author45=Y. Koshio |author46=W.R. Kropp |author47=J.G. Learned |author48=S.H. Lim |author49=I.T. Lim |author50=H. Maesaka |author51=T. Maruyama |author52=S. Matsuno |author53=C. Mcgrew |author54=A. Minamino |author55=S. Mine |author56=M. Miura |author57=K. Miyano |author58=T. Morita |author59=S. Moriyama |author60=M. Nakahata |author61=K. Nakamura |author62=I. Nakano |author63=F. Nakata |author64=T. Nakaya |author65=T. Namba |author66=R. Nambu |author67=K. Nishikawa |author68=S. Nishiyama |author69=K .Nitta |author70=S. Noda |author71=Y. Obayashi |author72=A. Okada |author73=Y. Oyama |author74=M.Y. Pac |author75=H. Park |author76=C. Saji |author77=M. Sakuda |author78=A. Sarrat |author79=T. Sasaki |author80=N. Sasao |author81=K. Scholberg |author82=M. Sekiguchi |author83=E. Sharkey |author84=M. Shiozawa |author85=K.K. Shiraishi |author86=M. Smy |author87=H.W. Sobel |author88=J.L. Stone |author89=Y. Suga |author90=L.R. Sulak |author91=A. Suzuki |author92=Y. Suzuki |author93=Y. Takeuchi |author94=N. Tamura |author95=M. Tanaka |author96=Y. Totsuka |author97=S. Ueda |author98=M.R. Vagins |author99=C.W. Walter |author100=W. Wang |author101=R.J. Wilkes |author102=S. Yamada |author103=S. Yamamoto |author104=C. Yanagisawa |author105=H. Yokoyama |author106=J. Yoo |author107=M. Yoshida |author108=J. Zalipska |title=Measurement of single π⁰ production in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band muon neutrino beam |journal=Physics Letters B |date=July 2005 |volume=619 |issue=3-4 |pages=255-62 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0408134.pdf?origin=publication_detail |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-03-22 }}</ref> "The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on [Solar Maximum Mission] SMM has detected [...] at least two of the flares have spectral properties >40 MeV that require gamma rays from the decay of neutral pions. [Pion] production can occur early in the impulsive phase as defined by hard X-rays near 100 keV."<ref name=Forrest>{{ cite book |author=Forrest D. J. |author2=Vestrand W. T. |author3=Chupp E. L. |author4=Rieger E. |author5=Cooper J. F. |author6=Share G. H. |title=Neutral Pion Production in Solar Flares, In: ''19th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=NASA |location= |date=August 1985 |editor= |volume=4 |pages=146-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985ICRC....4..146F |arxiv= |bibcode=1985ICRC....4..146F |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> Gamma-ray "emission matches remarkably well both the position and shape of the inner [supernova remnant] SNR shocked plasma. Furthermore, the gamma-ray spectrum shows a prominent peak near 1 GeV with a clear decrement at energies below a few hundreds of MeV as expected from neutral pion decay."<ref name=Giuliani>{{ cite journal |author=A. Giuliani |author2=M. Cardillo |author3=M. Tavani |author4=Y. Fukui |author5=S. Yoshiike |author6=K. Torii |author7=G. Dubner |author8=G. Castelletti |author9=G. Barbiellini |author10=A. Bulgarelli |author11=P. Caraveo |author12=E. Costa |author13=P.W. Cattaneo |author14=A. Chen |author15=T. Contessi |author16=E. Del Monte |author17=I. Donnarumma |author18=Y. Evangelista |author19=M. Feroci |author20=F. Gianotti |author21=F. Lazzarotto |author22=F. Lucarelli |author23=F. Longo |author24=M. Marisaldi |author25=S. Mereghetti |author26=L. Pacciani |author27=A. Pellizzoni |author28=G. Piano |author29=P. Picozza |author30=C. Pittori |author31=G. Pucella |author32=M. Rapisarda |author33=A. Rappoldi |author34=S. Sabatini |author35=P. Soffitta |author36=E. Striani |author37=M. Trifoglio |author38=A. Trois |author39=S. Vercellone |author40=F. Verrecchia |author41=V. Vittorin |author42=S. Colafrancesco |author43=P. Giommi |author44=G. Bignami |title=Neutral Pion Emission from Accelerated Protons in the Supernova Remnant W44 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |date=1 December 2011 |volume=742 |issue=2 |pages=L30 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.4868 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/742/2/L30 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "Neutral current single π⁰ production induced by neutrinos with a mean energy of 1.3GeV is measured at a 1000 ton water Cherenkov detector as a near detector of the K2K long baseline neutrino experiment."<ref name="Nakayama"/> "The single π⁰ production rate by atmospheric neutrinos could be usable to distinguish between the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ and ν_µ ↔ ν_s oscillation hypotheses. The NC rate is attenuated in the case of transitions of ν_µ’s into sterile neutrinos, while it does not change in the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ scenario."<ref name="Nakayama"/> Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) ... cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] ... interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance, :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon. ==Muoniums== [[Image:Muonium.svg|right|thumb|300x300px|Simplified drawing shows a muonium atom. Credit: [[c;user:LZiegler13|LZiegler13]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Muonium is an exotic atom made up of an antimuon and an electron.<ref name="Gold">{{cite book |author=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) |date=1997 |editor=A.D. McNaught, A. Wilkinson |title=Muonium, In: ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology'' |url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/M04069.html |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications |{{isbn|978-0-86542-684-9}} |doi=10.1351/goldbook.M04069 }}</ref> Muonium's Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, and thus it can usefully be considered as an exotic light isotope of hydrogen.<ref name=Walker>{{cite book | page=4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM88AAAAIAAJ | title=Muon and Muonium Chemistry | {{isbn|978-0-521-24241-7}} | author1=Walker | first1=David C | date=1983-09-08}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Electroweak interactions== Weak '''neutral current''' interactions are one of the ways in which subatomic particles can interact by means of the [[Charges/Interactions/Weak|weak force]]. These interactions are mediated by the Z boson. The discovery of weak neutral currents was a significant step toward the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force, and led to the discovery of the W and Z bosons. ==Positroniums== [[Image:Positronium.svg|thumb|200px|right|An electron and positron orbiting around their common centre of mass is a bound quantum state known as positronium. Credit: [[c:user:Manticorp|Manticorp]] and [[c:User:Krishnavedala|Rubber Duck]].{{tlx|free media}}]] An s state has zero angular momentum, so orbiting around each other would mean going straight at each other until the pair of particles is either scattered or annihilated, whichever occurs first. The lowest energy orbital state of positronium is 1S, and like with hydrogen, it has a hyperfine structure arising from the relative orientations of the spins of the electron and the positron. The mass of positronium is 1.022&nbsp;MeV, which is twice the electron mass minus the binding energy of a few eV. The ''singlet'' state, {{SubatomicParticle|para-positronium}}, with antiparallel spins (spin quantum number (''S'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, ''M_s''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0) is known as ''para''-positronium (''p''-Ps), with a mean lifetime of {{val|0.12|ul=ns}} and decays preferentially into two gamma rays with energy of {{val|511|ul=keV}} each (in the center-of-mass frame) into any even number of photons (2, 4, 6, ...), but the probability quickly decreases with the number: the branching ratio for decay into 4 photons is {{val|1.439|(2)|e=-6}}.<ref name=Karshenboim>{{cite journal |last1=Karshenboim | first1=Savely G. |date=2003 |title=Precision Study of Positronium: Testing Bound State QED Theory |doi=10.1142/S0217751X04020142 |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics A |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=3879–3896 |arxiv=hep-ph/0310099 |bibcode = 2004IJMPA..19.3879K | s2cid=14848837 }}</ref> ''Para-''positronium lifetime in vacuum is approximately<ref name=Karshenboim/> <math display="block">t_0 = \frac{2 \hbar}{m_\mathrm{e} c^2 \alpha^5} = 0.1244 ~\mathrm{ns}.</math> The ''triplet'' states, ³S₁, with parallel spins (''S''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1, ''M_s''&nbsp;=&nbsp;−1, 0, 1) are known as ''ortho''-positronium (''o''-Ps), and have an energy that is approximately 0.001 eV higher than the singlet.<ref name=Karshenboim/> These states have a mean lifetime of {{val|142.05|0.02|u=ns}},<ref name=Badertscher> {{cite journal |first1=A.| last1=Badertscher| first2=P.| last2=Crivelli| first3=W.|last3=Fetscher| first4=U.|last4=Gendotti|first5=S. N.| last5=Gninenko |first6=V.|last6=Postoev| first7=A.|last7=Rubbia| first8=V.|last8=Samoylenko| first9=D.|last9=Sillou |year=2007 |title=An Improved Limit on Invisible Decays of Positronium |journal=Physical Review D |volume=75 |pages=032004 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.75.032004 |arxiv=hep-ex/0609059 |bibcode=2007PhRvD..75c2004B |issue=3 |s2cid=9001914}}</ref> and the leading decay is three gammas. Other modes of decay are negligible; for instance, the five-photons mode has branching ratio of ≈{{val||e=-6}}.<ref name=Czarnecki>{{Cite book |last1=Czarnecki |first1=Andrzej |last2=Karshenboim |first2=Savely G. |date=2000 |title=Decays of Positronium, In: ''Proceedings of the International Workshop on High Energy Physics and Quantum Field Theory (QFTHEP)'' |editor1-last=Levchenko | editor1-first=B. B. |editor2-last=Savrin | editor2-first=V. I. |volume=14 |pages=538–544 |arxiv=hep-ph/9911410 |bibcode = 1999hep.ph...11410C }}</ref> ''Ortho''-positronium lifetime in vacuum can be calculated approximately as:<ref name=Karshenboim/> <math display="block">t_1 = \frac{\frac{1}{2} 9 h}{2 m_\mathrm{e} c^2 \alpha^6 (\pi^2 - 9)} = 138.6 ~\mathrm{ns}.</math> However more accurate calculations with corrections to O(α²) yield a value of {{val|7.040|ul=us}}^&minus;1 for the decay rate, corresponding to a lifetime of {{val|142|u=ns}}.<ref name=Kataoka>{{cite journal|last1=Kataoka|first1=Y.|last2=Asai|first2=S.|last3=Kobayashi|first3=t.|title=First Test of O(α²) Correction of the Orthopositronium Decay Rate|journal=Physics Letters B|volume=671|issue=2|pages=219–223|url=https://www.icepp.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/papers/ps/icepp-report/ut-icepp-08-09.pdf|year=2009|bibcode=2009PhLB..671..219K|arxiv=0809.1594|doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.12.008}}</ref><ref name=Adkins>{{cite journal|last1=Adkins|first1=G. S.|last2=Fell|first2=R. N.|last3=Sapirstein|first3=J.|title=Order α² Corrections to the Decay Rate of Orthopositronium|journal=Physical Review Letters|date=29 May 2000|volume=84|issue=22|pages=5086–5089|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.5086|pmid=10990873|arxiv = hep-ph/0003028 |bibcode = 2000PhRvL..84.5086A |s2cid=1165868}}</ref> Positronium in the 2S state is metastable having a lifetime of {{val|1100|u=ns}} against annihilation.<ref name=Cooke> {{cite journal |last1=Cooke| first1=D. A. |last2=Crivelli| first2=P. | first3=J. |last3=Alnis| first4=A. |last4=Antognini| first5=B. |last5=Brown| first6=S. |last6=Friedreich| first7=A. |last7=Gabard| first8=T. W. |last8=Haensch| first9=K. |last9=Kirch| first10=A. |last10=Rubbia| first11=V. |last11=Vrankovic |year=2015 |title=Observation of positronium annihilation in the 2S state: towards a new measurement of the 1S-2S transition frequency |doi=10.1007/s10751-015-1158-4 |journal=Hyperfine Interact. |volume=233 |issue=1–3 |pages=67–73 |arxiv=1503.05755 |bibcode=2015HyInt.233...67C| s2cid=89605682 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos | Neutrino astronomy}} [[Image:Sudbury neutrino observatory.png|thumb|right|250px|The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2000 meters below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Credit: A. B. McDonald (Queen's University) et al., The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Institute.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this photograph is recorded the first use of a hydrogen bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on November 13, 1970. A neutrino hit a proton in a hydrogen atom. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph. Credit: Argonne National Laboratory.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Neutrino flavor flux.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Flux (Φ) of ⁸B solar neutrinos which are ''μ'' or ''τ'' flavor vs the flux of electron neutrinos (Φ_e) deduced from the three neutrino reactions in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). Credit: Q.R. Ahmad ''et al.''.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "neutrino fluxes [may be] predicted by such scenarios [as the standard model or grand unification] if consistency with the observed cosmic ray flux and the universal γ-ray background at 1 − 10 GeV is required. Flux levels detectable by proposed km³ scale neutrino observatories are allowed by these constraints. Bounds on or detection of a neutrino flux above ~ 1 EeV would allow neutrino astronomy to probe grand unification scale physics."<ref name="Sigl">{{cite journal |author=Günter Sigl |author2=Sangjin Lee |author3=David N. Schramm |title=Cosmological Neutrino Signatures for Grand Unification Scale Physics |journal=Physics Letters B |month=January |year=1997 |volume=392 |issue=1-2 |pages=129-34 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269396015341 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-07 }}</ref> "The shapes of the [ultra-high energy] UHE nucleon and γ-ray spectra predicted within ["top-down"] TD models are “universal” in the sense that they depend only on the physics of [a supermassive elementary "X" particle associated with some grand unified theory (GUT)] X particle decay."<ref name="Sigl"/> "In contrast to the universality of UHE spectral shapes, the predicted γ-ray flux below ∼ 10¹⁴ eV (the threshold for pair production of photons on the [cosmic microwave background] CMB) and the predicted neutrino flux depend on the total energy release integrated over redshift and thus on the specific TD model."<ref name="Sigl"/> "Observational data on the universal γ-ray background in the 1 − 10 GeV region [27], to which the generic cascade spectrum would contribute directly, turn out to provide an important constraint. Since the UHE γ-ray flux is especially sensitive to certain astrophysical parameters such as the extragalactic magnetic field (EGMF), a reliable calculation of the predicted spectral shapes requires numerical methods."<ref name="Sigl"/> "The calculations take into account all the relevant interactions with the (redshift dependent) universal low energy photon background in the radio, microwave and optical/infrared regime."<ref name="Sigl"/> "Above ≃ 100 EeV the corresponding fluxes would dominate all present model predictions for AGN neutrino fluxes [14] as well as the flux of “cosmogenic” neutrinos produced by interactions of UHE [cosmic rays] CRs with the universal photon background [37,38,31]."<ref name="Sigl"/> The "constraint imposed by requiring that TD scenarios do not overproduce the measured universal γ-ray background at 1 − 10 GeV implies an upper limit on these neutrino fluxes which only depends on the ratio r of energy injected into the neutrino versus [electromagnetic] EM channel, and not on any specific TD scenario or even a possible connection to UHE CRs."<ref name="Sigl"/> A '''neutrino''' is an electrically neutral, weakly interacting [[w:elementary particle|elementary subatomic particle]]<ref name="Max">{{cite book |title=Neutrino, In: ''Glossary for the Research Perspectives of the Max Planck Society'' |url=http://www.mpg.de/12928/Glossary |publisher=Max Planck Gesellschaft |accessdate=2012-03-27 }}</ref> with [[w:spin-1/2|half-integer spin]]. ... Neutrinos do not carry [[w:electric charge|electric charge]], which means that they are not affected by the [[w:electromagnetic force|electromagnetic force]]s that act on charged particles such as electrons and protons. Neutrinos are affected only by the [[w:weak interaction|weak sub-atomic force]], of much shorter range than electromagnetism, and [[w:gravity|gravity]], which is relatively weak on the subatomic scale. They are therefore able to travel great distances through matter without being affected by it. "If neutrinos have negligible rest mass, the present density expected for relic neutrinos from the big bang is ''n''_ν = 110 (''T''_γ/2.7 K)³ cm^–3 for each two-component species. This is of order the photon density ''n''_γ, differing just by a factor 3/11 (i.e. a factor 3/4 because neutrinos are fermions rather than bosons, multiplied by 4/11, the factor by which the neutrinos are diluted when e⁺–e^– annihilation boosts the photon density). This conclusion holds for non-zero masses, provided that m_vc² is far below the thermal energy (~ 5 MeV) at which neutrinos decoupled from other species and that the neutrinos are stable for the Hubble time. Comparison with the baryon density, related to Ω via ''n''_b = 1.5 x 10^–5 Ω_b ''h''² cm^–3, shows that neutrinos outnumber baryons by such a big factor that they can be dynamically dominant over baryons even if their masses are only a few electron volts. In fact, a single species of neutrino would yield a contribution to Ω of Ω_v = 0.01 ''h''^–2 (m_v)_eV, so if ''h'' = 0.5, only 25 eV is sufficient to provide the critical density."<ref name="Rees">{{cite journal |author=Martin J. Rees |title=Is the Universe flat? |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |month=December |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=331-48 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02714464 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-18 }}</ref> "Neutrinos of nonzero mass would be dynamically important not only for the expanding universe as a whole but also for large bound systems such as clusters of galaxies. This is because they would now be moving slowly: if the universe had cooled homogeneously, primordial neutrinos would now be moving at around 200 (m_v)^-1_eV km s^–1. They would be influenced even by the weak (~ 10^–5 c²) gravitational potential fluctuations of galaxies and clusters. If the three (or more) types of neutrinos have different masses, then the heaviest will obviously be gravitationally dominant, since the numbers of each species should be the same."<ref name="Rees"/> "Using the neutral current [NC], elastic scattering [ES], and charged current [CC] reactions and assuming the standard ⁸B shape, the ''ν''_e component of the ⁸B solar flux is ''Φ''_e = 1.76±0.05 ([statistical uncertainty] stat.)±0.09 ([systematic uncertainty]syst.) x 10⁶ cm^-2s^-1 for a kinetic threshold of 5 MeV. The non-''ν''_e component is ''Φ''_µτ = 3.41±0.45 (stat.) +0.48 or -0.45 (syst.) x 10⁶ cm^-2s^-1, 5.3σ greater than zero, providing strong evidence for solar ''ν''_e flavor transformation."<ref name="Ahmad"/> "The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) detects ⁸B solar neutrinos through the reactions:"<ref name="Ahmad"/> :<math>\nu_e + d \rightarrow p^+ + p^+ + e^- (CC),</math> :<math>\nu_x + d \rightarrow p^+ + n^0 + \nu_x (NC),</math> :<math>\nu_x + e^- \rightarrow \nu_x + e^- (ES).</math> "The charged current reaction (CC) is sensitive exclusively to electron-type neutrinos, while the neutral current reaction (NC) is equally sensitive to all active neutrino flavors (x = e, μ, τ). The elastic scattering reaction (ES) is sensitive to all flavors as well, but with reduced sensitivity to ''ν''_μ and ''ν''_τ."<ref name="Ahmad"/> "The bands intersect [in the figure at right] at the fit values for ''Φ''_e and ''Φ''_µτ, indicating that the combined flux results are consistent with neutrino flavor transformation assuming no distortion in the ⁸B neutrino energy spectrum."<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite journal |author=Q.R. Ahmad |author2=R.C. Allen |author3=T.C. Andersen |author4=J.D. Anglin |author5=J.C. Barton |author6=E.W. Beier |author7=M. Bercovitch |author8=J. Bigu |author9=S.D. Biller |author10=R.A. Black |author11=I. Blevis |author12=R.J. Boardman |author13=J. Boger |author14=E. Bonvin |author15=M.G. Boulay |author16=M.G. Bowler |author17=T.J. Bowles |author18=S.J. Brice |author19=M.C. Browne |author20=T.V. Bullard |author21=G. Bühler |author22=J. Cameron |author23=Y.D. Chan |author24=H.H. Chen |author25=M. Chen |author26=X. Chen |author27=B.T. Cleveland |author28=E.T.H. Clifford |author29=J.H.M. Cowan |author30=D.F. Cowen |author31=G.A. Cox |author32=X. Dai |author33=F. Dalnoki-Veress |author34=W.F. Davidson |author35=P.J. Doe |author36=G. Doucas |author37=M.R. Dragowsky |author38=C.A. Duba |author39=F.A. Duncan |author40=M. Dunford |author41=J.A. Dunmore |author42=E.D. Earle |author43=S.R. Elliott |author44=H.C. Evans |author45=G.T. Ewan |author46=J. Farine |author47=H. Fergani |author48=A.P. Ferraris |author49=R.J. Ford |author50=J.A. Formaggio |author51=M.M. Fowler |author52=K. Frame |author53=E.D. Frank |author54=W. Frati |author55=N. Gagnon |author56=J.V. Germani |author57=S. Gil |author58=K. Graham |author59=D.R. Grant |author60=R.L. Hahn |author61=A.L. Hallin |author62=E.D. Hallman |author63=A.S. Hamer |author64=A.A. Hamian |author65=W.B. Handler |author66=R.U. Haq |author67=C.K. Hargrove |author68=P.J. Harvey |author69=R. Hazama |author70=K.M. Heeger |author71=W.J. Heintzelman |author72=J. Heise |author73=R.L. Helmer |author74=J.D. Hepburn |author75=H. Heron |author76=J. Hewett |author77=A. Hime |author78=M. Howe |author79=J.G. Hykawy |author80=M.C.P. Isaac |author81=P. Jagam |author82=N.A. Jelley |author83=C. Jillings |author84=G. Jonkmans |author85=K. Kazkaz |author86=P.T. Keener |author87=J.R. Klein |author88=A.B. Knox |author89=R.J. Komar |author90=R. Kouzes |author91=T. Kutter |author92=C.C.M. Kyba |author93=J. Law |author94=I.T. Lawson |author95=M. Lay |author96=H.W. Lee |author97=K.T. Lesko |author98=J.R. Leslie |author99=I. Levine |author100=W. Locke |author101=S. Luoma |author102=J. Lyon |author103=S. Majerus |author104=H.B. Mak |author105=J. Maneira |author106=J. Manor |author107=A.D. Marino |author108=N. McCauley |author109=A.B. McDonald |author110=D.S. McDonald |author111=K. McFarlane |author112=G. McGregor |author113=R. Meijer Drees |author114=C. Mifflin |author115=G.G. Miller |author116=G. Milton |author117=B.A. Moffat |author118=M. Moorhead |author119=C.W. Nally |author120=M.S. Neubauer |author121=F.M. Newcomer |author122=H.S. Ng |author123=A.J. Noble |author124=E.B. Norman |author125=V.M. Novikov |author126=M. O’Neill |author127=C.E. Okada |author128=R.W. Ollerhead |author129=M. Omori |author130=J.L. Orrell |author131=S.M. Oser |author132=A.W.P. Poon |author133=T.J. Radcliffe |author134=A. Roberge |author135=B.C. Robertson |author136=R.G.H. Robertson |author137=S.S.E. Rosendahl |author138=J.K. Rowley |author139=V.L. Rusu |author140=12 E. Saettler |author141=K.K. Schaffer |author142=M.H. Schwendener |author143=A. Schülke |author144=H. Seifert |author145=M. Shatkay |author146=J.J. Simpson |author147=C.J. Sims |author148=D. Sinclair |author149=P. Skensved |author150=A.R. Smith |author151=M.W.E. Smith |author152=T. Spreitzer |author153=N. Starinsky |author154=T.D. Steiger |author155=R.G. Stokstad |author156=L.C. Stonehill |author157=R.S. Storey |author158=B. Sur |author159=R. Tafirout |author160=N. Tagg |author161=N.W. Tanner |author162=R.K. Taplin |author163=M. Thorman |author164=P.M. Thornewell |author165=P.T. Trent |author166=Y.I. Tserkovnyak |author167=R. Van Berg |author168=R.G. Van de Water |author169=C.J. Virtue |author170=C.E. Waltham |author171=J.-X. Wang |author172=D.L. Wark |author173=N. West |author174=J.B. Wilhelmy |author175=J.F. Wilkerson |author176=J.R. Wilson |author177=P. Wittich |author178=J.M. Wouters |author179=M. Yeh |title=Direct evidence for neutrino flavor transformation from neutral-current interactions in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory |journal=Physical Review Letters |month= |year=2002 |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=e011301 |url=http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v89/i1/e011301 |arxiv=nucl-ex/0204008 |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} A "PeV energy photon cannot deliver information from a source at the edge of our own galaxy because it will annihilate into an electron [positron] pair in an encounter with a 2.7 Kelvin microwave photon before reaching our telescope."<ref name="Halzen2002">{{cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=June 12, |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-107 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0034-4885/65/7/201 |arxiv=astro-ph/0204527 |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-08 }}</ref> "In general, energetic photons above a threshold ''E'' given by :<math>4E\epsilon \sim (2m_e)^2,</math> where ''E'' and ε are the energy of the high-energy and background photon, respectively. [This] implies that TeV-photons are absorbed on infrared light, PeV photons on the cosmic microwave background and EeV photons on radio-waves".<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Each [optical module] OM contains a 10 inch [photo-multiplier tube] PMT that detects individual photons of Cerenkov light generated in the optically clear ice by muons and electrons moving with velocities near the speed of light."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Radio Cerenkov experiments detect the Giga-Hertz pulse radiated by shower electrons produced in the interaction of neutrinos in ice."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Above a threshold of ≃ 1PeV, the large number of low energy(≃ MeV ) photons in a shower will produce an excess of electrons over positrons by removing electrons from atoms by Compton scattering. These are the sources of coherent radiation at radio frequencies, i.e. above ∼ 100MHz."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} "The important conclusion is that, independently of the specific blueprint of the source, it takes a kilometer-scale neutrino observatory to detect the neutrino beam associated with the highest energy cosmic rays and gamma rays."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "As with supernovae, [gamma-ray burst] GRB are expected to radiate the vast majority of their initial energy as thermal [MeV] neutrinos."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Protons [shocked protons: TeV - EeV neutrinos] accelerated in GRB can interact with fireball gamma rays and produce pions that decay into neutrinos."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "In a GRB fireball, neutrons can decouple from protons in the expanding fireball. If their relative velocity is sufficiently high, their interactions will be the source of pions and, therefore, neutrinos [GeV]. Typical energies of the neutrinos produced are much lower than those resulting from interactions with gamma rays."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Rosat 0.25kev all-sky survey.gif|thumb|250px|right|This ROSAT image is an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates with the Galactic center in the middle of the 0.25 keV diffuse X-ray background. Credit: The Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Snowden et al. 1995, ApJ, 454, 643; Imagine the Universe! is a service of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), Dr. Alan Smale (Director), within the Astrophysics Science Division (ASD) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.{{tlx|free media}}]] By comparing the soft X-ray background with the distribution of neutral hydrogen, it is generally agreed that within the Milky Way disk, super soft X-rays are absorbed by this neutral hydrogen. The ROSAT image at the right is an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates with the Galactic center in the middle of the 0.25 keV diffuse X-ray background. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} "Massive neutrinos are expected to decay into lighter neutrinos and uv photons, with lifetimes long on the Hubble scale."<ref name="Rujula">{{cite journal |author=A De Rujula, SL Glashow |title=Galactic neutrinos and UV astronomy |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=September 15, |year=1980 |volume=45 |issue=09 |pages=942-4 |url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5001920 |arxiv= |bibcode=1980PhRvL..45..942D |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.45.942 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-08 }}</ref> ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:SN 1987A HST.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Supernova SN 1987A is one of the brightest stellar explosions since the invention of the telescope more than {{nowrap|400 years}} ago.<ref name="PictureoftheWeek">{{cite book |title=Hubble Revisits an Old Friend, In: ''Picture of the Week'' |url=http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1142a/ |publisher=ESA/Hubble |accessdate=17 October 2011 }}</ref> Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "On February 23.316 UT, 1987, [blue] light and neutrinos from the brightest supernova in 383 years arrived at Earth ... it has been observed ... at all wavelengths from radio through gamma rays, SN 1987A is the only object besides the Sun to have been detected in neutrinos."<ref name="Arnett">{{cite journal |author=W. David Arnett |author2=John N. Bahcall |author3=Robert P. Kirshner |author4=Stanford E. Woosley |title=Supernova 1987A |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1989 |volume=27 |issue= |pages=629-700 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1989ARA%26A..27..629A |arxiv= |bibcode=1989ARA&A..27..629A |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.27.090189.003213 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> At left is an image of supernova SN 1987A, one of the brightest stellar explosions since the invention of the telescope more than {{nowrap|400 years}} ago.<ref name="PictureoftheWeek"/> Four days after the event was recorded, the progenitor star was tentatively identified as Sanduleak -69° 202, a [[w:blue supergiant|blue supergiant]].<ref name="Sonneborn">{{cite book | author=G. Sonneborn | title=The Progenitor of SN1987A, In: ''Supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic Cloud'' | editor=Minas Kafatos, Andreas Gerasimos Michalitsianos | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1987 | isbn=0-521-35575-3 }}</ref> This was an unexpected identification, because at the time a blue supergiant was not considered a possibility for a supernova event in existing models of [[w:Stellar_evolution#Massive_stars|high mass stellar evolution]]. Many models of the progenitor have attributed the color to its chemical composition, particularly the low levels of heavy elements, among other factors.<ref name="Arnett"/> {{clear}} ==Cyans== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyan astronomy}} [[Image:Article-2025275-0D6687D100000578-167 634x704.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Necklace Nebula glows brightly in this Nasa Hubble Space Telescope image. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A giant cosmic necklace glows brightly in this Nasa Hubble Space Telescope image."<ref name=Reporter>{{ cite book |author=DAILY MAIL REPORTER |title=Giant Necklace Nebula brightly glows with dense knots of blue, green and red gases |publisher=Daily Mail |location=United Kingdom |date=August 12, 2011 |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2025275/Necklace-Nebula-brightly-glows-dense-knots-blue-green-red-gases.html |accessdate=2014-02-24 }}</ref> "The object, aptly named the Necklace Nebula, is a recently discovered planetary nebula, the glowing remains of an ordinary, sun-like star."<ref name=Reporter/> "The nebula consists of a bright ring, measuring 12trillion miles wide, dotted with dense, bright knots of gas that resemble diamonds in a necklace."<ref name=Reporter/> "Newly discovered: The Necklace Nebula glows brightly in this composite image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope last month. The glow of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are shown by the colours blue, green and red respectively".<ref name=Reporter/> "It is located 15,000 light-years away in the constellation Sagitta."<ref name=Reporter/> "A pair of stars orbiting close together produced the nebula, also called PN G054.2-03.4."<ref name=Reporter/> "About 10,000 years ago, one of the ageing stars ballooned to the point where it engulfed its companion star. The smaller star continued orbiting inside its larger companion, increasing the giant’s rotation rate. The bloated companion star spun so fast that a large part of its gaseous envelope expanded into space. Due to centrifugal force, most of the gas escaped along the star’s equator, producing a ring. The embedded bright knots are dense gas clumps in the ring. The pair is so close, only a few million miles apart, that they appear as one bright dot in the centre. The stars are furiously whirling around each other, completing an orbit in a little more than a day."<ref name=Reporter/> {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae¹⁷, planetary nebulae³, HII regions (Orion)¹², a Nova¹¹, Galactic cirrus¹⁴, a dark nebula⁷, Galaxies^8,6 and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)⁴. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is¹³. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Superluminals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy}} "Because neutrinos are electrically neutral, conventional Cherenkov radiation of superluminal neutrinos does not arise or is otherwise weakened. However neutrinos do carry electroweak charge and ... may emit Cherenkov-like radiation via weak interactions when traveling at superluminal speeds."<ref name="Antonello">{{cite journal |author=M. Antonello |author2=P. Aprili |author3=B. Baibussinov |author4=M. Baldo Ceolin |author5=P. Benetti |author6=E. Calligarich |author7=N. Canci |author8=F. Carbonara |author9=S. Centro |author10=A. Cesana |author11=K. Cieslik |author12=D. B. Cline |author13=A. G. Cocco |author14=A. Dabrowska |author15=D. Dequal |author16=A. Dermenev |author17=R. Dolfini |author18=C. Farnese |author19=A. Fava |author20=A. Ferrari |author21=G. Fiorillo |author22=D. Gibin |author23=A. Gigli Berzolari |author24=S. Gninenko |author25=A. Guglielmi |author26=M. Haranczyk |author27=J. Holeczek |author28=A. Ivashkin |author29=J. Kisiel |author30=I. Kochanek |author31=J. Lagoda |author32=S. Mania |author33=G. Mannocchi |author34=A. Menegolli |author35=G. Meng |author36=C. Montanari |author37=S. Otwinowski |author38=L. Periale |author39=A. Piazzoli |author40=P. Picchi |author41=F. Pietropaolo |author42=P. Plonski |author43=A. Rappoldi |author44=G. L. Raselli |author45=M. Rossella |author46=C. Rubbia |author47=P. Sala |author48=E. Scantamburlo |author49=A. Scaramelli |author50=E. Segreto |author51=F. Sergiampietri |author52=D. Stefan |author53=J. Stepaniak |author54=R. Sulej |author55=M. Szarska |author56=M. Terrani |author57=F. Varanini |author58=S. Ventura |author59=C. Vignoli |author60=H. Wang |author61=X. Yang |author62=A. Zalewska |author63=K. Zaremba |author64=A. Cohen |title=A search for the analogue to Cherenkov radiation by high energy neutrinos at superluminal speeds in ICARUS |journal=Physics Letters B |month=May 15, |year=2012 |volume=711 |issue=3-4 |pages=270-5 |url=http://inspirehep.net/record/940150/files/arXiv:1110.3763.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref> "[S]uperluminal neutrinos may lose energy rapidly via the bremsstrahlung [Cherenkov radiation] of electron-positron pairs <math>(\nu \rightarrow \nu + e^- + e^+).</math>"<ref name="Cohen">{{cite journal |author=Andrew G. Glashow |author2=Sheldon L. Glashow |title=Pair Creation Constrains Superluminal Neutrino Propagation |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October |year=2011 |volume=107 |issue=18 |pages=181803 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvL.107r1803C |arxiv=1109.6562 |bibcode=2011PhRvL.107r1803C |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.181803 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-16 }}</ref> Assumption: "muon neutrinos with energies of order tens of GeV travel at superluminal velocity."<ref name="Cohen"/> For "all cases of superluminal propagation, certain otherwise forbidden processes are kinematically permitted, even in vacuum."<ref name="Cohen"/> Consider : <math> \nu_{\mu} \rightarrow \begin{bmatrix} {\nu_{\mu} + \gamma} & (a) \\ {\nu_{\mu} + \nu_e + \overline\nu_e } & (b) \\ {\nu_{\mu} + e^+ + e^-} & (c) \end{bmatrix} </math><ref name="Cohen"/> "These processes cause superluminal neutrinos to lose energy as they propagate and ... process (c) places a severe constraint upon potentially superluminal neutrino velocities. ... Process (c), pair bremsstrahlung, proceeds through the neutral current weak interaction."<ref name="Cohen"/> "Throughout the shower development, the electrons and positrons which travel faster than the speed of light in the air emit Cherenkov radiation."<ref name="Moralejo">{{cite journal |author=A. Moralejo for the MAGIC collaboration |title=The MAGIC telescope for gamma-ray astronomy above 30 GeV |journal=Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana |month= |year=2004 |volume=75 |issue= |pages=232-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MmSAI..75..232M |arxiv= |bibcode=2004MmSAI..75..232M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref> "High energy processes such as [[w:Compton scattering|Compton]], [[w:Bhabha scattering|Bhabha]], and [[w:Møller scattering|Moller scattering]], along with [[w:Positron annihilation|positron annihilation]] rapidly lead to a ~20% negative charge asymmetry in the electron-photon part of a cascade ... initiated by a ... 100 PeV neutrino"<ref name="Gorham">{{cite journal |author= P. W. Gorham |author2=S. W. Barwick |author3=J. J. Beatty |author4=D. Z.Besson |author5=W. R. Binns |author6=C. Chen |author7=P. Chen |author8=J. M. Clem |author9=A. Connolly |author10=P. F. Dowkontt |author11=M. A. DuVernois |author12=R. C. Field |author13=D. Goldstein |author14=A. Goodhue |author15=C. Hast |author16=C. L. Hebert |author17=S. Hoover |author18=M. H. Israel |author19=J. Kowalski |author20=J. G. Learned |author21=K. M. Liewer |author22=J. T. Link |author23=E. Lusczek |author24=S. Matsuno |author25=B. Mercurio |author26=C. Miki |author27=P. Miocinovic |author28=J. Nam |author29=C. J. Naudet |author30=J. Ng |author31=R. Nichol |author32=K. Palladino |author33=K. Reil |author34=A. Romero-Wolf |author35=M. Rosen |author36=L. Ruckman |author37=D. Saltzberg |author38=D. Seckel |author39=G. S. Varner |author40=D. Walz |author41=F. Wu |title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October 25, |year=2007 |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0611008.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref>. ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams | author=Mike Gruntman | work=Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 1951, prior to the Space Age, the existence of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms (as high as 70 keV in energy) in space plasma was discovered."<ref name=Hsieh>{{ cite journal |author=K. C. Hsieh |author2=C. C. Curtis |title=Imaging Space Plasma With Energetic Neutral Atoms Without Ionization, In: ''Measurement Techniques in Space Plasmas: Fields'' |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location= |date= 1998 |editor= |volume=Geophysical Monograph 103 |issue= |pages=235-49 |url=http://www.agu.org/books/gm/v103/GM103p0235/GM103p0235.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "ENA imaging permits study of the ways in which our entire plasma environment -- including the magnetopause, ring current, plasmasphere, auroral zones, plasma sheet, and the ionosphere -- reacts to the changing conditions of the solar wind (Williams, 1990)."<ref name=Hsieh/> {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}} Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because hydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum. The "efforts to study the 21 cm hydrogen line from the northern and southern hemispheres in 1954 and 1959 [...] were combined and provided the first full-galaxy radio map of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way".<ref name=Reeve>{{ cite book |author=Whitham D. Reeve |title=Book Review |publisher=Whitham D. Reeve |location=Anchorage, Alaska USA |date= 1973 |url=http://www.reeve.com/Documents/Book%20Reviews/Reeve_Book%20Review-Evolution%20of%20Radio%20Astronomy.pdf |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen atom is about 0.11 nm in diameter. The "relative motion in a hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields leads to peculiar quasi-ionized states with an electron localized very far from a proton."<ref name=Dzyaloshinskii>{{ cite journal |author=I. Dzyaloshinskii |title=Effects of the finite proton mass in a hydrogen atom in crossed magnetic and electric fields: a state with a giant electric dipole moment |journal=Physics Letters A |date=May 1992 |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=69-71 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019291056W |arxiv= |bibcode=1992PhLA..165...69D |doi=10.1016/0375-9601(92)91056-W |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-13 }}</ref> The Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN) aboard SOHO "is the only remote sensing instrument on SOHO that does not look at the Sun. It watches the rest of the sky, measuring hydrogen that is ‘blowing’ into the Solar System from interstellar space. By studying the interaction between the solar wind and this hydrogen gas, SWAN determines how the solar wind is distributed. As such, it can be qualified as SOHO’s solar wind ’mapper’."<ref name=Quemerais>{{ cite book |author=E. Quémerais |title=SOHO Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, MD, USA |date=30 June 2003 |url=http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf |accessdate=2016-03-27 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} As stars are defined as luminous balls of plasma, the Sun may not qualify as its photosphere has a plasma concentration of approximately 10^-4. The rest is composed of neutral atoms at about 5800 K. ==Mercury== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Mercury}} "Measurements by instruments on MESSENGER during the spacecraft's three Mercury flybys have led to discoveries of previously undetected neutral (Mg) and ionized (Ca+) species in Mercury's neutral and ionized exosphere and mapped these and previously known constituents (Na, Ca) on the anti-sunward side of the planet and over the poles. [...] Some ions and neutrals can be released directly from mineral surfaces by electron-stimulated desorption (ESD). Because cross sections of neutrals can be higher than photon-stimulated desorption (PSD) cross sections and because active electron precipitation on both the day and night side of Mercury can produce ESD of ions, at least part of the ionized exosphere is produced directly from surface materials by ESD."<ref name=Sprague>{{ cite journal |author=Sprague, Ann L. |author2=Vervack, R. J. |author3=Killen, R. M. |author4=McClintock, W. E. |author5=Starr, R. D. |author6=Schriver, D. |author7=Trávnícek, P. |author8=Orlando, T. M. |author9=McClain, J. L. |author10=Grieves, G. A. |author11=Boynton, W. V. |author12=Lawrence, D. J. |author13=MESSENGER Team |title=MESSENGER: Insights Regarding the Relationship between Mercury's Surface and Its Neutral and Ionized Exosphere |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |date= 2010 |volume=42 |issue=21.01 |pages=985 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010DPS....42.2101S |arxiv= |bibcode=2010DPS....42.2101S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2015-06-21 }}</ref> ==Earth== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}} "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date= 1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C. Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date= 2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:LADEE spacecraft 2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is a computer generated model of the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE, at left) launched 07 September 2013 at 03:27 UT (06 September 11:27 EDT) on a Minotaur-V from Wallops Flight Facility. LADEE is designed to characterize the tenuous lunar atmosphere and dust environment from orbit. The scientific objectives of the mission are:(1) determine the global density, composition, and time variability of the fragile lunar atmosphere; and, (2) determine the size, charge, and spatial distribution of electrostatically transported dust grains and assess their likely effects on lunar exploration and lunar-based astronomy. Further objectives are to determine if the Apollo astronaut sightings of diffuse emission at 10s of km above the surface were Na glow or dust and document the dust impactor environment (size-frequency) to help guide design engineering for outpost and future robotic missions."<ref name=Elphic>{{ cite book |author=Richard C. Elphic |author2=Sarah Noble |author3=P. Butler Hine III |title=Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) |publisher=National Space Science Data Center, NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=September 7, 2013 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=2013-047A |accessdate=2014-01-07 }}</ref> "The orbiter will carry a Neutral Mass Spectrometer (NMS), an Ultraviolet/Visible Spectrometer (UVS), and a Lunar Dust Experiment (LDEX)."<ref name=Elphic/> "The NMS is a quadrupole mass spectrometer designed ot detect species up to 150 amu and will look for CH₄, S, O, Si, Kr, Xe, Fe, Al, Ti, Mg, OH, and H₂O. The UVS will detect Al, Ca, Fe, K, Li, Na, Si, T, Ba, Mg, H₂O, and O and will monitor the dust composition. The LDEX is an impact ionization dust detector designed to measure particles down to 0.3 microns at the spacecraft altitude. The LLCD is a test of a high data-rate optical (laser) communications system."<ref name=Elphic/> {{clear}} ==Mars== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Mars}} "The major atmospheric gases on Earth, Venus, and Mars were probably CO₂, H₂O, and N₂. [The ions from the upper parts of an atmosphere] are often suprathermal, and their interactions can produce suprathermal neutral atoms as well [The] ionopause [...] separates the bound ionosphere from an outer region in which the solar wind is diverted and flows around and past the planet. This region still contains some neutral gas, and if such atoms are ionized by solar photons or electron impact, they are swept up in the flow."<ref name=Hunten>{{ cite journal |author=Donald M. Hunten |title=Atmospheric Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Science |date=February 12, 1993 |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=915-20 |url=http://www.csun.edu/~hmc60533/CSUN_311/article_references/Sc_Feb93_AtmosEvolTerrestPlanets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-21 }}</ref> "There are strong reasons to believe that Mars once had much more atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O than it now has ... (Impacts, which may have eroded even larger amounts, operated at an earlier period.) ... The visible polar caps are thought to contain relatively small quantities. [...] More recently it has been proposed (35) that Mars may have had several episodes of high atmospheric pressure, warm conditions, and substantial precipitation of rain and snow, with a north polar ocean and southern glaciers."<ref name=Hunten/> ==Comets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Comets}} [[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The comet Hale–Bopp in the night sky. Credit: [http://salzgeber.at Philipp Salzgeber].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "celestial body consisting mainly of ice, dust and gas in a (usually very eccentric) orbit around the Sun and having a "tail" of melted matter blown away [back]<ref name=CometWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Stephen G. Brown|Stephen G. Brown]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=5 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> from it by the solar wind when [as]<ref name=CometWikt1/> it is close to [approaches]<ref name=CometWikt1/> the Sun"<ref name=CometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=25 February 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''comet'''. '''Def.''' a "comet which orbits the Sun and which returns to the innermost point of its orbit at known, regular intervals"<ref name=PeriodicCometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:WikiPedant|WikiPedant]] |title=periodic comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 November 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/periodic_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''periodic comet'''. '''Def.''' "any periodic comet with an orbital period of less than 200 years"<ref name=ShortPeriodCometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:AryamanA|AryamanA]] |title=short-period comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 February 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/short-period_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''short-period comet'''. Most of the comets lay at the distant reaches of our system in a hypothesized Oort cloud. At the very edge of the solar system, these comets orbit in very large loops around the distant reaches of our solar system. The passing of nearby stars, or other objects can alter their orbit, sending them speeding towards the inner reaches of our solar system. These comets typically retain very large orbits such that they will not return (once seen in the inner solar system) for many thousands of years. Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10⁷ yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Long-period comets== [[Image:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391.svg|thumb|right|250px|Orbits of Comet Kohoutek (red) and the Earth (blue), illustrating the high orbital eccentricity of its orbit and its rapid motion when close to the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands of years.<ref name="SBP"/> An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System.<ref name=Elenin2011>{{cite book |url=http://spaceobs.org/en/2011/03/07/vliyanie-planet-gigantov-na-orbitu-komety-c2010-x1-elenin/ |title=Influence of giant planets on the orbit of comet C/2010 X1 |first=Leonid |last=Elenin |date=7 March 2011 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they also have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories<ref name="SBP">{{cite book |title=Small Bodies: Profile |url=http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/special/smbod.htm |publisher=NASA/JPL |date=29 October 2008 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change. Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3K9Fhu2q-8gC&pg=PA21 |page=21 |title=Astronomy and Astrophysics |isbn=978-0-7637-7786-9 |author1=Joardar |first1=S |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=A. B |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=R |date=2008 }}</ref> The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU ({{convert|1.1|pc|ly|abbr=off}}).<ref name=Chebotarev1964>{{cite journal |bibcode=1964SvA.....7..618C |title=Gravitational Spheres of the Major Planets, Moon and Sun |author1=Chebotarev |first1=G. A. |volume=7 |date=1964 |pages=618 |journal=Soviet Astronomy }}</ref> Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion<ref name="e1">{{cite book |title=JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: e > 1 |publisher=JPL |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb_query.cgi?obj_group=all;obj_kind=all;obj_numbered=all;OBJ_field=0;ORB_field=0;c1_group=ORB;c1_item=Bg;c1_op=%3E;c1_value=1;table_format=HTML;max_rows=100;format_option=comp;c_fields=AcBgBiBjBqChCk;.cgifields=format_option;.cgifields=ast_orbit_class;.cgifields=table_format;.cgifields=obj_kind;.cgifields=obj_group;.cgifields=obj_numbered;.cgifields=com_orbit_class&query=1&c_sort=BgD |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body curve fitting, best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System. As of 2018, 1I/ʻOumuamua is the only object with an eccentricity significantly greater than one that has been detected, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While ʻOumuamua showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet.<ref name="Oumuamua">{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/41015-interstellar-visitor-oumuamua-comet-after-all.html |title=Interstellar Visitor 'Oumuamua Is a Comet After All |work=Space.com |first=Chelsea |last=Gohd |date=27 June 2018 |access-date=27 September 2018 }}</ref> Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1&nbsp;million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known hyperbolic comet.<ref name="C/1980E1-jpl">{{cite book |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980E1 |title=C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |work=JPL Small-Body Database |type=1986-12-02 last obs |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). If such objects entered the Solar System, they would have positive specific orbital energy and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/185590 |title=On the nondetection of extrasolar comets |date=1989 |last1=McGlynn |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Chapman |first2=Robert D. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=346 |pages=L105 |bibcode=1989ApJ...346L.105M }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Halley== “During the Halley Monitoring Program at La Silla from Feb.17 to Apr.17,1986 ... In the light of the neutral CN-radical a continuous formation and expansion of [cyan] gas-shells could be observed.”<ref name=Schlosser>{{ cite book |author=Wolfhard Schlosser |author2=Rita Schulz |author3=Paul Koczet |title=The cyan shells of Comet P/Halley, In: ''Proceedings of the 20th ESLAB Symposium on the Exploration of Halley's Comet'' |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date= 1986 |volume=3 |editor= |pages=495-8 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1986ESASP.250c.495S |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> “The gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance from 1 km/s in early March to 0.8 km/s in April.”<ref name=Schlosser/> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in space "blown" into the [[interstellar medium]] (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[Milky Way|galaxy]]) by the solar wind. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. ==Interstellars== '''Def.''' between the stars or among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm³ and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ===H I regions=== An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date= 1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=November 1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=July 1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> "When detection of neutral hydrogen (HI) absorption of the pulsar signal is possible, an estimate, or at least a limit on the distance may be obtained using a Galactic rotation model".<ref name=Toscano>{{ cite journal |author=M. Toscano |author2=M. C. Britton |author3=R. N. Manchester |author4=M. Bailes |author5=J. S. Sandhu |author6=S. R. Kulkarni |author7=S. B. Anderson |title=Parallax of PSR J1744–1134 and the local interstellar medium |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 1, 1999 |volume=523 |issue=2 |pages=L171 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/523/2/L171 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/312276 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-19 }}</ref> "There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the [local insterstellar medium] LISM. This cavity surrounds the Sun and extends several hundred parsecs into quadrant 3 (Lucke 1978). The cavity appears as a region of low reddening extending 500 pc between ℓ = 210° and 255° and 1.5 kpc toward ℓ = 240°. Running counter to this is very heavy obscuration beyond ~100 pc in the first quadrant. Similarly, HI column densities derived from ultraviolet observations show a marked paucity in HI along LOSs directed towards ℓ = 230° (Frisch & York 1983; Paresce 1984). A similar morphology for this cavity is gleaned from NaI absorption measurements".<ref name=Toscano/> "To further characterize the distribution of electrons in the LISM it is useful to relate their location to other interstellar features, such as bubbles, superbubbles, and clouds of neutral gas. There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the LISM. [...] There are several features of interest within this cavity. One of these is the local hot bubble (LHB): a volume encompassing the Sun distinguished by low neutral gas densities and a 10⁶ K, soft X-ray emitting gas"<ref name=Toscano/> The "neutral hydrogen column density [has] a level of ''N''(HI)= 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻²"<ref name=Toscano/> "Distance estimates now exist for a few hundreds of pulsars, resulting from three basic techniques: neutral hydrogen absorption (in combination with the Galactic rotation curve), trigonometric parallax and from associations with objects of known distance".<ref name=Stepanov>{{ cite journal |author=R. Stepanov |author2=P. Frick |author3=A. Shukurov |author4=D. Sokoloff |title=Wavelet tomography of the Galactic magnetic field I. The method |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=August 2002 |volume=391 |issue=08 |pages=361-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...391..361S |arxiv=astro-ph/0112507 |bibcode=2002A&A...391..361S |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020552 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> ===Cold neutral mediums=== H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ===Warm neutral mediums=== The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The "peak emissivity is enhanced by about 23% for the WIM [and only 11 % for the warm neutral medium (WNM)], although the peak frequency remains unchanged."<ref name=Ali>{{ cite journal |author=Yacine Ali-Haïmoud |title=Spinning dust radiation: a review of the theory |journal=Advances in Astronomy |date= 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=462697 |pages= |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1211.2748v1.pdf |arxiv=1211.2748 |bibcode=2013AdAst2013E...2A |doi=10.1155/2013/462697 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[c:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].{{tlx|free media}}]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Molecular clouds== [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10³–10⁷ times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10²–10³ particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10⁴–10⁶ particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Exocomets== Exocomets beyond the Solar System have also been detected and may be common in the [[Milky Way]].<ref name="berk">{{cite book |title=Exocomets may be as common as exoplanets |url=http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/01/07/exocomets-may-be-as-common-as-exoplanets/ |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=UC Berkeley |accessdate=30 July 2013 |last=Sanders |first=Robert }}</ref> The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987.<ref name="Space-20130107">{{cite book |title='Exocomets' Common Across Milky Way Galaxy |url=http://www.space.com/19156-exocomets-alien-solar-systems.html |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=Space.com |accessdate=8 January 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916085824/http://www.space.com/19156-exocomets-alien-solar-systems.html |archivedate=16 September 2014 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Beust1990">{{cite journal |bibcode=1990A&A...236..202B |title=The Beta Pictoris circumstellar disk. X – Numerical simulations of infalling evaporating bodies |last1=Beust |first1=H. |last2=Lagrange-Henri |first2=A.M. |last3=Vidal-Madjar |first3=A. |last4=Ferlet |first4=R. |volume=236 |date=1990 |pages=202–216 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |issn=0004-6361 }}</ref> A total of 10 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013, using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star.<ref name="berk"/><ref name="Space-20130107" /> ==Supernova remnants== [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The Crab Nebula is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: CM Hubert Chen, Fiona A. Harrison, Principal Investigator, Caltech Charles J. Hailey, Columbia Principal, Columbia, Finn E. Christensen, DSRI Principal, DSRI, William W. Craig, Optics Scientist, LLNL, Stephen M. Schindler, Project Manager, Caltech.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10³⁸ erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from ⁵⁶Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper, Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Wolf-Rayet stars== {{main|Stars/Wolf-Rayets}} "At the low density given by the spherically symmetric wind model (see Table 1), the dominant species in the gas are atomic ions while as the gas number density increases, the recombination of ions takes place and the gas composition is governed by neutral-phase chemistry, that is, the dominant species are neutral atoms and molecules although electrons and some ions are still present in relatively large amounts (for example, C⁺, O⁺ and He⁺)."<ref name= Cherchneff >{{ cite journal |author=I. Cherchneff |author2=Y.H. Le Teuff |author3=P.M. Williams |author4=A.G.G.M. Tielens |title=Dust formation in carbon-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. I. Chemistry of small carbon clusters and silicon species |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=May 2000 |volume=357 |issue=5 |pages=572-80 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2000A%26A...357..572C&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=2000A&A...357..572C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-05 }}</ref> ==Technology== {{main|Technology}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).{{tlx|free media}}]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> “The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (¹³CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O₂), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I).”<ref name=Submillimetreastronomy>{{ cite journal |title=Submillimetre astronomy |journal=Wikipedia |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=June 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy |accessdate=2012-06-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics|Electromagnetic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules|Molecule astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Radiation astronomy satellites]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomics astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons|Tauon astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Neutrals astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] an2i7gokscj9yk8xwa8z0seurlbxs3l 2417138 2417137 2022-08-22T01:58:11Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Muoniums */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Neutrals astronomy''' is the astronomy of observing neutral atoms or molecules, their sources and apparent entities or objects of origin. {{clear}} ==Strong forces== {{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}} A "new type of neutron star model (Q stars) [is such that] high-density, electrically neutral baryonic matter is a coherent classical solution to an effective field theory of strong forces and is bound in the absence of gravity. [...] allows massive compact objects, [...] and has no macroscopic minimum mass."<ref name=Bahcall>{{ cite journal |author=Safi Bahcall |author2=Bryan W. Lynn |author3=Stephen B. Selipsky |title=New Models for Neutron Stars |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 10, 1990 |volume=362 |issue=10 |pages=251-5 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ApJ...362..251B |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...362..251B |doi=10.1086/169261 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> "Compact objects in astronomy are usually analyzed in terms of theoretical characteristics of neutron stars or black holes that are based upon calculations of equations of state for matter at very high densities. At such high densities, the effects of strong forces cannot be neglected. There are several conventional approaches to describing nuclear forces, all of which find that for a baryon number greater than ~250, a nucleus will become energetically unbound. High-density hadronic matter is not stable in these theories until there are enough baryons for gravitational binding to form a neutron star, typically with a minimum mass ≳ 0.1 ''M''_⊙ and maximum mass ≲ 3 ''M''_⊙."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Another possibility [called "baryon matter"] is that in the absence of gravity high-density baryonic matter is bound by purely strong forces. [...] nongravitationally bound bulk hadronic matter is consistent with nuclear physics data [...] and low-energy strong interaction data [...] The effective field theory approach has many successes in nuclear physics [...] suggesting that bulk hadronic matter is just as likely to be a correct description of matter at high densities as conventional, unbound hadronic matter."<ref name=Bahcall/> "The idea behind baryon matter is that a macroscopic state may exist in which a smaller effective baryon mass inside some region makes the state energetically favored over free particles. [...] This state will appear in the limit of large baryon number as an electrically neutral coherent bound state of neutrons, protons, and electrons in ''β''-decay equilibrium."<ref name=Bahcall/> ==Antiprotonic heliums== [[Image:Pbarhelium 2020.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Schematic drawing depicts an antiprotonic helium atom. Credit: [[c:user:Elena2021|Elena2021]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Antiprotonic helium is a three-body atom composed of an antiproton and an electron orbiting around a helium nucleus, is electrically neutral, both electrons and antiprotons each have a charge of −1, whereas helium nuclei have a charge of +2, and has the longest lifetime of any experimentally producible matter-antimatter bound state.<ref>{{cite book|title=PROGRESS REPORT OF THE ASACUSA AD-3 COLLABORATION|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707213409/https://cds.cern.ch/record/2799130/files/SPSC-SR-301.pdf|accessdate=30 July 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Protoniums== [[Image:Structure of Protonium.svg|thumb|226x226px|right|Diagram depicts the structure of a protonium atom. Credit: [[c:user:Nucleophysic|Nucleophysic]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Protonium (symbol: Pn), also known as antiprotonic hydrogen, is a type of exotic atom in which a proton (symbol: p) and an antiproton (symbol: {{overline|p}}) orbit each other.<ref name=Zurlo> {{cite journal |last=Zurlo |first=N. |display-authors=etal. |title=Production Of Slow Protonium In Vacuum |journal=Hyperfine Interactions |volume=172 |issue=1–3 |pages=97–105 |arxiv=0801.3193 |bibcode=2006HyInt.172...97Z |doi=10.1007/s10751-007-9529-0 |year=2006 |s2cid=119182686 }}</ref> Protonium has a mean lifetime of approximately 1.0&nbsp;μs and a binding energy of −0.75&nbsp;keV.<ref name=Raouf>{{cite journal |last=Abdel-Raouf |first=Mohamed Assad |title=Binding energy of protonium ions |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=194 |issue=7 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/194/7/072003 |year=2009 |page=072003 |bibcode=2009JPhCS.194g2003A }}</ref> Putting antiprotons and protons into the same magnetic cage was first used during the experiment ATHENA (ApparaTus for High precision Experiment on Neutral Antimatter) at the CERN laboratory in Geneva in 2002, but it was not until 2006 that scientists realized protonium was also generated during the experiment.<ref name=Venturelli>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168583X07007227 |title=Protonium production in ATHENA |author=L. Venturelli |collaboration=Athena collaboration |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B |volume=261 |issue=1–2 |date=August 2007 |pages=40–43 |doi=10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.135 |bibcode=2007NIMPB.261...40V }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons}} [[Image:Solar neutron detector.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a schematic view of the Mount Norikura solar neutron telescope. Credit: Y. Muraki, K. Murakami, M. Miyazaki, K. Mitsui. S. Shibata, S. Sakakibara, T. Sakai, T. Takahashi, T. Yamada, and K. Yamaguchi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] A "new detector to observe solar neutrons [has been in operation] since 1990 October 17 [...] at the Mount Norikura Cosmic Ray Laboratory (CRL) of [the] Institute for cosmic Ray Research, the University of Tokyo."<ref name=Muraki>{{ cite journal |author=Y. Muraki |author2=K. Murakami |author3=M. Miyazaki |author4=K. Mitsui. S. Shibata |author5=S. Sakakibara |author6=T. Sakai |author7=T. Takahashi |author8=T. Yamada |author9=K. Yamaguchi |title=Observation of solar neutrons associated with the large flare on 1991 June 4 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1992 |volume=400 |issue=2 |pages=L75-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJ...400L..75M |arxiv= |bibcode=1992ApJ...400L..75M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-07 }}</ref> "The solar neutron telescope [image at right] consists of 10 blocks of scintillator [...] and several lead plates which are used to place kinetic energies ''T''_n of incoming particles into three bands (50-360 MeV, 280-500 MeV, and ≥ 390 MeV)."<ref name=Muraki/> The telescope is inclined to the direction of the Sun by 15°.<ref name=Muraki/> The plane area of the detector is 1.0 m² and protected by lead plates (Pb) to eliminate gamma-ray and muon background from the side of the detector.<ref name=Muraki/> The anti-coincident counter (A) is used to reject the muons and gamma rays, coming from the side of the detector and the top scintillators.<ref name=Muraki/> (P) and (G) are used to identify the proton events and gamma rays.<ref name=Muraki/> The central scintillator blocks are optically separated into 10 units.<ref name=Muraki/> "The horizontal scintillator just above the 10 vertical scintillators distinguishes neutral particles (neutrons) from the charged particles (mainly muons, protons and electrons)."<ref name=Muraki/> The Neutron Monitor aboard ''Ulysses'' was used to measure cosmic rays as well as neutrons. {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} A "new type of neutron star model (Q stars) [is such that] high-density, electrically neutral baryonic matter is a coherent classical solution to an effective field theory of strong forces and is bound in the absence of gravity. [...] allows massive compact objects, [...] and has no macroscopic minimum mass."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Compact objects in astronomy are usually analyzed in terms of theoretical characteristics of neutron stars or black holes that are based upon calculations of equations of state for matter at very high densities. At such high densities, the effects of strong forces cannot be neglected. There are several conventional approaches to describing nuclear forces, all of which find that for a baryon number greater than ~250, a nucleus will become energetically unbound. High-density hadronic matter is not stable in these theories until there are enough baryons for gravitational binding to form a neutron star, typically with a minimum mass ≳ 0.1 ''M''_⊙ and maximum mass ≲ 3 ''M''_⊙."<ref name=Bahcall/> "Times for accumulation of chemically significant dosages on icy surfaces of Centaur, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud objects from plasma and energetic ions depend on irradiation position within or outside the heliosphere. Principal irradiation components include solar wind plasma ions, pickup ions from solar UV ionization of interstellar neutral gas, energetic ions accelerated by solar and interplanetary shocks, including the putative solar wind termination shock, and galactic cosmic ray ions from the Local Interstellar Medium (LISM)."<ref name=Cooper>{{ cite book |author=John F. Cooper |author2=Eric R. Christian |author3=John D. Richardson |author4=Chi Wang |title=Proton irradiation of Centaur, Kuiper Belt, and Oort Cloud objects at plasma to cosmic ray energy, In: ''The First Decadal Review of the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt'' |date=2004 |pages=261-277 |volume=92 |editor=Davies J.K., Barrera L.H. |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |url=http://people.virginia.edu/~rej/papers06/Cooper2003EMP20040616.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3321-2_24 |pmid= |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> Flux spectra have been derived "from spacecraft data and models for eV to GeV protons at 40 AU, a termination shock position at 85 AU, and in the LISM."<ref name=Cooper/> "The ‘bubble’ of solar wind plasma and frozen-in magnetic fields expanding out from the solar corona, within a few radii of the Sun, to boundaries with the local interstellar gas and plasma near about 100 AU is called the heliosphere. Dependent on points of origin at the Sun, and on time phase during the eleven year cycle of solar activity, the solar wind plasma expands radially outward at speeds of 300–800 km/s. Neutral atoms flowing into the heliosphere from the Very Local Interstellar Medium (VLISM) can be ionized by solar UV, and by charge exchange with solar wind ions, then picked up by magnetic fields in the outward plasma flow. Due to inverse-square fall-off of solar wind ion density with distance from the Sun, these interstellar pickup ions increasingly contribute to the plasma pressure and become the dominant component beyond the orbit of Saturn (Burlaga et al., 1996; Whang et al., 1996). Further out near 90–100 AU (Stone, 2001; Stone and Cummings, 2001; Whang and Burlaga, 2002) the outflowing plasma is expected to encounter the solar wind termination shock where flow speeds abruptly transition to sub-sonic values ∼100 km/s. The shock position is dependent in part on the plasma and neutral gas density in the Local Interstellar Medium (LISM) and could move into the giant planet region, or even nearer to the Earth’s orbit, if the Sun passed through a region of much higher LISM density (Zank and Frisch, 1999; Frisch, 2000). Further out at 120 AU or more should be the heliopause, the contact boundary between the diverted solar wind plasma flows and the in-flowing interstellar plasma. The intervening region between the termination shock and the heliopause is called the heliosheath. In this latter region the previously radial flow of the solar wind is diverted into a direction downstream from the ∼26 km/s flow of the interstellar gas to form a huge teardrop-shaped structure called the heliotail which extends hundreds to perhaps thousands of AU from the Sun into the VLISM."<ref name=Cooper/> "Within the heliosphere the interplanetary environment of solar wind plasma, solar (SEP) and interplanetary energetic particles, and galactic cosmic rays (GCR) has long been surveyed in-situ beyond Neptune’s orbit at 30 AU, since 1983 and 1990 by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, and since 1987 and 1989 by Voyager 1 and 2. Of these, the Pioneers are no longer transmitting data and the Voyagers are now respectively at 89 and 71 AU, far beyond the 48 AU semi-major axis (a) cutoff of the Classical KBO population but within the range of aphelia 48 < Q < 103 AU for known Centaurs (perihelia at 5 < q < 35 AU) and Scattered KBOs (q > 35 AU). Voyager 1 is expected to cross the termination shock, later followed by Voyager 2, within the next several years and possibly to exit the heliosphere across the heliopause within its remaining ∼17 + years of operational lifetime. Both spacecraft will have been silent for millennia before reaching the Oort Cloud region at 104 to 105 AU. Within the next quarter century NASA may launch an interstellar probe (e.g., Mewaldt et al., 2001a) moving outward at 10 AU/year with the ultimate goal of surveying the VLISM environment out to several hundred AU. Until then, the next mission to the outer solar system is planned to be New Horizons (Stern and Spencer, 2003), which will fly by the Pluto/Charon system in 2015 and thereafter attempt several flybys of accessible KBOs. Enroute to Pluto this mission may attempt at least one Centaur flyby after swinging by Jupiter in 2007."<ref name=Cooper/> "The initial solar wind conditions at the inner boundary at 1 AU are radial outward speed V = 441 km/s, solar wind proton density N = 7.0/cc and temperature T = 9.8 × 10⁴ K, and interplanetary magnetic field = 7.0 × 10⁻⁵ Gauss. The interstellar hydrogen atoms at the solar wind termination shock are taken to have speed 20 km/s and temperature 1 × 10⁴ K, while H⁰ density, and the energy partition ratio for ions, are varied to give good fits to radial speed and temperature profiles measured by the operational plasma spectrometer on Voyager 2. Good fits are obtained for a neutral density of 0.09/cc and a partition ratio of 0.05, which means that five percent of the total energy from the pickup process goes into solar wind protons. For the LISM plasma ions, which are not included in the Wang and Richardson model, we compute convecting maxwellian (Vasyliunas, 1971) distributions for the LISM parameters T ∼ 7000 K, u ∼ 26 km/s, and N ∼ 0.1/cc of interstellar protons as derived from Wood and Linsky (1997)."<ref name=Cooper/> "For the present work we define ‘cosmic ray’ protons as being those with energies above 0.1 MeV from sources within and outside the heliosphere. Sources include solar energetic particle (SEP) events, acceleration by interplanetary shocks and the solar wind termination shock, and inward diffusion through the heliosheath of galactic cosmic rays thought mostly to be accelerated by interstellar shocks from supernova explosions. Protons and heavier ions accelerated at the termination shock, after pickup from photo-ionization of interstellar gas neutrals, are called anomalous cosmic rays (ACR)."<ref name=Cooper/> "Near solar minimum the ACR ions, including protons, are dominant components of radiation dosage outward from ∼40 AU to the outer heliosphere, while these ions largely disappear at solar maximum. There is a 22-year cycle in the polarity of the solar dipole magnetic field, which is frozen into the solar wind plasma within several radii of the Sun and thereby carried outward into the heliosphere. Due to sign-dependent transport effects, the ACR ions accelerated at the termination shock have larger fluxes, and more positive radial gradients, at 40 to 85 AU near the Ecliptic when the solar dipole moment is directed southward (qA < 0 polarity) than when it is northward (qA > 0 polarity)."<ref name=Cooper/> "For protons the primary radiation dosage process is deposition of energy within the volume of material as a function of depth. This deposition occurs either by electronic ionization of target atoms or by direct collisions with nuclei within the atoms. Nuclear collisions are purely elastic, as for billiard balls, up to some threshold energy for inelastic collisions, which can also excite or break up the struck nucleus with increasing effect at higher energies."<ref name=Cooper/> "For the 85-AU termination shock location the times at 0.1-μm depth drop to 107 to 108 years, while in the LISM the electronic time scale even at 1 cm is below the 109-year limit. Flux and dosage rates increase by orders of magnitude in this depth range from 40 AU out into the LISM. From 40 AU to the termination shock this trend reflects the positive radial intensity gradient for ACR protons diffusing inward from the shock acceleration source."<ref name=Cooper/> "Oort Cloud comets, and possibly Scattered KBOs with aphelia near the heliosheath and VLISM, are maximally irradiated, while Classical KBOs near 40 AU are minimally irradiated. Radial intensity gradients ≾􏰀 +10%/AU of ACR ions might account for spatial variations in color within this latter population, e.g., redder objects with increasing perihelia in the 32 < q < 45 AU range as reported by Doressoundiram et al. (2002) and at this conference by Doressoundiram (2003)."<ref name=Cooper/> ==Mesons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy}} '''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''. Single π⁰ production occurs "in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band neutrino beam."<ref name=Nakayama>{{ cite journal |author=S. Nakayama |author2=C. Mauger |author3=M.H. Ahn |author4=S. Aoki |author5=Y. Ashie |author6=H. Bhang |author7=S. Boyd |author8=D. Casper |author9=J.H. Choi |author10=S. Fukuda |author11=Y. Fukuda |author12=R. Gran |author13=T. Hara |author14=M. Hasegawa |author15=T. Hasegawa |author16=K. Hayashi |author17=Y. Hayato |author18=J. Hill |author19=A.K. Ichikawa |author20=A. Ikeda |author21=T. Inagaki |author22=T. Ishida |author23=T. Ishii |author24=M. Ishitsuka |author25=Y. Itow |author26=T. Iwashita |author27=H.I. Jang |author28=J.S. Jang |author29=E.J. Jeon |author30=K.K. Joo |author31=C.K. Jung |author32=T. Kajita |author33=J. Kameda |author34=K. Kaneyuki |author35=I. Kato |author36=E. Kearns |author37=A. Kibayashi |author38=D. Kielczewska |author39=B.J. Kim |author40=C.O. Kim |author41=J.Y. Kim |author42=S.B. Kim |author43=K. Kobayashi |author44=T. Kobayashi |author45=Y. Koshio |author46=W.R. Kropp |author47=J.G. Learned |author48=S.H. Lim |author49=I.T. Lim |author50=H. Maesaka |author51=T. Maruyama |author52=S. Matsuno |author53=C. Mcgrew |author54=A. Minamino |author55=S. Mine |author56=M. Miura |author57=K. Miyano |author58=T. Morita |author59=S. Moriyama |author60=M. Nakahata |author61=K. Nakamura |author62=I. Nakano |author63=F. Nakata |author64=T. Nakaya |author65=T. Namba |author66=R. Nambu |author67=K. Nishikawa |author68=S. Nishiyama |author69=K .Nitta |author70=S. Noda |author71=Y. Obayashi |author72=A. Okada |author73=Y. Oyama |author74=M.Y. Pac |author75=H. Park |author76=C. Saji |author77=M. Sakuda |author78=A. Sarrat |author79=T. Sasaki |author80=N. Sasao |author81=K. Scholberg |author82=M. Sekiguchi |author83=E. Sharkey |author84=M. Shiozawa |author85=K.K. Shiraishi |author86=M. Smy |author87=H.W. Sobel |author88=J.L. Stone |author89=Y. Suga |author90=L.R. Sulak |author91=A. Suzuki |author92=Y. Suzuki |author93=Y. Takeuchi |author94=N. Tamura |author95=M. Tanaka |author96=Y. Totsuka |author97=S. Ueda |author98=M.R. Vagins |author99=C.W. Walter |author100=W. Wang |author101=R.J. Wilkes |author102=S. Yamada |author103=S. Yamamoto |author104=C. Yanagisawa |author105=H. Yokoyama |author106=J. Yoo |author107=M. Yoshida |author108=J. Zalipska |title=Measurement of single π⁰ production in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band muon neutrino beam |journal=Physics Letters B |date=July 2005 |volume=619 |issue=3-4 |pages=255-62 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0408134.pdf?origin=publication_detail |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-03-22 }}</ref> "The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on [Solar Maximum Mission] SMM has detected [...] at least two of the flares have spectral properties >40 MeV that require gamma rays from the decay of neutral pions. [Pion] production can occur early in the impulsive phase as defined by hard X-rays near 100 keV."<ref name=Forrest>{{ cite book |author=Forrest D. J. |author2=Vestrand W. T. |author3=Chupp E. L. |author4=Rieger E. |author5=Cooper J. F. |author6=Share G. H. |title=Neutral Pion Production in Solar Flares, In: ''19th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=NASA |location= |date=August 1985 |editor= |volume=4 |pages=146-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985ICRC....4..146F |arxiv= |bibcode=1985ICRC....4..146F |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> Gamma-ray "emission matches remarkably well both the position and shape of the inner [supernova remnant] SNR shocked plasma. Furthermore, the gamma-ray spectrum shows a prominent peak near 1 GeV with a clear decrement at energies below a few hundreds of MeV as expected from neutral pion decay."<ref name=Giuliani>{{ cite journal |author=A. Giuliani |author2=M. Cardillo |author3=M. Tavani |author4=Y. Fukui |author5=S. Yoshiike |author6=K. Torii |author7=G. Dubner |author8=G. Castelletti |author9=G. Barbiellini |author10=A. Bulgarelli |author11=P. Caraveo |author12=E. Costa |author13=P.W. Cattaneo |author14=A. Chen |author15=T. Contessi |author16=E. Del Monte |author17=I. Donnarumma |author18=Y. Evangelista |author19=M. Feroci |author20=F. Gianotti |author21=F. Lazzarotto |author22=F. Lucarelli |author23=F. Longo |author24=M. Marisaldi |author25=S. Mereghetti |author26=L. Pacciani |author27=A. Pellizzoni |author28=G. Piano |author29=P. Picozza |author30=C. Pittori |author31=G. Pucella |author32=M. Rapisarda |author33=A. Rappoldi |author34=S. Sabatini |author35=P. Soffitta |author36=E. Striani |author37=M. Trifoglio |author38=A. Trois |author39=S. Vercellone |author40=F. Verrecchia |author41=V. Vittorin |author42=S. Colafrancesco |author43=P. Giommi |author44=G. Bignami |title=Neutral Pion Emission from Accelerated Protons in the Supernova Remnant W44 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |date=1 December 2011 |volume=742 |issue=2 |pages=L30 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1111.4868 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/742/2/L30 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "Neutral current single π⁰ production induced by neutrinos with a mean energy of 1.3GeV is measured at a 1000 ton water Cherenkov detector as a near detector of the K2K long baseline neutrino experiment."<ref name="Nakayama"/> "The single π⁰ production rate by atmospheric neutrinos could be usable to distinguish between the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ and ν_µ ↔ ν_s oscillation hypotheses. The NC rate is attenuated in the case of transitions of ν_µ’s into sterile neutrinos, while it does not change in the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ scenario."<ref name="Nakayama"/> Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) ... cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] ... interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance, :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon. ==Muoniums== [[Image:Muonium.svg|right|thumb|300x300px|Simplified drawing shows a muonium atom. Credit: [[c:user:LZiegler13|LZiegler13]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Muonium is an exotic atom made up of an antimuon and an electron.<ref name="Gold">{{cite book |author=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) |date=1997 |editor=A.D. McNaught, A. Wilkinson |title=Muonium, In: ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology'' |url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/M04069.html |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications |{{isbn|978-0-86542-684-9}} |doi=10.1351/goldbook.M04069 }}</ref> Muonium's Bohr radius and ionization energy are within 0.5% of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, and thus it can usefully be considered as an exotic light isotope of hydrogen.<ref name=Walker>{{cite book | page=4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PM88AAAAIAAJ | title=Muon and Muonium Chemistry | {{isbn|978-0-521-24241-7}} | author1=Walker | first1=David C | date=1983-09-08}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Electroweak interactions== Weak '''neutral current''' interactions are one of the ways in which subatomic particles can interact by means of the [[Charges/Interactions/Weak|weak force]]. These interactions are mediated by the Z boson. The discovery of weak neutral currents was a significant step toward the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force into the electroweak force, and led to the discovery of the W and Z bosons. ==Positroniums== [[Image:Positronium.svg|thumb|200px|right|An electron and positron orbiting around their common centre of mass is a bound quantum state known as positronium. Credit: [[c:user:Manticorp|Manticorp]] and [[c:User:Krishnavedala|Rubber Duck]].{{tlx|free media}}]] An s state has zero angular momentum, so orbiting around each other would mean going straight at each other until the pair of particles is either scattered or annihilated, whichever occurs first. The lowest energy orbital state of positronium is 1S, and like with hydrogen, it has a hyperfine structure arising from the relative orientations of the spins of the electron and the positron. The mass of positronium is 1.022&nbsp;MeV, which is twice the electron mass minus the binding energy of a few eV. The ''singlet'' state, {{SubatomicParticle|para-positronium}}, with antiparallel spins (spin quantum number (''S'')&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, ''M_s''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0) is known as ''para''-positronium (''p''-Ps), with a mean lifetime of {{val|0.12|ul=ns}} and decays preferentially into two gamma rays with energy of {{val|511|ul=keV}} each (in the center-of-mass frame) into any even number of photons (2, 4, 6, ...), but the probability quickly decreases with the number: the branching ratio for decay into 4 photons is {{val|1.439|(2)|e=-6}}.<ref name=Karshenboim>{{cite journal |last1=Karshenboim | first1=Savely G. |date=2003 |title=Precision Study of Positronium: Testing Bound State QED Theory |doi=10.1142/S0217751X04020142 |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics A |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=3879–3896 |arxiv=hep-ph/0310099 |bibcode = 2004IJMPA..19.3879K | s2cid=14848837 }}</ref> ''Para-''positronium lifetime in vacuum is approximately<ref name=Karshenboim/> <math display="block">t_0 = \frac{2 \hbar}{m_\mathrm{e} c^2 \alpha^5} = 0.1244 ~\mathrm{ns}.</math> The ''triplet'' states, ³S₁, with parallel spins (''S''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1, ''M_s''&nbsp;=&nbsp;−1, 0, 1) are known as ''ortho''-positronium (''o''-Ps), and have an energy that is approximately 0.001 eV higher than the singlet.<ref name=Karshenboim/> These states have a mean lifetime of {{val|142.05|0.02|u=ns}},<ref name=Badertscher> {{cite journal |first1=A.| last1=Badertscher| first2=P.| last2=Crivelli| first3=W.|last3=Fetscher| first4=U.|last4=Gendotti|first5=S. N.| last5=Gninenko |first6=V.|last6=Postoev| first7=A.|last7=Rubbia| first8=V.|last8=Samoylenko| first9=D.|last9=Sillou |year=2007 |title=An Improved Limit on Invisible Decays of Positronium |journal=Physical Review D |volume=75 |pages=032004 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.75.032004 |arxiv=hep-ex/0609059 |bibcode=2007PhRvD..75c2004B |issue=3 |s2cid=9001914}}</ref> and the leading decay is three gammas. Other modes of decay are negligible; for instance, the five-photons mode has branching ratio of ≈{{val||e=-6}}.<ref name=Czarnecki>{{Cite book |last1=Czarnecki |first1=Andrzej |last2=Karshenboim |first2=Savely G. |date=2000 |title=Decays of Positronium, In: ''Proceedings of the International Workshop on High Energy Physics and Quantum Field Theory (QFTHEP)'' |editor1-last=Levchenko | editor1-first=B. B. |editor2-last=Savrin | editor2-first=V. I. |volume=14 |pages=538–544 |arxiv=hep-ph/9911410 |bibcode = 1999hep.ph...11410C }}</ref> ''Ortho''-positronium lifetime in vacuum can be calculated approximately as:<ref name=Karshenboim/> <math display="block">t_1 = \frac{\frac{1}{2} 9 h}{2 m_\mathrm{e} c^2 \alpha^6 (\pi^2 - 9)} = 138.6 ~\mathrm{ns}.</math> However more accurate calculations with corrections to O(α²) yield a value of {{val|7.040|ul=us}}^&minus;1 for the decay rate, corresponding to a lifetime of {{val|142|u=ns}}.<ref name=Kataoka>{{cite journal|last1=Kataoka|first1=Y.|last2=Asai|first2=S.|last3=Kobayashi|first3=t.|title=First Test of O(α²) Correction of the Orthopositronium Decay Rate|journal=Physics Letters B|volume=671|issue=2|pages=219–223|url=https://www.icepp.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/papers/ps/icepp-report/ut-icepp-08-09.pdf|year=2009|bibcode=2009PhLB..671..219K|arxiv=0809.1594|doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.12.008}}</ref><ref name=Adkins>{{cite journal|last1=Adkins|first1=G. S.|last2=Fell|first2=R. N.|last3=Sapirstein|first3=J.|title=Order α² Corrections to the Decay Rate of Orthopositronium|journal=Physical Review Letters|date=29 May 2000|volume=84|issue=22|pages=5086–5089|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.5086|pmid=10990873|arxiv = hep-ph/0003028 |bibcode = 2000PhRvL..84.5086A |s2cid=1165868}}</ref> Positronium in the 2S state is metastable having a lifetime of {{val|1100|u=ns}} against annihilation.<ref name=Cooke> {{cite journal |last1=Cooke| first1=D. A. |last2=Crivelli| first2=P. | first3=J. |last3=Alnis| first4=A. |last4=Antognini| first5=B. |last5=Brown| first6=S. |last6=Friedreich| first7=A. |last7=Gabard| first8=T. W. |last8=Haensch| first9=K. |last9=Kirch| first10=A. |last10=Rubbia| first11=V. |last11=Vrankovic |year=2015 |title=Observation of positronium annihilation in the 2S state: towards a new measurement of the 1S-2S transition frequency |doi=10.1007/s10751-015-1158-4 |journal=Hyperfine Interact. |volume=233 |issue=1–3 |pages=67–73 |arxiv=1503.05755 |bibcode=2015HyInt.233...67C| s2cid=89605682 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos | Neutrino astronomy}} [[Image:Sudbury neutrino observatory.png|thumb|right|250px|The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2000 meters below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Credit: A. B. McDonald (Queen's University) et al., The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Institute.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:FirstNeutrinoEventAnnotated.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this photograph is recorded the first use of a hydrogen bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on November 13, 1970. A neutrino hit a proton in a hydrogen atom. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph. Credit: Argonne National Laboratory.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Neutrino flavor flux.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Flux (Φ) of ⁸B solar neutrinos which are ''μ'' or ''τ'' flavor vs the flux of electron neutrinos (Φ_e) deduced from the three neutrino reactions in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO). Credit: Q.R. Ahmad ''et al.''.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "neutrino fluxes [may be] predicted by such scenarios [as the standard model or grand unification] if consistency with the observed cosmic ray flux and the universal γ-ray background at 1 − 10 GeV is required. Flux levels detectable by proposed km³ scale neutrino observatories are allowed by these constraints. Bounds on or detection of a neutrino flux above ~ 1 EeV would allow neutrino astronomy to probe grand unification scale physics."<ref name="Sigl">{{cite journal |author=Günter Sigl |author2=Sangjin Lee |author3=David N. Schramm |title=Cosmological Neutrino Signatures for Grand Unification Scale Physics |journal=Physics Letters B |month=January |year=1997 |volume=392 |issue=1-2 |pages=129-34 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269396015341 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-07 }}</ref> "The shapes of the [ultra-high energy] UHE nucleon and γ-ray spectra predicted within ["top-down"] TD models are “universal” in the sense that they depend only on the physics of [a supermassive elementary "X" particle associated with some grand unified theory (GUT)] X particle decay."<ref name="Sigl"/> "In contrast to the universality of UHE spectral shapes, the predicted γ-ray flux below ∼ 10¹⁴ eV (the threshold for pair production of photons on the [cosmic microwave background] CMB) and the predicted neutrino flux depend on the total energy release integrated over redshift and thus on the specific TD model."<ref name="Sigl"/> "Observational data on the universal γ-ray background in the 1 − 10 GeV region [27], to which the generic cascade spectrum would contribute directly, turn out to provide an important constraint. Since the UHE γ-ray flux is especially sensitive to certain astrophysical parameters such as the extragalactic magnetic field (EGMF), a reliable calculation of the predicted spectral shapes requires numerical methods."<ref name="Sigl"/> "The calculations take into account all the relevant interactions with the (redshift dependent) universal low energy photon background in the radio, microwave and optical/infrared regime."<ref name="Sigl"/> "Above ≃ 100 EeV the corresponding fluxes would dominate all present model predictions for AGN neutrino fluxes [14] as well as the flux of “cosmogenic” neutrinos produced by interactions of UHE [cosmic rays] CRs with the universal photon background [37,38,31]."<ref name="Sigl"/> The "constraint imposed by requiring that TD scenarios do not overproduce the measured universal γ-ray background at 1 − 10 GeV implies an upper limit on these neutrino fluxes which only depends on the ratio r of energy injected into the neutrino versus [electromagnetic] EM channel, and not on any specific TD scenario or even a possible connection to UHE CRs."<ref name="Sigl"/> A '''neutrino''' is an electrically neutral, weakly interacting [[w:elementary particle|elementary subatomic particle]]<ref name="Max">{{cite book |title=Neutrino, In: ''Glossary for the Research Perspectives of the Max Planck Society'' |url=http://www.mpg.de/12928/Glossary |publisher=Max Planck Gesellschaft |accessdate=2012-03-27 }}</ref> with [[w:spin-1/2|half-integer spin]]. ... Neutrinos do not carry [[w:electric charge|electric charge]], which means that they are not affected by the [[w:electromagnetic force|electromagnetic force]]s that act on charged particles such as electrons and protons. Neutrinos are affected only by the [[w:weak interaction|weak sub-atomic force]], of much shorter range than electromagnetism, and [[w:gravity|gravity]], which is relatively weak on the subatomic scale. They are therefore able to travel great distances through matter without being affected by it. "If neutrinos have negligible rest mass, the present density expected for relic neutrinos from the big bang is ''n''_ν = 110 (''T''_γ/2.7 K)³ cm^–3 for each two-component species. This is of order the photon density ''n''_γ, differing just by a factor 3/11 (i.e. a factor 3/4 because neutrinos are fermions rather than bosons, multiplied by 4/11, the factor by which the neutrinos are diluted when e⁺–e^– annihilation boosts the photon density). This conclusion holds for non-zero masses, provided that m_vc² is far below the thermal energy (~ 5 MeV) at which neutrinos decoupled from other species and that the neutrinos are stable for the Hubble time. Comparison with the baryon density, related to Ω via ''n''_b = 1.5 x 10^–5 Ω_b ''h''² cm^–3, shows that neutrinos outnumber baryons by such a big factor that they can be dynamically dominant over baryons even if their masses are only a few electron volts. In fact, a single species of neutrino would yield a contribution to Ω of Ω_v = 0.01 ''h''^–2 (m_v)_eV, so if ''h'' = 0.5, only 25 eV is sufficient to provide the critical density."<ref name="Rees">{{cite journal |author=Martin J. Rees |title=Is the Universe flat? |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |month=December |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=331-48 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02714464 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-18 }}</ref> "Neutrinos of nonzero mass would be dynamically important not only for the expanding universe as a whole but also for large bound systems such as clusters of galaxies. This is because they would now be moving slowly: if the universe had cooled homogeneously, primordial neutrinos would now be moving at around 200 (m_v)^-1_eV km s^–1. They would be influenced even by the weak (~ 10^–5 c²) gravitational potential fluctuations of galaxies and clusters. If the three (or more) types of neutrinos have different masses, then the heaviest will obviously be gravitationally dominant, since the numbers of each species should be the same."<ref name="Rees"/> "Using the neutral current [NC], elastic scattering [ES], and charged current [CC] reactions and assuming the standard ⁸B shape, the ''ν''_e component of the ⁸B solar flux is ''Φ''_e = 1.76±0.05 ([statistical uncertainty] stat.)±0.09 ([systematic uncertainty]syst.) x 10⁶ cm^-2s^-1 for a kinetic threshold of 5 MeV. The non-''ν''_e component is ''Φ''_µτ = 3.41±0.45 (stat.) +0.48 or -0.45 (syst.) x 10⁶ cm^-2s^-1, 5.3σ greater than zero, providing strong evidence for solar ''ν''_e flavor transformation."<ref name="Ahmad"/> "The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) detects ⁸B solar neutrinos through the reactions:"<ref name="Ahmad"/> :<math>\nu_e + d \rightarrow p^+ + p^+ + e^- (CC),</math> :<math>\nu_x + d \rightarrow p^+ + n^0 + \nu_x (NC),</math> :<math>\nu_x + e^- \rightarrow \nu_x + e^- (ES).</math> "The charged current reaction (CC) is sensitive exclusively to electron-type neutrinos, while the neutral current reaction (NC) is equally sensitive to all active neutrino flavors (x = e, μ, τ). The elastic scattering reaction (ES) is sensitive to all flavors as well, but with reduced sensitivity to ''ν''_μ and ''ν''_τ."<ref name="Ahmad"/> "The bands intersect [in the figure at right] at the fit values for ''Φ''_e and ''Φ''_µτ, indicating that the combined flux results are consistent with neutrino flavor transformation assuming no distortion in the ⁸B neutrino energy spectrum."<ref name="Ahmad">{{cite journal |author=Q.R. Ahmad |author2=R.C. Allen |author3=T.C. Andersen |author4=J.D. Anglin |author5=J.C. Barton |author6=E.W. Beier |author7=M. Bercovitch |author8=J. Bigu |author9=S.D. Biller |author10=R.A. Black |author11=I. Blevis |author12=R.J. Boardman |author13=J. Boger |author14=E. Bonvin |author15=M.G. Boulay |author16=M.G. Bowler |author17=T.J. Bowles |author18=S.J. Brice |author19=M.C. Browne |author20=T.V. Bullard |author21=G. Bühler |author22=J. Cameron |author23=Y.D. Chan |author24=H.H. Chen |author25=M. Chen |author26=X. Chen |author27=B.T. Cleveland |author28=E.T.H. Clifford |author29=J.H.M. Cowan |author30=D.F. Cowen |author31=G.A. Cox |author32=X. Dai |author33=F. Dalnoki-Veress |author34=W.F. Davidson |author35=P.J. Doe |author36=G. Doucas |author37=M.R. Dragowsky |author38=C.A. Duba |author39=F.A. Duncan |author40=M. Dunford |author41=J.A. Dunmore |author42=E.D. Earle |author43=S.R. Elliott |author44=H.C. Evans |author45=G.T. Ewan |author46=J. Farine |author47=H. Fergani |author48=A.P. Ferraris |author49=R.J. Ford |author50=J.A. Formaggio |author51=M.M. Fowler |author52=K. Frame |author53=E.D. Frank |author54=W. Frati |author55=N. Gagnon |author56=J.V. Germani |author57=S. Gil |author58=K. Graham |author59=D.R. Grant |author60=R.L. Hahn |author61=A.L. Hallin |author62=E.D. Hallman |author63=A.S. Hamer |author64=A.A. Hamian |author65=W.B. Handler |author66=R.U. Haq |author67=C.K. Hargrove |author68=P.J. Harvey |author69=R. Hazama |author70=K.M. Heeger |author71=W.J. Heintzelman |author72=J. Heise |author73=R.L. Helmer |author74=J.D. Hepburn |author75=H. Heron |author76=J. Hewett |author77=A. Hime |author78=M. Howe |author79=J.G. Hykawy |author80=M.C.P. Isaac |author81=P. Jagam |author82=N.A. Jelley |author83=C. Jillings |author84=G. Jonkmans |author85=K. Kazkaz |author86=P.T. Keener |author87=J.R. Klein |author88=A.B. Knox |author89=R.J. Komar |author90=R. Kouzes |author91=T. Kutter |author92=C.C.M. Kyba |author93=J. Law |author94=I.T. Lawson |author95=M. Lay |author96=H.W. Lee |author97=K.T. Lesko |author98=J.R. Leslie |author99=I. Levine |author100=W. Locke |author101=S. Luoma |author102=J. Lyon |author103=S. Majerus |author104=H.B. Mak |author105=J. Maneira |author106=J. Manor |author107=A.D. Marino |author108=N. McCauley |author109=A.B. McDonald |author110=D.S. McDonald |author111=K. McFarlane |author112=G. McGregor |author113=R. Meijer Drees |author114=C. Mifflin |author115=G.G. Miller |author116=G. Milton |author117=B.A. Moffat |author118=M. Moorhead |author119=C.W. Nally |author120=M.S. Neubauer |author121=F.M. Newcomer |author122=H.S. Ng |author123=A.J. Noble |author124=E.B. Norman |author125=V.M. Novikov |author126=M. O’Neill |author127=C.E. Okada |author128=R.W. Ollerhead |author129=M. Omori |author130=J.L. Orrell |author131=S.M. Oser |author132=A.W.P. Poon |author133=T.J. Radcliffe |author134=A. Roberge |author135=B.C. Robertson |author136=R.G.H. Robertson |author137=S.S.E. Rosendahl |author138=J.K. Rowley |author139=V.L. Rusu |author140=12 E. Saettler |author141=K.K. Schaffer |author142=M.H. Schwendener |author143=A. Schülke |author144=H. Seifert |author145=M. Shatkay |author146=J.J. Simpson |author147=C.J. Sims |author148=D. Sinclair |author149=P. Skensved |author150=A.R. Smith |author151=M.W.E. Smith |author152=T. Spreitzer |author153=N. Starinsky |author154=T.D. Steiger |author155=R.G. Stokstad |author156=L.C. Stonehill |author157=R.S. Storey |author158=B. Sur |author159=R. Tafirout |author160=N. Tagg |author161=N.W. Tanner |author162=R.K. Taplin |author163=M. Thorman |author164=P.M. Thornewell |author165=P.T. Trent |author166=Y.I. Tserkovnyak |author167=R. Van Berg |author168=R.G. Van de Water |author169=C.J. Virtue |author170=C.E. Waltham |author171=J.-X. Wang |author172=D.L. Wark |author173=N. West |author174=J.B. Wilhelmy |author175=J.F. Wilkerson |author176=J.R. Wilson |author177=P. Wittich |author178=J.M. Wouters |author179=M. Yeh |title=Direct evidence for neutrino flavor transformation from neutral-current interactions in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory |journal=Physical Review Letters |month= |year=2002 |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=e011301 |url=http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v89/i1/e011301 |arxiv=nucl-ex/0204008 |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} A "PeV energy photon cannot deliver information from a source at the edge of our own galaxy because it will annihilate into an electron [positron] pair in an encounter with a 2.7 Kelvin microwave photon before reaching our telescope."<ref name="Halzen2002">{{cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=June 12, |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-107 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0034-4885/65/7/201 |arxiv=astro-ph/0204527 |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-08 }}</ref> "In general, energetic photons above a threshold ''E'' given by :<math>4E\epsilon \sim (2m_e)^2,</math> where ''E'' and ε are the energy of the high-energy and background photon, respectively. [This] implies that TeV-photons are absorbed on infrared light, PeV photons on the cosmic microwave background and EeV photons on radio-waves".<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Each [optical module] OM contains a 10 inch [photo-multiplier tube] PMT that detects individual photons of Cerenkov light generated in the optically clear ice by muons and electrons moving with velocities near the speed of light."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Radio Cerenkov experiments detect the Giga-Hertz pulse radiated by shower electrons produced in the interaction of neutrinos in ice."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Above a threshold of ≃ 1PeV, the large number of low energy(≃ MeV ) photons in a shower will produce an excess of electrons over positrons by removing electrons from atoms by Compton scattering. These are the sources of coherent radiation at radio frequencies, i.e. above ∼ 100MHz."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} "The important conclusion is that, independently of the specific blueprint of the source, it takes a kilometer-scale neutrino observatory to detect the neutrino beam associated with the highest energy cosmic rays and gamma rays."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "As with supernovae, [gamma-ray burst] GRB are expected to radiate the vast majority of their initial energy as thermal [MeV] neutrinos."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "Protons [shocked protons: TeV - EeV neutrinos] accelerated in GRB can interact with fireball gamma rays and produce pions that decay into neutrinos."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> "In a GRB fireball, neutrons can decouple from protons in the expanding fireball. If their relative velocity is sufficiently high, their interactions will be the source of pions and, therefore, neutrinos [GeV]. Typical energies of the neutrinos produced are much lower than those resulting from interactions with gamma rays."<ref name="Halzen2002"/> ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Rosat 0.25kev all-sky survey.gif|thumb|250px|right|This ROSAT image is an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates with the Galactic center in the middle of the 0.25 keV diffuse X-ray background. Credit: The Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Snowden et al. 1995, ApJ, 454, 643; Imagine the Universe! is a service of the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), Dr. Alan Smale (Director), within the Astrophysics Science Division (ASD) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.{{tlx|free media}}]] By comparing the soft X-ray background with the distribution of neutral hydrogen, it is generally agreed that within the Milky Way disk, super soft X-rays are absorbed by this neutral hydrogen. The ROSAT image at the right is an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates with the Galactic center in the middle of the 0.25 keV diffuse X-ray background. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} "Massive neutrinos are expected to decay into lighter neutrinos and uv photons, with lifetimes long on the Hubble scale."<ref name="Rujula">{{cite journal |author=A De Rujula, SL Glashow |title=Galactic neutrinos and UV astronomy |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=September 15, |year=1980 |volume=45 |issue=09 |pages=942-4 |url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5001920 |arxiv= |bibcode=1980PhRvL..45..942D |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.45.942 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-08 }}</ref> ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:SN 1987A HST.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Supernova SN 1987A is one of the brightest stellar explosions since the invention of the telescope more than {{nowrap|400 years}} ago.<ref name="PictureoftheWeek">{{cite book |title=Hubble Revisits an Old Friend, In: ''Picture of the Week'' |url=http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1142a/ |publisher=ESA/Hubble |accessdate=17 October 2011 }}</ref> Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "On February 23.316 UT, 1987, [blue] light and neutrinos from the brightest supernova in 383 years arrived at Earth ... it has been observed ... at all wavelengths from radio through gamma rays, SN 1987A is the only object besides the Sun to have been detected in neutrinos."<ref name="Arnett">{{cite journal |author=W. David Arnett |author2=John N. Bahcall |author3=Robert P. Kirshner |author4=Stanford E. Woosley |title=Supernova 1987A |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1989 |volume=27 |issue= |pages=629-700 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1989ARA%26A..27..629A |arxiv= |bibcode=1989ARA&A..27..629A |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.27.090189.003213 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> At left is an image of supernova SN 1987A, one of the brightest stellar explosions since the invention of the telescope more than {{nowrap|400 years}} ago.<ref name="PictureoftheWeek"/> Four days after the event was recorded, the progenitor star was tentatively identified as Sanduleak -69° 202, a [[w:blue supergiant|blue supergiant]].<ref name="Sonneborn">{{cite book | author=G. Sonneborn | title=The Progenitor of SN1987A, In: ''Supernova 1987a in the Large Magellanic Cloud'' | editor=Minas Kafatos, Andreas Gerasimos Michalitsianos | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1987 | isbn=0-521-35575-3 }}</ref> This was an unexpected identification, because at the time a blue supergiant was not considered a possibility for a supernova event in existing models of [[w:Stellar_evolution#Massive_stars|high mass stellar evolution]]. Many models of the progenitor have attributed the color to its chemical composition, particularly the low levels of heavy elements, among other factors.<ref name="Arnett"/> {{clear}} ==Cyans== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyan astronomy}} [[Image:Article-2025275-0D6687D100000578-167 634x704.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Necklace Nebula glows brightly in this Nasa Hubble Space Telescope image. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A giant cosmic necklace glows brightly in this Nasa Hubble Space Telescope image."<ref name=Reporter>{{ cite book |author=DAILY MAIL REPORTER |title=Giant Necklace Nebula brightly glows with dense knots of blue, green and red gases |publisher=Daily Mail |location=United Kingdom |date=August 12, 2011 |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2025275/Necklace-Nebula-brightly-glows-dense-knots-blue-green-red-gases.html |accessdate=2014-02-24 }}</ref> "The object, aptly named the Necklace Nebula, is a recently discovered planetary nebula, the glowing remains of an ordinary, sun-like star."<ref name=Reporter/> "The nebula consists of a bright ring, measuring 12trillion miles wide, dotted with dense, bright knots of gas that resemble diamonds in a necklace."<ref name=Reporter/> "Newly discovered: The Necklace Nebula glows brightly in this composite image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope last month. The glow of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are shown by the colours blue, green and red respectively".<ref name=Reporter/> "It is located 15,000 light-years away in the constellation Sagitta."<ref name=Reporter/> "A pair of stars orbiting close together produced the nebula, also called PN G054.2-03.4."<ref name=Reporter/> "About 10,000 years ago, one of the ageing stars ballooned to the point where it engulfed its companion star. The smaller star continued orbiting inside its larger companion, increasing the giant’s rotation rate. The bloated companion star spun so fast that a large part of its gaseous envelope expanded into space. Due to centrifugal force, most of the gas escaped along the star’s equator, producing a ring. The embedded bright knots are dense gas clumps in the ring. The pair is so close, only a few million miles apart, that they appear as one bright dot in the centre. The stars are furiously whirling around each other, completing an orbit in a little more than a day."<ref name=Reporter/> {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy}} [[Image:The star formation region NGC 6559.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he extended red emission (ERE) [is] observed in many dusty astronomical environments, in particular, the diffuse interstellar medium of the Galaxy. ... silicon nanoparticles provide the best match to the spectrum and the efficiency requirement of the ERE."<ref name=Witt>{{ cite journal |author=Adolf N. Witt |author2=Karl D. Gordon |author3=Douglas G. Furton |title=Silicon Nanoparticles: Source of Extended Red Emission? |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=July 1, |year=1998 |volume=501 |issue=1 |pages=L111-5 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/501/1/L111 |arxiv=astro-ph/9805006 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/311453 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-30 }}</ref> "The broad, 60 < FWHM < 100 nm, featureless luminescence band known as extended red emission (ERE) is seen in such diverse dusty astrophysical environments as reflection nebulae¹⁷, planetary nebulae³, HII regions (Orion)¹², a Nova¹¹, Galactic cirrus¹⁴, a dark nebula⁷, Galaxies^8,6 and the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM)⁴. The band is confined between 540-950 nm, but the wavelength of peak emission varies from environment to environment, even within a given object. ... the wavelength of peak emission is longer and the efficiency of the luminescence is lower, the harder and denser the illuminating radiation field is¹³. These general characteristics of ERE constrain the photoluminescence (PL) band and efficiency for laboratory analysis of dust analog materials."<ref name=Smith99>{{ cite journal |author=T. L. Smith |author2=A. N. Witt |title=The Photoluminescence Efficiency of Extended Red Emission as a Constraint for Interstellar Dust |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=December |year=1999 |volume=31 |issue= |pages=1479 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AAS...195.7406S |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AAS...195.7406S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-02 }}</ref> In interstellar astronomy, [[w:visible spectrum|visible spectra]] can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as [[w:interstellar reddening|interstellar reddening]]<ref name=basicastronomy>See Binney and Merrifeld (1998), Carroll and Ostlie (1996), Kutner (2003) for applications in astronomy.</ref> — similarly [[w:Rayleigh scattering|Rayleigh scattering]] causes the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] reddening of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] seen in the [[w:sunrise|sunrise]] or [[w:sunset|sunset]] and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color. This phenomenon is distinct from red''shift''ing because the [[w:atomic spectral line|spectroscopic lines]] are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional [[w:extinction (astronomy)|dimming]] and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the [[w:Line-of-sight propagation|line-of-sight]]. "The Danish 1.54-metre telescope located at ESO’s La Silla Observatory in Chile has captured a striking image of NGC 6559, an object that showcases the anarchy that reigns when stars form inside an interstellar cloud. This region of sky includes glowing red clouds of mostly hydrogen gas, blue regions where starlight is being reflected from tiny particles of dust and also dark regions where the dust is thick and opaque."<ref name=eso1320a>{{ cite book |author=eso1320a |title=The star formation region NGC 6559 |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=La Silla Observatory, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1320a/ |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> "The blue section of the photo — representing a "reflection nebula" — shows light from the newly formed stars in the cosmic nursery being reflected in all directions by the particles of dust made of iron, carbon, silicon and other elements in the interstellar cloud."<ref name=Kramer>{{ cite book |author=Miriam Kramer |title=Dusty Star-Spawning Space Cloud Glows In Amazing Photo |publisher=Yahoo! News |location=La Silla, Chile |date=May 2, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/dusty-star-spawning-space-cloud-glows-amazing-photo-140759329.html;_ylt=AuvOfcnBLreDFxWBFfhiolaHgsgF;_ylu=X3oDMTRlMXAzbmRkBG1pdANUb3BTdG9yeSBTY2llbmNlU0YgU3BhY2VBc3Ryb25vbXlTU0YEcGtnAzkwY2RjMGI1LTYwNWUtM2I0YS1iOTNmLTJjNjU1N2ZmMzI2ZARwb3MDNwRzZWMDdG9wX3N0b3J5BHZlcgM0M2ZiYWM0MS1iMzMyLTExZTItYWJiYi1iNTZkODJmMTk2NzY-;_ylg=X3oDMTI1MG9icjRhBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDBHBzdGNhdANzY2llbmNlfHNwYWNlLWFzdHJvbm9teQRwdANzZWN0aW9ucw--;_ylv=3 |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> '''Massive astrophysical compact halo object''', or '''MACHO''', is a general name for any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter, which emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs would not emit any light of their own, they would be very hard to detect. MACHOs may sometimes be black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs or unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs. ==Superluminals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy}} "Because neutrinos are electrically neutral, conventional Cherenkov radiation of superluminal neutrinos does not arise or is otherwise weakened. However neutrinos do carry electroweak charge and ... may emit Cherenkov-like radiation via weak interactions when traveling at superluminal speeds."<ref name="Antonello">{{cite journal |author=M. Antonello |author2=P. Aprili |author3=B. Baibussinov |author4=M. Baldo Ceolin |author5=P. Benetti |author6=E. Calligarich |author7=N. Canci |author8=F. Carbonara |author9=S. Centro |author10=A. Cesana |author11=K. Cieslik |author12=D. B. Cline |author13=A. G. Cocco |author14=A. Dabrowska |author15=D. Dequal |author16=A. Dermenev |author17=R. Dolfini |author18=C. Farnese |author19=A. Fava |author20=A. Ferrari |author21=G. Fiorillo |author22=D. Gibin |author23=A. Gigli Berzolari |author24=S. Gninenko |author25=A. Guglielmi |author26=M. Haranczyk |author27=J. Holeczek |author28=A. Ivashkin |author29=J. Kisiel |author30=I. Kochanek |author31=J. Lagoda |author32=S. Mania |author33=G. Mannocchi |author34=A. Menegolli |author35=G. Meng |author36=C. Montanari |author37=S. Otwinowski |author38=L. Periale |author39=A. Piazzoli |author40=P. Picchi |author41=F. Pietropaolo |author42=P. Plonski |author43=A. Rappoldi |author44=G. L. Raselli |author45=M. Rossella |author46=C. Rubbia |author47=P. Sala |author48=E. Scantamburlo |author49=A. Scaramelli |author50=E. Segreto |author51=F. Sergiampietri |author52=D. Stefan |author53=J. Stepaniak |author54=R. Sulej |author55=M. Szarska |author56=M. Terrani |author57=F. Varanini |author58=S. Ventura |author59=C. Vignoli |author60=H. Wang |author61=X. Yang |author62=A. Zalewska |author63=K. Zaremba |author64=A. Cohen |title=A search for the analogue to Cherenkov radiation by high energy neutrinos at superluminal speeds in ICARUS |journal=Physics Letters B |month=May 15, |year=2012 |volume=711 |issue=3-4 |pages=270-5 |url=http://inspirehep.net/record/940150/files/arXiv:1110.3763.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref> "[S]uperluminal neutrinos may lose energy rapidly via the bremsstrahlung [Cherenkov radiation] of electron-positron pairs <math>(\nu \rightarrow \nu + e^- + e^+).</math>"<ref name="Cohen">{{cite journal |author=Andrew G. Glashow |author2=Sheldon L. Glashow |title=Pair Creation Constrains Superluminal Neutrino Propagation |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October |year=2011 |volume=107 |issue=18 |pages=181803 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvL.107r1803C |arxiv=1109.6562 |bibcode=2011PhRvL.107r1803C |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.181803 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-16 }}</ref> Assumption: "muon neutrinos with energies of order tens of GeV travel at superluminal velocity."<ref name="Cohen"/> For "all cases of superluminal propagation, certain otherwise forbidden processes are kinematically permitted, even in vacuum."<ref name="Cohen"/> Consider : <math> \nu_{\mu} \rightarrow \begin{bmatrix} {\nu_{\mu} + \gamma} & (a) \\ {\nu_{\mu} + \nu_e + \overline\nu_e } & (b) \\ {\nu_{\mu} + e^+ + e^-} & (c) \end{bmatrix} </math><ref name="Cohen"/> "These processes cause superluminal neutrinos to lose energy as they propagate and ... process (c) places a severe constraint upon potentially superluminal neutrino velocities. ... Process (c), pair bremsstrahlung, proceeds through the neutral current weak interaction."<ref name="Cohen"/> "Throughout the shower development, the electrons and positrons which travel faster than the speed of light in the air emit Cherenkov radiation."<ref name="Moralejo">{{cite journal |author=A. Moralejo for the MAGIC collaboration |title=The MAGIC telescope for gamma-ray astronomy above 30 GeV |journal=Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana |month= |year=2004 |volume=75 |issue= |pages=232-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MmSAI..75..232M |arxiv= |bibcode=2004MmSAI..75..232M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref> "High energy processes such as [[w:Compton scattering|Compton]], [[w:Bhabha scattering|Bhabha]], and [[w:Møller scattering|Moller scattering]], along with [[w:Positron annihilation|positron annihilation]] rapidly lead to a ~20% negative charge asymmetry in the electron-photon part of a cascade ... initiated by a ... 100 PeV neutrino"<ref name="Gorham">{{cite journal |author= P. W. Gorham |author2=S. W. Barwick |author3=J. J. Beatty |author4=D. Z.Besson |author5=W. R. Binns |author6=C. Chen |author7=P. Chen |author8=J. M. Clem |author9=A. Connolly |author10=P. F. Dowkontt |author11=M. A. DuVernois |author12=R. C. Field |author13=D. Goldstein |author14=A. Goodhue |author15=C. Hast |author16=C. L. Hebert |author17=S. Hoover |author18=M. H. Israel |author19=J. Kowalski |author20=J. G. Learned |author21=K. M. Liewer |author22=J. T. Link |author23=E. Lusczek |author24=S. Matsuno |author25=B. Mercurio |author26=C. Miki |author27=P. Miocinovic |author28=J. Nam |author29=C. J. Naudet |author30=J. Ng |author31=R. Nichol |author32=K. Palladino |author33=K. Reil |author34=A. Romero-Wolf |author35=M. Rosen |author36=L. Ruckman |author37=D. Saltzberg |author38=D. Seckel |author39=G. S. Varner |author40=D. Walz |author41=F. Wu |title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October 25, |year=2007 |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-ex/0611008.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-28 }}</ref>. ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams | author=Mike Gruntman | work=Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 1951, prior to the Space Age, the existence of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms (as high as 70 keV in energy) in space plasma was discovered."<ref name=Hsieh>{{ cite journal |author=K. C. Hsieh |author2=C. C. Curtis |title=Imaging Space Plasma With Energetic Neutral Atoms Without Ionization, In: ''Measurement Techniques in Space Plasmas: Fields'' |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location= |date= 1998 |editor= |volume=Geophysical Monograph 103 |issue= |pages=235-49 |url=http://www.agu.org/books/gm/v103/GM103p0235/GM103p0235.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "ENA imaging permits study of the ways in which our entire plasma environment -- including the magnetopause, ring current, plasmasphere, auroral zones, plasma sheet, and the ionosphere -- reacts to the changing conditions of the solar wind (Williams, 1990)."<ref name=Hsieh/> {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}} Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because hydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum. The "efforts to study the 21 cm hydrogen line from the northern and southern hemispheres in 1954 and 1959 [...] were combined and provided the first full-galaxy radio map of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way".<ref name=Reeve>{{ cite book |author=Whitham D. Reeve |title=Book Review |publisher=Whitham D. Reeve |location=Anchorage, Alaska USA |date= 1973 |url=http://www.reeve.com/Documents/Book%20Reviews/Reeve_Book%20Review-Evolution%20of%20Radio%20Astronomy.pdf |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen atom is about 0.11 nm in diameter. The "relative motion in a hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields leads to peculiar quasi-ionized states with an electron localized very far from a proton."<ref name=Dzyaloshinskii>{{ cite journal |author=I. Dzyaloshinskii |title=Effects of the finite proton mass in a hydrogen atom in crossed magnetic and electric fields: a state with a giant electric dipole moment |journal=Physics Letters A |date=May 1992 |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=69-71 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019291056W |arxiv= |bibcode=1992PhLA..165...69D |doi=10.1016/0375-9601(92)91056-W |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-13 }}</ref> The Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN) aboard SOHO "is the only remote sensing instrument on SOHO that does not look at the Sun. It watches the rest of the sky, measuring hydrogen that is ‘blowing’ into the Solar System from interstellar space. By studying the interaction between the solar wind and this hydrogen gas, SWAN determines how the solar wind is distributed. As such, it can be qualified as SOHO’s solar wind ’mapper’."<ref name=Quemerais>{{ cite book |author=E. Quémerais |title=SOHO Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, MD, USA |date=30 June 2003 |url=http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf |accessdate=2016-03-27 }}</ref> ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} As stars are defined as luminous balls of plasma, the Sun may not qualify as its photosphere has a plasma concentration of approximately 10^-4. The rest is composed of neutral atoms at about 5800 K. ==Mercury== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Mercury}} "Measurements by instruments on MESSENGER during the spacecraft's three Mercury flybys have led to discoveries of previously undetected neutral (Mg) and ionized (Ca+) species in Mercury's neutral and ionized exosphere and mapped these and previously known constituents (Na, Ca) on the anti-sunward side of the planet and over the poles. [...] Some ions and neutrals can be released directly from mineral surfaces by electron-stimulated desorption (ESD). Because cross sections of neutrals can be higher than photon-stimulated desorption (PSD) cross sections and because active electron precipitation on both the day and night side of Mercury can produce ESD of ions, at least part of the ionized exosphere is produced directly from surface materials by ESD."<ref name=Sprague>{{ cite journal |author=Sprague, Ann L. |author2=Vervack, R. J. |author3=Killen, R. M. |author4=McClintock, W. E. |author5=Starr, R. D. |author6=Schriver, D. |author7=Trávnícek, P. |author8=Orlando, T. M. |author9=McClain, J. L. |author10=Grieves, G. A. |author11=Boynton, W. V. |author12=Lawrence, D. J. |author13=MESSENGER Team |title=MESSENGER: Insights Regarding the Relationship between Mercury's Surface and Its Neutral and Ionized Exosphere |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |date= 2010 |volume=42 |issue=21.01 |pages=985 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010DPS....42.2101S |arxiv= |bibcode=2010DPS....42.2101S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2015-06-21 }}</ref> ==Earth== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}} "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date= 1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C. Roelof |author8=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date= 2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:LADEE spacecraft 2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is a computer generated model of the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE, at left) launched 07 September 2013 at 03:27 UT (06 September 11:27 EDT) on a Minotaur-V from Wallops Flight Facility. LADEE is designed to characterize the tenuous lunar atmosphere and dust environment from orbit. The scientific objectives of the mission are:(1) determine the global density, composition, and time variability of the fragile lunar atmosphere; and, (2) determine the size, charge, and spatial distribution of electrostatically transported dust grains and assess their likely effects on lunar exploration and lunar-based astronomy. Further objectives are to determine if the Apollo astronaut sightings of diffuse emission at 10s of km above the surface were Na glow or dust and document the dust impactor environment (size-frequency) to help guide design engineering for outpost and future robotic missions."<ref name=Elphic>{{ cite book |author=Richard C. Elphic |author2=Sarah Noble |author3=P. Butler Hine III |title=Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) |publisher=National Space Science Data Center, NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=September 7, 2013 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=2013-047A |accessdate=2014-01-07 }}</ref> "The orbiter will carry a Neutral Mass Spectrometer (NMS), an Ultraviolet/Visible Spectrometer (UVS), and a Lunar Dust Experiment (LDEX)."<ref name=Elphic/> "The NMS is a quadrupole mass spectrometer designed ot detect species up to 150 amu and will look for CH₄, S, O, Si, Kr, Xe, Fe, Al, Ti, Mg, OH, and H₂O. The UVS will detect Al, Ca, Fe, K, Li, Na, Si, T, Ba, Mg, H₂O, and O and will monitor the dust composition. The LDEX is an impact ionization dust detector designed to measure particles down to 0.3 microns at the spacecraft altitude. The LLCD is a test of a high data-rate optical (laser) communications system."<ref name=Elphic/> {{clear}} ==Mars== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Mars}} "The major atmospheric gases on Earth, Venus, and Mars were probably CO₂, H₂O, and N₂. [The ions from the upper parts of an atmosphere] are often suprathermal, and their interactions can produce suprathermal neutral atoms as well [The] ionopause [...] separates the bound ionosphere from an outer region in which the solar wind is diverted and flows around and past the planet. This region still contains some neutral gas, and if such atoms are ionized by solar photons or electron impact, they are swept up in the flow."<ref name=Hunten>{{ cite journal |author=Donald M. Hunten |title=Atmospheric Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Science |date=February 12, 1993 |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=915-20 |url=http://www.csun.edu/~hmc60533/CSUN_311/article_references/Sc_Feb93_AtmosEvolTerrestPlanets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-21 }}</ref> "There are strong reasons to believe that Mars once had much more atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O than it now has ... (Impacts, which may have eroded even larger amounts, operated at an earlier period.) ... The visible polar caps are thought to contain relatively small quantities. [...] More recently it has been proposed (35) that Mars may have had several episodes of high atmospheric pressure, warm conditions, and substantial precipitation of rain and snow, with a north polar ocean and southern glaciers."<ref name=Hunten/> ==Comets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Comets}} [[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The comet Hale–Bopp in the night sky. Credit: [http://salzgeber.at Philipp Salzgeber].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "celestial body consisting mainly of ice, dust and gas in a (usually very eccentric) orbit around the Sun and having a "tail" of melted matter blown away [back]<ref name=CometWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Stephen G. Brown|Stephen G. Brown]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=5 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> from it by the solar wind when [as]<ref name=CometWikt1/> it is close to [approaches]<ref name=CometWikt1/> the Sun"<ref name=CometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=25 February 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''comet'''. '''Def.''' a "comet which orbits the Sun and which returns to the innermost point of its orbit at known, regular intervals"<ref name=PeriodicCometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:WikiPedant|WikiPedant]] |title=periodic comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 November 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/periodic_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''periodic comet'''. '''Def.''' "any periodic comet with an orbital period of less than 200 years"<ref name=ShortPeriodCometWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:AryamanA|AryamanA]] |title=short-period comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 February 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/short-period_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''short-period comet'''. Most of the comets lay at the distant reaches of our system in a hypothesized Oort cloud. At the very edge of the solar system, these comets orbit in very large loops around the distant reaches of our solar system. The passing of nearby stars, or other objects can alter their orbit, sending them speeding towards the inner reaches of our solar system. These comets typically retain very large orbits such that they will not return (once seen in the inner solar system) for many thousands of years. Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10⁷ yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Long-period comets== [[Image:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391.svg|thumb|right|250px|Orbits of Comet Kohoutek (red) and the Earth (blue), illustrating the high orbital eccentricity of its orbit and its rapid motion when close to the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands of years.<ref name="SBP"/> An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System.<ref name=Elenin2011>{{cite book |url=http://spaceobs.org/en/2011/03/07/vliyanie-planet-gigantov-na-orbitu-komety-c2010-x1-elenin/ |title=Influence of giant planets on the orbit of comet C/2010 X1 |first=Leonid |last=Elenin |date=7 March 2011 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they also have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories<ref name="SBP">{{cite book |title=Small Bodies: Profile |url=http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/special/smbod.htm |publisher=NASA/JPL |date=29 October 2008 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change. Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3K9Fhu2q-8gC&pg=PA21 |page=21 |title=Astronomy and Astrophysics |isbn=978-0-7637-7786-9 |author1=Joardar |first1=S |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=A. B |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=R |date=2008 }}</ref> The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU ({{convert|1.1|pc|ly|abbr=off}}).<ref name=Chebotarev1964>{{cite journal |bibcode=1964SvA.....7..618C |title=Gravitational Spheres of the Major Planets, Moon and Sun |author1=Chebotarev |first1=G. A. |volume=7 |date=1964 |pages=618 |journal=Soviet Astronomy }}</ref> Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion<ref name="e1">{{cite book |title=JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: e > 1 |publisher=JPL |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb_query.cgi?obj_group=all;obj_kind=all;obj_numbered=all;OBJ_field=0;ORB_field=0;c1_group=ORB;c1_item=Bg;c1_op=%3E;c1_value=1;table_format=HTML;max_rows=100;format_option=comp;c_fields=AcBgBiBjBqChCk;.cgifields=format_option;.cgifields=ast_orbit_class;.cgifields=table_format;.cgifields=obj_kind;.cgifields=obj_group;.cgifields=obj_numbered;.cgifields=com_orbit_class&query=1&c_sort=BgD |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body curve fitting, best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System. As of 2018, 1I/ʻOumuamua is the only object with an eccentricity significantly greater than one that has been detected, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While ʻOumuamua showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet.<ref name="Oumuamua">{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/41015-interstellar-visitor-oumuamua-comet-after-all.html |title=Interstellar Visitor 'Oumuamua Is a Comet After All |work=Space.com |first=Chelsea |last=Gohd |date=27 June 2018 |access-date=27 September 2018 }}</ref> Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1&nbsp;million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known hyperbolic comet.<ref name="C/1980E1-jpl">{{cite book |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980E1 |title=C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |work=JPL Small-Body Database |type=1986-12-02 last obs |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). If such objects entered the Solar System, they would have positive specific orbital energy and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/185590 |title=On the nondetection of extrasolar comets |date=1989 |last1=McGlynn |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Chapman |first2=Robert D. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=346 |pages=L105 |bibcode=1989ApJ...346L.105M }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Halley== “During the Halley Monitoring Program at La Silla from Feb.17 to Apr.17,1986 ... In the light of the neutral CN-radical a continuous formation and expansion of [cyan] gas-shells could be observed.”<ref name=Schlosser>{{ cite book |author=Wolfhard Schlosser |author2=Rita Schulz |author3=Paul Koczet |title=The cyan shells of Comet P/Halley, In: ''Proceedings of the 20th ESLAB Symposium on the Exploration of Halley's Comet'' |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date= 1986 |volume=3 |editor= |pages=495-8 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1986ESASP.250c.495S |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> “The gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance from 1 km/s in early March to 0.8 km/s in April.”<ref name=Schlosser/> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in space "blown" into the [[interstellar medium]] (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[Milky Way|galaxy]]) by the solar wind. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. ==Interstellars== '''Def.''' between the stars or among the stars is called '''interstellar'''. '''Def.''' the dimming of light from the stars due to absorption and scattering from dust in the interstellar medium is called an '''interstellar extinction'''. '''Def.''' the nature of the surrounding interstellar environment is called the '''interstellar medium'''. The ISM consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm³ and is typically composed of roughly 70% [[w:hydrogen|hydrogen]] by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of [[w:helium|helium]]. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of [[w:Metallicity|heavier elements]] that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their [[w:main sequence|main sequence]] lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or ''[[w:nebula|diffuse nebulae]]'',<ref name=ODell>{{ cite book | first=C. R. | last=O'Dell | title=Nebula | work=World Book at NASA | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/nebula_worldbook.html | publisher=World Book, Inc. | accessdate=2009-05-18 }}</ref> where star formation takes place.<ref name=Prialnik>{{ cite book | author=Dina Prialnik | title=An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution | pages=195&ndash;212 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/An_Introduction_to_the_Theory_of_Stellar.html?id=TGyzlVbgkiMC | isbn=0-521-65065-8 }}</ref> ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ===H I regions=== An '''H I region''' is an [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date= 1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=November 1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=July 1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> "When detection of neutral hydrogen (HI) absorption of the pulsar signal is possible, an estimate, or at least a limit on the distance may be obtained using a Galactic rotation model".<ref name=Toscano>{{ cite journal |author=M. Toscano |author2=M. C. Britton |author3=R. N. Manchester |author4=M. Bailes |author5=J. S. Sandhu |author6=S. R. Kulkarni |author7=S. B. Anderson |title=Parallax of PSR J1744–1134 and the local interstellar medium |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 1, 1999 |volume=523 |issue=2 |pages=L171 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/523/2/L171 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/312276 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-19 }}</ref> "There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the [local insterstellar medium] LISM. This cavity surrounds the Sun and extends several hundred parsecs into quadrant 3 (Lucke 1978). The cavity appears as a region of low reddening extending 500 pc between ℓ = 210° and 255° and 1.5 kpc toward ℓ = 240°. Running counter to this is very heavy obscuration beyond ~100 pc in the first quadrant. Similarly, HI column densities derived from ultraviolet observations show a marked paucity in HI along LOSs directed towards ℓ = 230° (Frisch & York 1983; Paresce 1984). A similar morphology for this cavity is gleaned from NaI absorption measurements".<ref name=Toscano/> "To further characterize the distribution of electrons in the LISM it is useful to relate their location to other interstellar features, such as bubbles, superbubbles, and clouds of neutral gas. There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the LISM. [...] There are several features of interest within this cavity. One of these is the local hot bubble (LHB): a volume encompassing the Sun distinguished by low neutral gas densities and a 10⁶ K, soft X-ray emitting gas"<ref name=Toscano/> The "neutral hydrogen column density [has] a level of ''N''(HI)= 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻²"<ref name=Toscano/> "Distance estimates now exist for a few hundreds of pulsars, resulting from three basic techniques: neutral hydrogen absorption (in combination with the Galactic rotation curve), trigonometric parallax and from associations with objects of known distance".<ref name=Stepanov>{{ cite journal |author=R. Stepanov |author2=P. Frick |author3=A. Shukurov |author4=D. Sokoloff |title=Wavelet tomography of the Galactic magnetic field I. The method |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=August 2002 |volume=391 |issue=08 |pages=361-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...391..361S |arxiv=astro-ph/0112507 |bibcode=2002A&A...391..361S |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020552 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> ===Cold neutral mediums=== H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. ===Warm neutral mediums=== The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The "peak emissivity is enhanced by about 23% for the WIM [and only 11 % for the warm neutral medium (WNM)], although the peak frequency remains unchanged."<ref name=Ali>{{ cite journal |author=Yacine Ali-Haïmoud |title=Spinning dust radiation: a review of the theory |journal=Advances in Astronomy |date= 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=462697 |pages= |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1211.2748v1.pdf |arxiv=1211.2748 |bibcode=2013AdAst2013E...2A |doi=10.1155/2013/462697 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> ==Planetary nebulas== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Nebulas}} [[Image:M57 The Ring Nebula.JPG|thumb|right|250px|NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has captured the sharpest view yet of the most famous of all planetary nebulae: the Ring Nebula (M57). Credit: The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:M57-spectrum-ru.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a spectrum of Ring Nebula (M57) in range 450.0 — 672.0 nm. Credit: [[c:User:Minami Himemiya|Minami Himemiya]].{{tlx|free media}}]] In this October 1998 [Hubble Space Telescope] image, the telescope has looked down a barrel of gas cast off by a dying star thousands of years ago. This photo reveals elongated dark clumps of material embedded in the gas at the edge of the nebula; the dying central star floating in a blue haze of hot gas. The nebula is about a light-year in diameter and is located some 2000 light-years from Earth in the direction of the constellation Lyra. The colors are approximately true colors. The color image was assembled from three black-and-white photos taken through different color filters with the Hubble telescope's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. Blue isolates emission from very hot helium, which is located primarily close to the hot central star. Green represents ionized oxygen, which is located farther from the star. Red shows ionized nitrogen, which is radiated from the coolest gas, located farthest from the star. The gradations of color illustrate how the gas glows because it is bathed in ultraviolet radiation from the remnant central star, whose surface temperature is a white-hot 120,000 degrees Celsius (216,000 degrees Fahrenheit). In the spectrum at right several red astronomy emission lines are detected and recorded at normalized intensities (to the oxygen III line) from the [[w:Ring Nebula|Ring Nebula]]. In the red are the two forbidden lines of oxygen ([O I], 630.0 and 636.4 nm), two forbidden lines of nitrogen ([N II], 654.8 nm and [N II], 658.4 nm), the hydrogen line (Hα, 656.3 nm) and a forbidden line of sulfur ([S II], 671.7 nm). {{clear}} ==Molecular clouds== [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Giant molecular clouds== A vast assemblage of molecular gas with a mass of approximately 10³–10⁷ times the mass of the Sun<ref name="murray">See, e.g., Table 1 and the Appendix of {{ cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = N. | title = Star Formation Efficiencies and Lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds in the Milky Way | doi = 10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/133 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 729 | issue = 2 | pages = 133 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 1007.3270 |bibcode = 2011ApJ...729..133M }}</ref> is called a '''giant molecular cloud''' ('''GMC'''). GMCs are ≈15–600 [[w:light-year|light-year]]s in diameter (5–200 parsecs).<ref name="murray" /> Whereas the average density in the solar vicinity is one particle per cubic centimetre, the average density of a GMC is 10²–10³ particles per cubic centimetre. Although the Sun is much denser than a GMC, the volume of a GMC is so great that it contains much more mass than the Sun. The substructure of a GMC is a complex pattern of filaments, sheets, bubbles, and irregular clumps.<ref name="williams2000">{{ cite book | author = J. P. Williams |author2=L. Blitz |author3=C. F. McKee | title = The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF, In: ''Protostars and Planets IV'' | pages = 97 | publisher = Tucson: University of Arizona Press | date = 2000 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9902246 }}</ref> The densest parts of the filaments and clumps are called "molecular cores", whilst the densest molecular cores are, unsurprisingly, called "dense molecular cores" and have densities in excess of 10⁴–10⁶ particles per cubic centimeter. Observationally molecular cores are traced with carbon monoxide and dense cores are traced with ammonia. The concentration of [[w:Cosmic dust|dust]] within molecular cores is normally sufficient to block light from background stars so that they appear in silhouette as [[w:dark nebulae|dark nebulae]].<ref name="francesco2006">{{ cite book | author = Di Francesco, J. |display-authors=etal | title = An Observational Perspective of Low-Mass Dense Cores I: Internal Physical and Chemical Properties, In: ''Protostars and Planets V'' | date = 2006 |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602379 }}</ref> GMCs are so large that "local" ones can cover a significant fraction of a constellation; thus they are often referred to by the name of that constellation, e.g. the [[w:Orion Molecular Cloud Complex|Orion Molecular Cloud]] (OMC) or the [[w:Taurus Molecular Cloud|Taurus Molecular Cloud]] (TMC). These local GMCs are arrayed in a ring in the neighborhood of the Sun coinciding with the [[w:Gould Belt|Gould Belt]].<ref name=Grenier>{{ cite book | author = Grenier | title = The Gould Belt, star formation, and the local interstellar medium, In: ''The Young Universe'' | date = 2004 |url=http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409096 }}</ref> The most massive collection of molecular clouds in the galaxy forms an asymmetrical ring around the galactic center at a radius of 120 parsecs; the largest component of this ring is the [[w:Sagittarius B2|Sagittarius B2]] complex. The Sagittarius region is chemically rich and is often used as an exemplar by astronomers searching for new molecules in interstellar space.<ref name=Bonn>[http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/staff/epolehampton/thesis/node23.html Sagittarius B2 and its Line of Sight]</ref> ==Exocomets== Exocomets beyond the Solar System have also been detected and may be common in the [[Milky Way]].<ref name="berk">{{cite book |title=Exocomets may be as common as exoplanets |url=http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/01/07/exocomets-may-be-as-common-as-exoplanets/ |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=UC Berkeley |accessdate=30 July 2013 |last=Sanders |first=Robert }}</ref> The first exocomet system detected was around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star, in 1987.<ref name="Space-20130107">{{cite book |title='Exocomets' Common Across Milky Way Galaxy |url=http://www.space.com/19156-exocomets-alien-solar-systems.html |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=Space.com |accessdate=8 January 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916085824/http://www.space.com/19156-exocomets-alien-solar-systems.html |archivedate=16 September 2014 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Beust1990">{{cite journal |bibcode=1990A&A...236..202B |title=The Beta Pictoris circumstellar disk. X – Numerical simulations of infalling evaporating bodies |last1=Beust |first1=H. |last2=Lagrange-Henri |first2=A.M. |last3=Vidal-Madjar |first3=A. |last4=Ferlet |first4=R. |volume=236 |date=1990 |pages=202–216 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |issn=0004-6361 }}</ref> A total of 10 such exocomet systems have been identified as of 2013, using the absorption spectrum caused by the large clouds of gas emitted by comets when passing close to their star.<ref name="berk"/><ref name="Space-20130107" /> ==Supernova remnants== [[Image:NGC2080.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 2080, the Ghost Head Nebula. Credit: NASA, ESA and Mohammad Heydari-Malayeri (Observatoire de Paris, France).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:800crab.png|thumb|right|250px|The Crab Nebula is a remnant of an exploded star. This image shows the Crab Nebula in various energy bands, including a hard X-ray image from the HEFT data taken during its 2005 observation run. Each image is 6′ wide. Credit: CM Hubert Chen, Fiona A. Harrison, Principal Investigator, Caltech Charles J. Hailey, Columbia Principal, Columbia, Finn E. Christensen, DSRI Principal, DSRI, William W. Craig, Optics Scientist, LLNL, Stephen M. Schindler, Project Manager, Caltech.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The [[w:supernova|supernova]] SN1987A in the [[w:Large Magellanic Cloud|Large Magellanic Cloud]] (LMC) was discovered on February 23, 1987, and its progenitor is a blue [[w:supergiant|supergiant]] (Sk -69 202) with luminosity of 2-5 x 10³⁸ erg/s.<ref name=Figueiredo/> The 847 keV and 1238 keV gamma-ray lines from ⁵⁶Co decay have been detected.<ref name=Figueiredo>{{ cite journal |author=Figueiredo N |author2=Villela T |author3=Jayanthi UB |author4=Wuensche CA |author5=Neri JACF |author6=Cesta RC |title=Gamma-ray observations of SN1987A |journal=Rev Mex Astron Astrofis. |month= |year=1990 |volume=21 |pages=459–62 |bibcode=1990RMxAA..21..459F }}</ref> At right is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Ghost Head Nebula. "This nebula is one of a chain of star-forming regions lying south of the 30 Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The red and blue light comes from regions of hydrogen gas heated by nearby stars. The green light comes from glowing oxygen, illuminated by the energy of a stellar wind. The white center shows a core of hot, massive stars."<ref name=STScI200134>{{ cite book |author=News Release Number: STScI-2001-34 |title=Wallpaper: The Ghost-Head Nebula (NGC 2080) |publisher=NASA and the Hubble Space Telescope |location= |date=December 19, 2001 |url=http://hubblesite.org/gallery/wallpaper/pr2001034a/ |accessdate=2012-07-21 }}</ref> On July 21, 1964, the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]] supernova remnant was discovered to be a hard X-ray (15 – 60 keV) source by a scintillation counter flown on a balloon launched from [[w:Palestine, Texas|Palestine, Texas]], USA. This was likely the first balloon-based detection of X-rays from a discrete cosmic X-ray source.<ref name=headates1>{{ cite book |author=S. A. Drake |title=A Brief History of High-Energy Astronomy: 1960–1964 |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/headates/1960.html }}</ref> "The high-energy focusing telescope (HEFT) is a balloon-borne experiment to image astrophysical sources in the hard X-ray (20–100 keV) band.<ref name=Harrison>{{ cite journal |author=F. A. Harrison |author2=Steven Boggs |author3=Aleksey E. Bolotnikov |author4=Finn E. Christensen |author5=Walter R. Cook III |author6=William W. Craig |author7=Charles J. Hailey |author8=Mario A. Jimenez-Garate |author9=Peter H. Mao |title=Development of the High-Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon experiment |year=2000 |journal=Proc SPIE |volume=4012 |page=693 |url=proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=900102 |doi=10.1117/12.391608 |series=X-Ray Optics, Instruments, and Missions III |editor=Joachim E. Truemper, Bernd Aschenbach }}</ref> Its maiden flight took place in May 2005 from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, USA. The angular resolution of HEFT is ~1.5'. Rather than using a grazing-angle [[w:X-ray telescope|X-ray telescope]], HEFT makes use of a novel [[w:tungsten|tungsten]]-silicon multilayer coatings to extend the reflectivity of nested grazing-incidence mirrors beyond 10 keV. HEFT has an energy resolution of 1.0 keV [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] at 60 keV. HEFT was launched for a 25-hour balloon flight in May 2005. The instrument performed within specification and observed [[w:SN 1054|Tau X-1]], the Crab Nebula."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Wolf-Rayet stars== {{main|Stars/Wolf-Rayets}} "At the low density given by the spherically symmetric wind model (see Table 1), the dominant species in the gas are atomic ions while as the gas number density increases, the recombination of ions takes place and the gas composition is governed by neutral-phase chemistry, that is, the dominant species are neutral atoms and molecules although electrons and some ions are still present in relatively large amounts (for example, C⁺, O⁺ and He⁺)."<ref name= Cherchneff >{{ cite journal |author=I. Cherchneff |author2=Y.H. Le Teuff |author3=P.M. Williams |author4=A.G.G.M. Tielens |title=Dust formation in carbon-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. I. Chemistry of small carbon clusters and silicon species |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=May 2000 |volume=357 |issue=5 |pages=572-80 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2000A%26A...357..572C&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=2000A&A...357..572C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-05 }}</ref> ==Technology== {{main|Technology}} [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).{{tlx|free media}}]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> “The [[w:Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite|Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite]] (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: [[w:water|water]] (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic [[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]] (¹³CO), molecular [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] (O₂), and neutral [[w:carbon|carbon]] (C I).”<ref name=Submillimetreastronomy>{{ cite journal |title=Submillimetre astronomy |journal=Wikipedia |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=June 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy |accessdate=2012-06-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacecraft== [[Image:Hubble-ecliptic-plane.png|right|thumb|250px|Clouds of material are along the paths of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft through interstellar space. Credit: NASA, ESA, and Z. Levay (STScI).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and interstellar medium. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> "It's important for us to be aware of what kinds of objects are present beyond our solar system, since we are now beginning to think about potential interstellar space missions, such as Breakthrough Starshot."<ref name=Zachary>{{ cite book |author=Julia Zachary |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> At "least two interstellar clouds [have been discovered] along Voyager 2's path, and one or two interstellar clouds along Voyager 1's path. They were also able to measure the density of electrons in the clouds along Voyager 2's path, and found that one had a greater electron density than the other."<ref name=Choi2017>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=How New Hubble Telescope Views Could Aid Interstellar Travel |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=9 January 2017 |url=http://www.space.com/35263-interstellar-space-hubble-observations-voyager.html |accessdate=2017-01-11 }}</ref> "We think the difference in electron density perhaps indicates a difference in composition of overall density of the clouds."<ref name=Zachary/> A "broad range of elements [were detected]] in the interstellar medium, such as electrically charged ions of magnesium, iron, carbon and manganese [and] neutrally charged oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen."<ref name=Choi2017/> {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics|Electromagnetic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules|Molecule astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Satellites|Radiation astronomy satellites]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomics astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons|Tauon astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Neutrals astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] a2duqv9l7m4gyddwd0nduwuywmcy8wq 0 166986 2417189 2399151 2022-08-22T04:21:37Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Issue27muons1 l.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image obtained from muon radiography of Japan's Asama volcano. Credit: H T M Tanaka.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] '''Subatomic astronomy''' is an observational astronomy using one or more subatomic particles or radiation. A variety of subatomic particle astronomies have already been developed. These are highlighted below. Potential particle astronomies are examined for their likelihood of becoming a successful astronomy. {{clear}} ==Theoretical subatomic astronomy== The bare nuclei of atoms may qualify as a form of subatomic astronomy. '''Def.''' "particles that are constituents of the atom, or are smaller than an atom; such as proton, neutron, electron, etc"<ref name=SubatomicWikt>{{ cite book |title=subatomic |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subatomic |accessdate=2015-02-13 }}</ref> or "any length or mass that is smaller in scale than a the diameter of a hydrogen atom"<ref name=SubatomicWikt/> are called '''subatomics''', or '''subatomic''', respectively. As a bare uranium nucleus is smaller than a hydrogen atom in diameter, but much larger in mass, it qualifies as one of the subatomics. Here, subatomic is used to mean smaller than the diameter of a hydrogen atom. A neutron star is one nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud. But, it is much larger than a hydrogen atom in diameter. ==Galactic cosmic rays== [[Image:NeutronMonitor.GIF|right|thumb|400px|Cosmic Ray Intensity (blue) and Sunspot Number (green) is shown from 1951 to 2006 Credit: University of New Hampshire.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "effect of time-variations in galactic cosmic rays on the rate of production of neutrons in the atmosphere [was studied using] a series of balloon and airplane observations of the [fast neutron] flux and spectrum of 1-10 MeV neutrons, in flights at high geomagnetic latitude, during [quiet times as well as during Forbush decreases, which are rapid decreases in the observed galactic cosmic rays following a coronal mass ejection (CME), and solar particle events for] the period of increasing solar modulation, 1965-1969. It also included latitude surveys in 1964-1965 and in 1968."<ref name=Merker>{{ cite book |author=M. Merker |author2=E. S. Light |author3=R. B. Mendell |author4=S. A. Korff |title=The flux of fast neutrons in the atmosphere. 1. The effect of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays, In: ''Solar Cosmic Rays, Modulation of Galactic Radiation, Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Effects'' |volume=2 |publisher=International Conference on Cosmic Rays |location=Budapest |date=1970 |editor=A. Somogyi |pages=739 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ICRC....2..739M |arxiv= |bibcode=1970ICRC....2..739M |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-08-15 }}</ref> In the image on the right for Forbush decreases, data include GOES-15 X-rays, energetic particles, and magnetometer. Cosmic Rays from the Moscow station show a Forbush Decrease. The graph on the right shows an inverse correlation between sunspot numbers (solar activity) and neutron production from galactic cosmic rays. '''Notation''': let the symbol '''Z''' stand for '''atomic number'''. ::: let the symbol '''PeV''' stand for '''10¹⁵ electron volts'''. "The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 − 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle flux consists of these elements."<ref name=Horandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R Hörandel |author2=N N Kalmykov |author3=A V Timokhin |title=The end of the galactic cosmic-ray energy spectrum-a phenomenological view |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |month=April |year=2006 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=132-41 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/47/1/017 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/47/1/017 |pmid= |pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0508015 |accessdate=2011-12-31 }}</ref> In the graph on the right, the black line is cosmic-ray data and the red line is temperature. ''Ulysses'' data is included. {{clear}} ==Ultra-high energy cosmic rays== The '''Oh-My-God particle''' was observed on the evening of 15 October 1991 over [[w:Dugway Proving Ground|Dugway Proving Ground]], Utah. Its observation was a shock to astrophysicists, who estimated its energy to be approximately {{val|3|e=20|u=eV}}<ref name="Baez">[http://www.desy.de/user/projects/Physics/General/open_questions.html Open Questions in Physics.] German Electron-Synchrotron. A Research Centre of the Helmholtz Association. Updated March 2006 by JCB. Original by John Baez.</ref>(50&nbsp;joules)&mdash;in other words, a subatomic particle with kinetic energy equal to that of a baseball (142&nbsp;g or 5&nbsp;oz) traveling at 100&nbsp;km/h (60&nbsp;mph). It was most probably a proton with a speed very close to the speed of light (approximately 0.9999999999999999999999951c), so close that in a year-long race between light and the cosmic ray, the ray would fall behind only 46 nanometers (5 x 10^-24 light-years), or 0.15 femtoseconds (1.5 x 10^-16 s).<ref name="Walker">{{cite book | author=J. Walker | date=January 4, 1994 | title=The Oh-My-God Particle | url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/OhMyGodParticle/ | publisher=Fourmilab |accessdate= }}</ref> “The energy spectrum of cosmic rays extends to ~10²⁰ eV (and smoothly to 10¹⁹).”<ref name="Hillas">{{cite journal |author=A. M. Hillas |title=The Origin of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1984 |volume=22 |issue= |pages=425-44 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1984ARA&A..22..425H |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002233 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }}</ref> ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}} [[Image:Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy.svg|thumb|right|250px|The flux of cosmic-ray particles is a function of their energy. Credit: Sven Lafebre, after Swordy.<ref name=Swordy>{{ cite journal |author=S. Swordy |title=The energy spectra and anisotropies of cosmic rays |month= |year=2001 |journal=Space Science Reviews |issue= |volume=99 |pages=85–94 }}</ref>{{tlx|free media}}]] At right is an image indicating the range of cosmic-ray energies. The flux for the lowest energies (yellow zone) is mainly attributed to solar cosmic rays, intermediate energies (blue) to galactic cosmic rays, and highest energies (purple) to extragalactic cosmic rays.<ref name=Swordy/> About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei or alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. In cosmic-ray astronomy, cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. There is "a correlation between the arrival directions of cosmic rays with energy above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts and the positions of active galactic nuclei (AGN) lying within ~75 megaparsecs."<ref name="Abraham">{{cite journal |author=J Abraham |author2=P Abreu |author3=M Aglietta |author4=C Aguirre |author5=D Allard |author6=The Pierre Auger Collaboration |title=Correlation of the highest-energy cosmic rays with nearby extragalactic objects |journal=Science |month=November 9, |year=2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=938-43 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/318/5852/938.full |arxiv=0711.2256 |bibcode=2007Sci...318..938T |doi=10.1126/science.1151124 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Solar energetic particles== [[Image:Mean Fe charge states.png|right|thumb|300px|Mean Fe charge states as a function of energy for the same event (in red) with overall mean charge state and test result for null-hypothesis (i.e. random distribution around mean). Credit: Zhangbo Guo, Eberhard Moebius, and Mark Popecki.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Impulsive solar energetic particle events.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Charge state of Fe is a function of energy for an impulsive event in September 2000 in comparison with that for a CME-related event in June 1999 and the charge state of adjacent solar wind. Credit: Berndt Klecker and Eberhard Moebius.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Earlier observations with ACE/SEPICA, SAMPEX/LICA, and SOHO/STOF have shown that highly ionized Fe in solar energetic particle (SEP) events (mean Q_Fe > 14) is usually coupled with an increase of the mean charge state with energy in the range from 0.01 to 1 MeV/amu [...]. At the lowest energies the mean charge state of Fe is typically found to be well below Q_Fe = 14. Recently, this has been demonstrated for all impulsive SEP events that were observed with SEPICA (DiFabio et al., ApJ, Nov 2008), indicating that the greater degree of ionization at higher energies was established by electron stripping in the low corona (e.g. Kartavykh et al., ApJ, 671, 947, 2007). However, observations of solar wind charge states have shown a widespread presence of Q_Fe ≥ 16, associated with a hot plasma environment in solar wind from active regions and in interplanetary [Coronal Mass Ejections] CMEs (e.g. Lepri et al., JGR, 106, 29231, 2001; ACE News #52)."<ref name=Guo>{{ cite book |author=Zhangbo Guo |author2=Eberhard Moebius |author3=Mark Popecki |title=Highly-Ionized Fe Found at Low Energies in Solar Energetic Particles: Acceleration of Hot Material? |publisher=Caltech |location= |date=28 October 2008 |url=http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/ACENews/ACENews116.html |accessdate=2017-08-06 }}</ref> "Mean Fe charge states [in the figure on the right are] a function of energy for the same event (in red) with overall mean charge state and test result for null-hypothesis (i.e. random distribution around mean). Shown for comparison is an impulsive [Solar Energetic Particle] SEP event from June 2000 (in blue)."<ref name=Guo/> "Impulsive solar energetic particle events are well known for their dramatic over-abundances in ³He and heavy ions. ACE observations have extended these composition peculiarities to overabundances in the heavy isotopes of Ne and Mg."<ref name=Klecker>{{ cite book |author=Berndt Klecker |author2=Eberhard Moebius |title=Surprisingly Low and Energy-Dependent Charge States in Impulsive Solar Energetic Particle Events |publisher=Caltech |location= |date=27 April 2004 |url=http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/ACENews/ACENews80.html |accessdate=2017-08-06 }}</ref> "The first charge-state measurements of impulsive events, averaged over all such events observed during one year with ISEE ULEZEQ, suggested that impulsive events feature rather high charge states with Q ≈ 20 for Fe and all elements up to Mg essentially fully stripped. These high charge states appeared to be well separated from the group of large, CME-related events with Q ≈ 14 for Fe."<ref name=Klecker/> "With ACE SEPICA we have found that solar energetic particle events generally show a wide variety of mean charge states for Fe ranging from Q ≈ 10 continuously up to Q ≈ 20. Also, element abundance ratios appear to correlate with the ionic charge states (see ACE News #33). These two results seemed to present a puzzle, as the highest overabundances of heavy ions were observed for events with essentially fully-ionized ions up to Mg, which would not lend itself to an M/Q-based explanation for the observed fractionation. Therefore, it was suggested that fractionation and acceleration occur among lower charge state ions, with the final high charge states attained through stripping. This idea appears to be corroborated now by the observation of a very strong energy dependence of the iron charge states from 0.2 to 0.5 MeV/nuc with ACE SEPICA, a pattern that is even more pronounced when extended to ~0.01 MeV/nuc with the SOHO CELIAS STOF instrument."<ref name=Klecker/> The "charge state of Fe [in the second figure down on the right is] a function of energy for an impulsive event in September 2000 in comparison with that for a CME-related event in June 1999 and the charge state of adjacent solar wind. Whereas the CME-related event shows Q ≈ 10 over the entire energy range, commensurate with that of the solar wind, in the impulsive event the charge state increases from Q ≈ 12 at low energies up to Q ≈ 17 at 0.5 MeV/nuc. This observation suggests that the original source material which is accelerated in these events has a much lower temperature than previously thought and is only partially ionized, thereby lending itself to M/Q fractionation. The sharp increase of the charge state with energy can be explained by electron stripping that increases with energy. This also implies that the acceleration in impulsive events occurs in the lower corona."<ref name=Klecker/> {{clear}} ==Ultra-heavy element nuclei== [[Image:Absolute flux of cosmic–ray elements at 1 TeV-nucleus versus nuclear charge.png|right|thumb|300px|Absolute flux Φ⁰_Z of cosmic–ray elements at ''E''₀ = 1 TeV/nucleus is plotted versus nuclear charge. Credit: Jörg R. Hörandel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The iron group and the ultra–heavy elements are more pronounced in cosmic rays as compared to the solar system. Especially the r–process elements beyond xenon (Z=54) are enhanced, partly due to spallation products of the platinum and lead nuclei (Z=78, 82). For the latter direct measurements at low energies around 1 GeV/n yield about a factor two more abundance as compared to the solar system and a factor of four for the actinides thorium and uranium (Z=90, 92) [66]. This has been attributed to the hypothesis that cosmic rays are accelerated out of supernova ejecta–enriched matter [67]."<ref name=Hoerandel/> {{clear}} ==Heavier element nuclei== [[Image:Distribution of GCR particles.png|right|thumb|300px|The distribution of galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) particles is shown in atomic number (charge) and energy. Credit: W. Schimmerling, J. W. Wilson, F. Cucinotta, and M-H Y. Kim.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "These charged particles are hydrogen nuclei (protons), helium nuclei (α particles), and the nuclei of heavier elements such as iron and nickel."<ref name=Depois>{{ cite journal |author=Jean-François Bottollier-Depois |author2=Quang Chau |author3=Patrick Bouisset |author4=Gilles Kerlau |author5=Luc Plawinski |author6=Laurence Lebaron-Jacobs |title=Assessing exposure to cosmic radiation during long-haul flights |journal=Radiation Research |month=May |year=2000 |volume=153 |issue=5 |pages=526-532 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laurence_Lebaron-Jacobs/publication/12527641_Assessing_Exposure_to_Cosmic_Radiation_during_Long-haul_Flights/links/54db0f680cf261ce15ceff67/Assessing-Exposure-to-Cosmic-Radiation-during-Long-haul-Flights.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-04 }}</ref> "Primary cosmic radiation mainly consists of the nuclei of atoms which have lost their electrons due to their extremely high velocity; these charged particles are hydrogen nuclei (protons), helium nuclei (alpha particles) and the nuclei of heavier elements such as iron and nickel; there are also some electrons (1%) and positrons (1‰)."<ref name=Depois/> "The relative abundances of GCR particles (9) are shown in [the figure on the right] (a), and typical energy spectra (10), are shown in [...] (b). The GCR particles of interest for radiation protection of crews engaged in space exploration range from protons (nuclei of hydrogen) to nuclei of iron; the abundances of heavier elements are orders of magnitude lower."<ref name=Schimmerling>{{ cite book |author=W. Schimmerling |author2=J. W. Wilson |author3=F. Cucinotta |author4=M-H Y. Kim |title=Requirements for Simulating Space Radiation With Particle Accelerators |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC, United States |date=1 January 2004 |editor= |pages=2 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20040100694 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> Heavier element nuclei consist primarily of Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni. "The two groups of elements Li, Be, B and Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn are many orders of magnitude more abundant in the cosmic radiation than in solar system material."<ref name="Gaisser">{{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Irons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Alloys}} [[Image:Iron meteorite, Barringer Crater, Arizona, USA, about 50,000 years old - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC00085.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Iron meteorite is from the Barringer Crater, Arizona, USA, about 50,000 years old - Royal Ontario Museum. Credit: [[c:user:Daderot|Daderot]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "Iron from outside the solar system has sprinkled down on Antarctica in recent years. Measurements of half a ton of snow turned up interstellar iron deposited within the last two decades [...]. That iron comes from the explosions of massive stars, or supernovas."<ref name=Conover>{{ cite book |author=Emily Conover |title=Exploding stars scattered traces of iron over Antarctic snow |publisher=Science News |location= |date=9 August 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/exploding-stars-scattered-traces-iron-over-antarctic-snow?utm_source=Editors_Picks&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=editorspicks081119 |accessdate=12 August 2019 }}</ref> "Within the snow, [...] 10 atoms of iron-60, a radioactive variety, or isotope, of iron with a total of 60 protons and neutrons in its nucleus [were isolated]. Previous studies have found iron-60, an isotope spewed from supernovas, in ocean sediments and on the moon [...]. But those depositions were a few million years old, and are thought to be the result of ancient nearby explosions blasting waves of debris through space."<ref name=Conover/> The "snow [was] transported [...] — still frozen thanks to careful packing and shipping — back to [the] lab. [It was] melted, filtered and evaporated [...], and [...] a technique called accelerator mass spectrometry [was used] on the remnants to identify iron-60."<ref name=Conover/> High-energy "particles called cosmic rays can create the isotope when they slam into dust in the solar system. To eliminate that explanation, [...] the amount of iron-60 in the snow [was compared] with another isotope produced by cosmic rays, manganese-53. The ratio of iron-60 to manganese-53 found was much higher than expected if both isotopes were produced by cosmic rays. The iron-60 might also have been the result of past nuclear weapons tests, but similar logic ruled out that option."<ref name=Conover/> "By the measurement of the cosmogenically produced radionuclide ⁵³Mn, an atomic ratio of ⁶⁰Fe/⁵³Mn = 0.017 was found, significantly above cosmogenic production."<ref name=Koll>{{ cite journal |author=Dominik Koll |author2=Gunther Korschinek |author3=Thomas Faestermann |author4=J. M. Gómez-Guzmán |author5=Sepp Kipfstuhl |author6=Silke Merchel |author7=Jan M. Welch |title=Interstellar ⁶⁰Fe in Antarctica |journal=Physical Review Letters |date=12 August 2019 |volume=123 |issue=7-16 |pages=072701 |url=https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.072701 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.072701 |pmid= |accessdate=12 August 2019 }}</ref> "This gives us a clear indication that this stuff comes from outside of the solar system."<ref name=Korschinek>{{ cite book |author=Gunther Korschinek |title=Exploding stars scattered traces of iron over Antarctic snow |publisher=Science News |location= |date=9 August 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/exploding-stars-scattered-traces-iron-over-antarctic-snow?utm_source=Editors_Picks&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=editorspicks081119 |accessdate=12 August 2019 }}</ref> "The solar system resides within a low-density pocket of gas, known as the local bubble. It’s thought that exploding supernovas created shock waves that blasted out that bubble."<ref name=Conover/> "The detection of recently deposited iron-60 suggests that the Local Interstellar Cloud may also have been sculpted by supernovas."<ref name=Korschinek/> "This is actually quite a profound thing. It’s telling us about the recent history of our whole neighborhood in the galaxy and about the lives and deaths of massive stars."<ref name=Fields>{{ cite book |author=Brian Fields |title=Exploding stars scattered traces of iron over Antarctic snow |publisher=Science News |location= |date=9 August 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/exploding-stars-scattered-traces-iron-over-antarctic-snow?utm_source=Editors_Picks&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=editorspicks081119 |accessdate=12 August 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Aluminums== {{main|Chemicals/Aluminums}} "The dominant reactions for making ²⁶Al by [cosmic-ray] proton and α bombardment of refractory rocks in impulsive flares are ²⁷Al(p, pn)²⁶Al (β=0.92), ²⁶Mg(p, n)²⁶Al (β=1.0), ²⁴Mg(α, pn)²⁶Al (β=2.5 and y_CR = 0.1), ²⁸Si(p, 2pn)²⁶Al (β=0.10), and ²⁸Si(α, αpn)²⁶Al (β=0.41)."<ref name="Lee1998">{{cite journal |author=Typhoon Lee |author2=Frank H. Shu |author3=Hsien Shang |author4=Alfred E. Glassgold |author5=K. E. Rehm |title=Protostellar cosmic rays and extinct radioactivities in meteorites |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=October 20, |year=1998 |volume=506 |issue=2 |pages=898-912 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/506/2/898 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/306284 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Neon nuclei== [[Image:ACE-CRIS measurements of neon isotope ratios.png|right|thumb|300px|The ACE-CRIS measurements of the ratios ²²Ne/²⁰Ne and ²¹Ne/²⁰Ne are plotted as a function of energy. Credit: W.R. Binns, M.E. Wiedenbeck, M. Arnould, A.C. Cummings, J.S. George, S. Goriely, M.H. Israel, R.A. Leske, R.A. Mewaldt, G. Meynet, L. M. Scott, E.C. Stone, and T.T. von Rosenvinge.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] On the right, "the ACE-CRIS measurements of the ratios ²²Ne/²⁰Ne and ²¹Ne/²⁰Ne are plotted as a function of energy. Abundances measured by other experiments (Wiedenbeck & Greiner 1981 [ISEE-3]; Lukasiak et al. 1994 [Voyager]; Connell & Simpson 1997 [Ulysses]; DuVernois et al. 1996 [CRRES]) are plotted as open symbols and the energy intervals for their measurements are shown as horizontal bars at the bottom of the figure."<ref name=Binns>{{ cite journal |author=W.R. Binns |author2=M.E. Wiedenbeck |author3=M. Arnould |author4=A.C. Cummings |author5=J.S. George |author6=S. Goriely |author7=M.H. Israel |author8=R.A. Leske |author9=R.A. Mewaldt |author10=G. Meynet |author11=L. M. Scott |author12=E.C. Stone |author13=T.T. von Rosenvinge. |title=Cosmic-ray neon, Wolf-Rayet stars, and the superbubble origin of galactic cosmic rays |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=2005 |volume=634 |issue=1 |pages=351 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0508398 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/496959 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-06 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Oxygen nuclei== [[Image:ACE O Fluence.png|thumb|right|300px|Oxygen fluences were observed by the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE). Credit: Richard Mewaldt, Caltech.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The fluences of oxygens in the galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) are plotted on the graph at right using data from the Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer (CRIS) aboard the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE). The fluences of solar 'cosmic rays' add to the GCRs at lower energy. {{clear}} ==Nitrogen nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens}} "For cosmic rays the low abundance ”valleys” in the solar system composition around Z=4, 21, 46, and 70 are not present. This is usually believed to be the result of spallation of heavier nuclei during their propagation through the galaxy. Hydrogen, helium, and the CNO–group are suppressed in cosmic rays. This has been explained by the high first ionization potential of these atoms [63] or by the high volatility of these elements which do not condense on interstellar grains [64]. Which property is the right descriptor of cosmic–ray abundances has proved elusive, however, the volatility seems to become the more accepted solution [65]."<ref name=Hoerandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R. Hoerandel |title=On the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=May |year=2003 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=193-220 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0210453 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00198-6 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-07 }}</ref> ==Carbon nuclei== These "are nevertheless present in the cosmic radiation as spallation products of the abundant nuclei of carbon and oxygen (Li,Be,B) and of iron (Sc,Ti,V,Cr,Mn)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Boron nuclei== [[Image:Absolute boron and carbon fluxes.png|right|thumb|300px|Absolute boron and carbon fluxes multiplied by E^2.7 as measured by PAMELA. Credit: O. Adriani, G. C. Barbarino, G. A. Bazilevskaya, R. Bellotti, M. Boezio, E. A. Bogomolov, M. Bongi, V. Bonvicini, S. Bottai, A. Bruno, F. Cafagna, D. Campana, R. Carbone, P. Carlson, M. Casolino, G. Castellini, I. A. Danilchenko, C. De Donato1, C. De Santis, N. De Simone, V. Di Felice, V. Formato, A. M. Galper, A. V. Karelin, S. V. Koldashov, S. Koldobskiy, S. Y. Krutkov, A. N. Kvashnin, A. Leonov, V. Malakhov, L. Marcelli, M. Martucci, A. G. Mayorov, W. Menn, M. Mergé, V. V. Mikhailov, E. Mocchiutti, A. Monaco, N. Mori, R. Munini, G. Osteria, F. Palma, B. Panico, P. Papini, M. Pearce, P. Picozza, C. Pizzolotto, M. Ricci, S. B. Ricciarini, L. Rossetto, R. Sarkar, V. Scotti, M. Simon, R. Sparvoli, P. Spillantini, Y. I. Stozhkov, A. Vacchi, E. Vannuccini, G. I. Vasilyev, S. A. Voronov, Y. T. Yurkin, G. Zampa, N. Zampa, and V. G. Zverev.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "In cosmic rays, both the isotopes ¹⁰B and ¹¹B are present in comparable quantities."<ref name=Adriani>{{ cite journal |author=O. Adriani |author2=G. C. Barbarino |author3=G. A. Bazilevskaya |author4=R. Bellotti |author5=M. Boezio |author6=E. A. Bogomolov |author7=M. Bongi |author8=V. Bonvicini |author9=S. Bottai |author10=A. Bruno |author11=F. Cafagna |author12=D. Campana |author13=R. Carbone |author14=P. Carlson |author15=M. Casolino |author16=G. Castellini |author17=I. A. Danilchenko |author18=C. De Donato1 |author19=C. De Santis |author20=N. De Simone |author21=V. Di Felice |author22=V. Formato |author23=A. M. Galper |author24=A. V. Karelin |author25=S. V. Koldashov |author26=S. Koldobskiy |author27=S. Y. Krutkov |author28=A. N. Kvashnin |author29=A. Leonov |author30=V. Malakhov |author31=L. Marcelli |author32=M. Martucci |author33=A. G. Mayorov |author34=W. Menn |author35=M. Mergé |author36=V. V. Mikhailov |author37=E. Mocchiutti |author38=A. Monaco |author39=N. Mori |author40=R. Munini |author41=G. Osteria |author42=F. Palma |author43=B. Panico |author44=P. Papini |author45=M. Pearce |author46=P. Picozza |author47=C. Pizzolotto |author48=M. Ricci |author49=S. B. Ricciarini |author50=L. Rossetto |author51=R. Sarkar |author52=V. Scotti |author53=M. Simon |author54=R. Sparvoli |author55=P. Spillantini |author56=Y. I. Stozhkov |author57=A. Vacchi |author58=E. Vannuccini |author59=G. I. Vasilyev |author60=S. A. Voronov |author61=Y. T. Yurkin |author62=G. Zampa |author63=N. Zampa |author64=V. G. Zverev |title=Measurement of boron and carbon fluxes in cosmic rays with the PAMELA experiment |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=31 July |year=2014 |volume=791 |issue=2 |pages=93 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/791/2/93/pdf |arxiv=1407.1657 |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/791/2/93 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-07 }}</ref> In the figure on the right are absolute boron and carbon fluxes multiplied by E^2.7 as measured by PAMELA, together with results from other experiments (AMS02 Oliva et al. (2013), CREAM Ahn et al. (2008), TRACER Obermeier et al. (2011), ATIC-2 Panov et al. (2007), HEAO Engelmann et al. (1990), AMS01 Aguilar et al. (2010), CRN Swordy et al. (1990)) and a theoretical calculation based on GALPROP, as functions of kinetic energy per nucleon. {{clear}} ==Berylliums== {{main|Chemicals/Berylliums}} The "presence in ... cosmic radiation [is] of a much greater proportion of "secondary" nuclei, such as lithium, beryllium and boron, than is found generally in the universe."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Lithium nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Lithiums}} The "evidence for the overwhelming majority of the Li-atoms in photospheres has its origin not only in nuclear synthesis near the stellar centers, but also by active processes in stellar atmospheres. [...] the lithium [resonance] line [is] near 478 keV."<ref name=Livshits>{{ cite journal |author=M. A. Livshits |title=The Amount of Lithium Produced during Impulsive Flares |journal=Solar Physics |month=July |year=1997 |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=377-81 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1004958522216#page-1 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1004958522216 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> "Approximately 90% of lithium atoms originate from α - α reactions for the typical spectra of an accelerated particles on the Sun [...] During impulsive flares, interaction between the accelerated particles and the ambient medium occurs mainly at low altitudes, i.e., close to the footprints of loops."<ref name=Livshits/> ==Alpha particles== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles}} About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei or alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. "Natural alpha decay takes place in heavy nuclei [...]. Each alpha decay leads to ΔΛ = 4, ΔZ = 2. Since this tends to move nuclei off the line of beta stability to the neutron-rich side, beta (-minus) decays are found in conjunction with alpha decays. There are thus four series (or chains) of alpha decays into which the natural alpha decays can be fitted; these correspond to Λ = 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2 and 4n + 3, where ''n'' is an integer. ; '''4''n''''' : Thorium series: {{chem|232|Th}} ➙ {{chem|208|Pb}} ; '''4''n''+1''' : Neptunium series: {{chem|237|Np}} ➙ {{chem|209|Bi}} ; '''4''n''+2''' : Uranium series: {{chem|238|U}} ➙ {{chem|206|Pb}} ; '''4''n''+3''' : Actinium series: {{chem|235|U}} ➙ {{chem|207|Pb}}"<ref name=np>{{ cite book |author=np |title=Systematics Alpha decay |publisher=Physics Department |location=uct.ac.za |date=6 November 1996 |editor= |pages=1 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028104630/http://www.phy.uct.ac.za:80/courses/phy300w/np/ch1/node37.html#SECTION00043200000000000000 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2018-04-01 }}</ref> "A decay starting with the heaviest nucleus in a series can continue down to the lightest, with a sequence of alpha and beta decays following roughly the line of stability."<ref name=np/> "It follows from conservation of energy and momentum that the kinetic energy of the alpha and the residual nucleus has a fixed value. Alpha particles are thus emitted with a sharply peaked spectrum."<ref name=np/> ==Helions== [[Image:Hydrogen atom.svg|thumb|right|250px|An idealized image of protium shows the relative sizes of the proton and the atom. Credit: [[c:User:Bensaccount|Bensaccount]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "nucleus of a helium-3 atom"<ref name=HelionWikt>{{ cite book |title=helion |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=3 November 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/helion |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> is called a '''helion'''. '''Def.''' the "lightest and most common isotope of hydrogen, having a single proton and no neutrons- {{chem|1|1|H}}"<ref name=ProtiumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=protium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=12 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/protium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''protium'''. '''Def.''' an "isotope of hydrogen formed of one proton and one neutron in each atom - {{chem|2|1|H}}"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt>{{ cite book |title=deuterium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deuterium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''deuterium'''. "''Heavy water is “heavy” because it contains '''deuterium'''.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> "''There were about 80 '''deuteriums''' for every million protiums, and virtually no tritium.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> '''Def.''' a "radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen, (symbol T or {{chem|3|1|H}}), having one proton and two neutrons"<ref name=TritiumWikt>{{ cite book |title=tritium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tritium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''tritium'''. '''Def.''' a "highly unstable, synthetic isotope of the element hydrogen, {{chem|4|1|H}}, having one proton and three neutrons"<ref name=QuadriumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=quadrium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=2 June 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadrium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''quadrium'''. {{chem|1|1|H}}(p,β⁺ν){{chem|2|1|H}} :<math>\mathrm{_1^1H} + \mathrm{_1^1H} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{1}^{2}D} + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma (0.42 MeV). </math> At 10-million-kelvin, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:<ref name=Wallerstein>{{ cite journal | author=G. Wallerstein |author2=I. Iben Jr. |author3=P. Parker |author4=A. M. Boesgaard |author5=G. M. Hale |author6=A. E. Champagne |author7=C. A. Barnes |author8=F. KM-dppeler |author9=V. V. Smith |author10=R. D. Hoffman |author11=F. X. Timmes |author12=C. Sneden |author13=R. N. Boyd |author14=B. S. Meyer |author15=D. L. Lambert | title=Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=1999 | volume=69 | issue=4 | pages=995–1084 | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf | accessdate=2006-08-04 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995 | bibcode=1997RvMP...69..995W }}</ref> :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → 2{{chem|2|1|H}} + 2e⁺ + 2ν_e (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV) :2{{chem|1|1|H}} + 2{{chem|2|1|H}} → 2{{chem|3|2|He}} + 2γ (5.5 MeV) :2{{chem|3|2|He}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2{{chem|1|1|H}} (12.9 MeV) These reactions result in the overall reaction: :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2e⁺ + 2γ + 2ν_e (26.7 MeV) where e⁺ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν_e is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. "The light elements deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron pose a special problem for any theory of the origin of the elements which proposes that all the elements are built up from hydrogen in the stars. ... The difficulty arises because the lifetimes of these elements against proton capture, at the temperatures and pressures at which most stellar matter exists, are short compared to the stable lifetimes of stars. These elements then cannot be produced in stellar interiors unless they are transported rapidly to the surface, and if they are produced at the surface, non-equilibrium processes must be involved. Further, they can exist in significant quantities at the surface only in the absence of rapid mixing to the interior."<ref name=Bonsack>{{ cite journal |author=Walter K. Bonsack |title=The Abundance of Lithium and Convective Mixing in Stars of Type K |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1959 |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=843-71 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1959ApJ...130..843B |doi=10.1086/146777 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-03-24 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Tritons== Energetic deuterons and tritons have been detected in solar flares.<ref name=Freier>{{ cite book |author=P. S. Freier |author2=C. J. Waddington |title=Energetic Deuterons and Tritons produced by Solar Flares, In: ''Solar Particles and Sun-Earth Relations'' |publisher= |location= |date=1963 |editor= |volume=1 |pages=139 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1963ICRC....1..139F |arxiv= |bibcode=1963ICRC....1..139F |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> ==Deuterons== "The flux [of deuterons in cosmic rays at a geomagnetic latitude of 7.6°N] is found to be 4 ± 1.3 M^-2 sec^-1 sterad^-1".<ref name=Apparao>{{ cite book |author=K. M. V. Apparao |title=Flux of Cosmic Ray Deuterons with Rigidity Above 16.8 GV, In: ''Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Cosmic Rays'' |publisher= |location= |date=1973 |editor= |volume=1 |pages=126-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1973ICRC....1..126A |arxiv= |bibcode=1973ICRC....1..126A |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-09-30 }}</ref> ==Secondary cosmic rays== '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Canal rays== In 1886, [[w:Eugen Goldstein|Eugen Goldstein]] discovered [[w:canal rays|canal rays]] (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases had different values of [[w:charge-to-mass ratio|charge-to-mass ratio]] (e/m), they could not be identified with a single particle, unlike the negative electrons discovered by [[w:J. J. Thomson|J. J. Thomson]]. ==Hadrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Hadrons}} "Full multiple scattering theory must take account of the angular dependence of hadron-nucleon scattering, which affects the degree of screening."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Baryons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryons}} In "dense nuclear matter, such as neutron stars [it] has recently been discovered that kaon condensation in nuclear matter at a density of a few times normal nuclear matter may significantly reduce the upper mass limit of neutron stars [...] This clearly has an impact on astronomical observations. By exploiting the electron fermi level, we are able to predict kaon production at reasonable baryon number densities [...] Experimental detection of [dibaryons, hyperons] is a subtle matter [...] there is strong theoretical evidence that such states [as the dibaryon] do exist in nature. [...] the lightest dibaryon [...] is energetically stable against strong decay to [ΛΛ baryons] by 88 MeV. [The H dibaryon] is bound by 250 MeV."<ref name=Westerberg>{{ cite journal |author=Karl Michael Westerberg |title=Hyperon Calculations in the Skyrme Model |journal=Dissertation Abstracts International |month= |year=1996 |volume=57-04 |issue=B |pages=2542 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PhDT.........2W |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-03 }}</ref> ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons}} [[Image:Apollo 17 neutron probe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The neutron probe is in the hole on the Moon. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Neutron astronomy deals with the study of astronomical neutron sources (such as [[stars]], [[Radiation astronomy/Planets|planets]], comets, nebulae, star clusters and [[galaxies]] and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere, such as cosmic rays. "Due to nγ collisions of the ultrarelativistic neutrons with the submillimeter-IR photons, the neutrons with Lorentz factors Γ > Γ_esc [...] should degrade in the region r ≤ r_mx responsible for the low-frequency radiation of [active galactic nuclei] AGN."<ref name=Atoyan>{{ cite journal |author=A.M. Atoyan |title=Relativistic neutrons in active galactic nuclei. I-Energy transport from the core. II-Gamma-rays of high and very high energies |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=April |year=1992 |volume=257 |issue=2 |pages=465-75 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992A%26A...257..465A |arxiv= |bibcode=1992A&A...257..465A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref> The '''neutron''' is a [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic]] [[w:hadron|hadron]] particle which has the symbol {{SubatomicParticle|Neutron}} or {{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}}, no net [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] and a [[w:mass|mass]] slightly larger than that of a [[w:proton|proton]]. Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a [[w:mean lifetime|mean lifetime]] of 885.7±0.8 s (about 14 minutes, 46 seconds); therefore the [[w:half-life|half-life]] for this process (which differs from the mean lifetime by a factor of ln(2) = 0.693) is 613.9±0.8 s (about 10 minutes, 11 seconds).<ref name=Nakamura>[http://pdg.lbl.gov/2011/listings/rpp2011-list-n.pdf K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group)], JP G 37, 075021 (2010) and 2011 partial update for the 2012 edition</ref> Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known as [[w:beta decay|beta decay]]:<ref name=lbl>[http://pdg.lbl.gov/2007/tables/bxxx.pdf Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons]</ref> :{{SubatomicParticle|Neutron0}} => {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Electron antineutrino}} Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). The neutron has a negatively charged exterior, a positively charged middle, and a negative core.<ref name=Miller>{{ cite journal |author=G.A. Miller |year=2007 |title=Charge Densities of the Neutron and Proton |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=99 |page=112001 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.112001 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99k2001M |issue=11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Antiprotons== The '''antiproton''' ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}, pronounced ''p-baer'') is the [[w:antiparticle|antiparticle]] of the [[w:proton|proton]]. Antiprotons are stable, but they are typically short-lived since any collision with a proton will cause both particles to be [[w:annihilation|annihilated]] in a burst of energy. Antiprotons have been detected in [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray [[w:proton|proton]]s with nuclei in the [[interstellar medium]], via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} +  A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name=Kennedy>{{ cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8tnDViJoOIYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA438&ots=7WbrnBWJDS&sig=W5AePyLLDvDbnJd43a8wcBRCYe8#v=onepage&f=false |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} [[Image:VanAllenP Auto18.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The diagram shows one of the Van Allen Probes with various components and subsystems labeled. Credit: JHU/APL.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Proton astronomy]] ''per se'' often consists of directly or indirectly detecting the protons and deconvoluting a spatial, temporal, and spectral distribution. "Proton astronomy should be possible; it may also provide indirect information on inter-galactic magnetic fields."<ref name=Halzen>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=July |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-78 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0204527 |arxiv= |bibcode=2002RPPh...65.1025H |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-24 }}</ref> "The Relativistic Proton Spectrometer (RPS) [measures] inner radiation belt protons with energies from 50 MeV-2 GeV. Such protons are known to pose a number of hazards to humans and spacecraft, including total ionizing dose, displacement damage, single event effects, and nuclear activation. The objectives of the investigation are to: (1) support the development of a new AP9/AE9 standard radiation model for spacecraft design; (2) to develop and test the model for RBSP data in general and RPS specifically; and, (3) to provide standardized worst-case specifications for dose rate, internal and deep dielectric chargins, and surface charging."<ref name=Bell>{{ cite book |author=Edwin V. Bell, II |title=Van Allen Probe A (RBSP-A) |publisher=National Space Science Data Center, NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=August 16, 2013 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=2012-046A |accessdate=2014-01-07 }}</ref> The '''proton''' is a [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic]] particle with the symbol {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} or {{SubatomicParticle|Proton+}} and a positive [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of 1 [[w:elementary charge|elementary charge]]. One or more protons are present in the [[w:Atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of each [[w:atom|atom]], along with [[w:neutron|neutron]]s. The number of protons in each atom is its [[w:atomic number|atomic number]]. '''Nucleon spin structure''' describes the partonic structure of [[w:proton|proton]] intrinsic angular momentum ([[w:Spin (physics)|spin]]). The key question is how the nucleon's spin, whose magnitude is 1/2ħ, is carried by its [suggested] constituent [[w:parton (particle physics)|parton]]s ([[w:quark|quark]]s and [[w:gluon|gluon]]s). In the late 1980s, the [[w:European Muon Collaboration|European Muon Collaboration]] (EMC) conducted experiments that suggested the spin carried by quarks is not sufficient to account for the total spin of [protons]. This finding astonished particle physicists at that time, and the problem of where the missing spin lies is sometimes referred to as the "proton spin crisis". Experimental research on these topics has been continued by the Spin Muon Collaboration (SMC) and the [[w:COMPASS experiment|COMPASS experiment]] at [[w:CERN|CERN]], experiments E154 and E155 at [SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory] SLAC, [[w:DESY#HERMES|HERMES]] at [[w:DESY|DESY]], experiments at [Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility] JLab and [[w:RHIC|RHIC]], and others. Global analysis of data from all major experiments confirmed the original EMC discovery and showed that the quark spin [may] contribute about 30% to the total spin of the nucleon. New measurements performed by European scientists reveal that the radius of the proton is 4 percent smaller than previously estimated.<ref>{{ cite book |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/347775/description/Protons_radius_revised_downward |title=Proton's radius revised downward |publisher=ScienceNews |date=23 February 2013 |accessdate=22 April 2013 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mesons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy}} '''Mesons''' are hadronic subatomic particles, bound together by the [[strong interaction]]. Because mesons are composed of sub-particles, they have a physical size, with a radius roughly one femtometre, which is about {{frac|2|3}} the size of a proton or neutron. Charged mesons decay (sometimes through intermediate particles) to form electrons and neutrinos. Uncharged mesons may decay to photons. Mesons are not produced by radioactive decay, but appear in nature only as short-lived products of very high-energy interactions in matter. In cosmic ray interactions, for example, such particles are ordinary protons and neutrons. Mesons are also frequently produced artificially in high-energy particle accelerators that collide protons, anti-protons, or other particles. Mesons are subject to both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and thus exhibit certain higher energy phenomena more readily than baryons composed of the same quarks would. Potential mesons to be detected astronomically include: π, ρ, η, η′, φ, ω, J/ψ, ϒ, θ, K, B, D, and T. ==B mesons== "The K⁰-K⁰ bar, D⁰-D⁰ bar, and B⁰-B⁰ bar oscillations are extremely sensitive to the K⁰ and K⁰ bar energy at rest. The energy is determined by the values mc² with the related mass as well as the energy of the gravitational interaction. Assuming the CPT theorem for the inertial masses and estimating the gravitational potential through the dominant contribution of the gravitational potential of our Galaxy center, we obtain from the experimental data on the K⁰-K⁰ bar oscillations the following constraint: |(m_g/m_i)_K⁰ - (m_g/m_i)_{K⁰ bar}| ≤ 8·10^-13, CL=90%. This estimation is model dependent and in particular it depends on a way we estimate the gravitational potential. Examining the K⁰-K⁰ bar, B⁰-B⁰ bar, and D⁰-D⁰ bar oscillations provides us also with weaker, but model independent constraints, which in particular rule out the very possibility of antigravity for antimatter."<ref name=Karshenboim>{{ cite journal |author=Savely G. Karshenboim |title=Oscillations of neutral mesons and the equivalence principle for particles and antiparticles |journal=Pis'ma v Zhurnal 'Fizika Ehlementarnykh Chastits i Atomnogo Yadra' |month= |year=2009 |volume=6 |issue=155 |pages=745-53 |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:41133347 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> ==Upsilon mesons== [[Image:Upsilon peak.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A plot of the invariant mass of muon pairs, the peak at about 9.5 GeV is due to the contribution of the Upsilon meson. Credit: Leon Lederman and the E288 collaboration, Fermilab.{{tlx|free media}}]] The plot on the right shows a peak at about 9.5 GeV due to the Upsilon meson. {{clear}} ==Psions== [[Image:Jpsi-fit-mass.gif|thumb|right|250px|J/Ψ production is graphed. Credit: Fermilab.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is a graph of the production of psions at Fermilab. {{clear}} ==Omega mesons== Omega meson production:<ref name=Olive>{{ cite journal |author=K.A. Olive (Particle Data Group) |display-authors=etal |title= |journal=Chinese Physics |month= |year=2014 |volume=C38 |issue= |pages=090001 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2014/listings/rpp2014-list-omega-782.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2015-02-11 }}</ref> # <math>p + d \rightarrow He^3 + \omega, </math> # <math>\bar{p} + p \rightarrow \omega + \eta + \pi_0, </math> # <math>\pi^- + p \rightarrow \omega + n, </math> # <math>p + \bar{p} \rightarrow \Kappa^+ + \Kappa^- + \omega, </math> # <math>p + \bar{p} \rightarrow \Kappa 1 + \Kappa 1 + \omega, </math> ==Phi mesons== The phi meson <math> \Phi^0 </math>(1020) has a mass of 1019.445 MeV. It decays per<ref name=Amsler>{{ cite book |author=C. Amsler |display-authors=etal |date=2008 |url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/m004.pdf |title=Particle listings }}</ref> # <math> \Phi^0 \rightarrow \Kappa^+ + \Kappa^- or </math> # <math> \Phi^0 \rightarrow \Kappa^0_S + \Kappa^0_L. </math> ==Rho mesons== Rho mesons occur in three states: ρ⁺, ρ^-, and ρ⁰.<ref name=Amsler/> The rest masses are apparently the same at 775.4±0.4 and 775.49±0.34.<ref name=Amsler/> Decay products are π^± + π⁰ or π⁺ + π^-, respectively.<ref name=Amsler/> ==Eta mesons== Eta mesons (547.863 ± 0.018 MeV) have the decay schemes:<ref name=Olive/> # η : <math> \eta \rightarrow \gamma + \gamma, </math> # η : <math> \eta \rightarrow \pi^0 + \pi^0 + \pi^0, or </math> # η : <math> \eta \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^0 + \pi^-, </math> Eta prime mesons (957.78 ± 0.06 MeV) have the decay schemes:<ref name=Olive/> # η' : <math> \eta^' \rightarrow \pi^+ + \pi^- + \eta or </math> # η' : <math> \eta^' \rightarrow \pi^0 + \pi^0 + \gamma, </math> The charmed eta meson η_C(1S) has a rest mass of 2983.6 ± 0.7 MeV.<ref name=Olive/> ==D mesons== :<math>D_S \rightarrow \tau + \bar{\nu}_{\tau} \rightarrow \nu_{\tau} + \bar{\nu}_{\tau}.</math><ref name=Kodama>{{ cite journal |author=K. Kodama |author2=N. Ushida1 |author3=C. Andreopoulos |author4=N. Saoulidou |author5=G. Tzanakos |author6=P. Yager |author7=B. Baller |author8=D. Boehnlein |author9=W. Freeman |author10=B. Lundberg |author11=J. Morfin |author12=R. Rameika |author13=J.C. Yun |author14=J.S. Song |author15=C.S. Yoon |author16=S.H.Chung |author17=P. Berghaus |author18=M. Kubanstev |author19=N.W. Reay |author20=R. Sidwell |author21=N. Stanton |author22=S. Yoshida |author23=S. Aoki |author24=T. Hara |author25=J.T. Rhee |author26=D. Ciampa |author27=C. Erickson |author28=M. Graham |author29=K. Heller |author30=R. Rusack |author31=R. Schwienhorst |author32=J. Sielaff |author33=J. Trammell |author34=J. Wilcox |author35=K. Hoshino |author36=H. Jiko |author37=M. Miyanishi |author38=M. Komatsu |author39=M. Nakamura |author40=T. Nakano |author41=K. Niwa |author42=N. Nonaka |author43=K. Okada |author44=O. Sato |author45=T. Akdogan |author46=V. Paolone |author47=C. Rosenfeld |author48=A. Kulik |author49=T. Kafka |author50=W. Oliver |author51=T. Patzak |author52=J. Schneps |title=Observation of tau neutrino interactions |journal=Physics Letters B |month=April 12, |year=2001 |volume=504 |issue=3 |pages=218-24 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269301003070 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-03-10 }}</ref> ==Kaons== "The muons created through decays of secondary pions and kaons are fully polarized, which results in electron/positron decay asymmetry, which in turn causes a difference in their production spectra."<ref name=Moskalenko>{{ cite journal |author=I. V. Moskalenko |author2=A. W. Strong |title=Production and propagation of cosmic-ray positrons and electrons |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1, |year=1998 |volume=493 |issue=2 |pages=694-707 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/493/2/694 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710124 |bibcode=1998ApJ...493..694M |doi=10.1086/305152 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> The "highest energy neutrinos from GRBs mainly come from kaons."<ref name=Asano>{{ cite journal |author=K. Asano |author2=S. Nagataki |title=Very High Energy Neutrinos Originating from Kaons in Gamma-Ray Bursts |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=20 March |year=2006 |volume=640 |issue=1 |pages=L9 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0603107.pdf |arxiv=astro-ph/0603107 |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/503291 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> ==Pions== "The Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) on [Solar Maximum Mission] SMM has detected [...] at least two of the flares have spectral properties >40 MeV that require gamma rays from the decay of neutral pions. [Pion] production can occur early in the impulsive phase as defined by hard X-rays near 100 keV."<ref name=Forrest>{{ cite book |author=Forrest D. J. |author2=Vestrand W. T. |author3=Chupp E. L. |author4=Rieger E. |author5=Cooper J. F. |author6=Share G. H. |title=Neutral Pion Production in Solar Flares, In: ''19th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=NASA |location= |date=August 1985 |editor= |volume=4 |pages=146-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985ICRC....4..146F |arxiv= |bibcode=1985ICRC....4..146F |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> "Neutral current single π⁰ production induced by neutrinos with a mean energy of 1.3GeV is measured at a 1000 ton water Cherenkov detector as a near detector of the K2K long baseline neutrino experiment."<ref name="Nakayama">{{cite journal |author=S. Nakayama |author2=C. Mauger |author3=M.H. Ahn |author4=S. Aoki |author5=Y. Ashie |author6=H. Bhang |author7=S. Boyd |author8=D. Casper |author9=J.H. Choi |author10=S. Fukuda |author11=Y. Fukuda |author12=R. Gran |author13=T. Hara |author14=M. Hasegawa |author15=T.Hasegawa |author16=K. Hayashi |author17=Y. Hayato |author18=J. Hill |author19=A.K. Ichikawa |author20=A. Ikeda |author21=T. Inagaki |author22=T. Ishida |author23=T. Ishii |author24=M. Ishitsuka |author25=Y. Itow |author26=T. Iwashita |author27=H.I. Jang |author28=J.S. Jang |author29=E.J. Jeon |author30=K.K. Joo |author31=C.K. Jung |author32=T. Kajita |author33=J. Kameda |author34=K. Kaneyuki |author35=I. Kato |author36=E. Kearns |author37=A. Kibayashi |author38=D. Kielczewska |author39=B.J. Kim |author40=C.O. Kim |author41=J.Y. Kim |author42=S.B. Kim |author43=K. Kobayashi |author44=T. Kobayashi |author45=Y. Koshio |author46=W.R. Kropp |author47=J.G. Learned |author48=S.H. Lim |author49=I.T. Lim |author50=H. Maesaka |author51=T. Maruyama |author52=S. Matsuno |author53=C. Mcgrew |author54=A. Minamino |author55=S. Mine |author56=M. Miura |author57=K. Miyano |author58=T. Morita |author59=S. Moriyama |author60=M. Nakahata |author61=K. Nakamura |author62=I. Nakano |author63=F. Nakata |author64=T. Nakaya |author65=T. Namba |author66=R. Nambu |author67=K. Nishikawa |author68=S. Nishiyama |author69=K. Nitta |author70=S. Noda |author71=Y. Obayashi |author72=A. Okada |author73=Y. Oyama |author74=M.Y. Pac |author75=H. Park |author76=C. Saji |author77=M. Sakuda |author78=A. Sarrat |author79=T. Sasaki |author80=N. Sasao |author81=K. Scholberg |author82=M. Sekiguchi |author83=E. Sharkey |author84=M. Shiozawa |author85=K.K. Shiraishi |author86=M. Smy |author87=H.W. Sobel |author88=J.L. Stone |author89=Y. Suga |author90=L.R. Sulak |author91=A. Suzuki |author92=Y. Suzuki |author93=Y. Takeuchi |author94=N. Tamura |author95=M. Tanaka |author96=Y. Totsuka |author97=S. Ueda |author98=M.R. Vagins |author99=C.W. Walter |author100=W. Wang |author101=R.J. Wilkes |author102=S. Yamada |author103=S. Yamamoto |author104=C. Yanagisawa |author105=H. Yokoyama |author106=J. Yoo |author107=M. Yoshida |author108=J. Zalipska |title=Measurement of single π⁰ production in neutral current neutrino interactions with water by a 1.3 GeV wide band muon neutrino beam |journal=Physics Letters B |month=July |year=2005 |volume=619 |issue=3-4 |pages=255-62 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269305007161 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-07 }}</ref> "The single π⁰ production rate by atmospheric neutrinos could be usable to distinguish between the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ and ν_µ ↔ ν_s oscillation hypotheses. The NC rate is attenuated in the case of transitions of ν_µ’s into sterile neutrinos, while it does not change in the ν_µ ↔ ν_τ scenario."<ref name="Nakayama"/> Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB), cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance, :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. ==Tauons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Tauons}} "For ultrahigh energies the neutrino spectrum at the detector is influenced by neutrino-nucleon interactions and tauon decays during the passage through the interior of the earth."<ref name=Hettlage>{{ cite journal |author=Hettlage, C. |author2=Mannheim, K. |title=Tau Sources in the Sky |journal=AG Abstract Services |month=20-25 September |year=1999 |volume=15 |issue=04 |pages= |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1999AGM....15..I04H |arxiv= |bibcode=1999AGM....15..I04H |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy}} [[Image:Moons shodow in muons.gif|thumb|right|250px|The Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the Soudan II detector. Credit: J. H. Cobb ''et al''. (The Soudan 2 Collaboration).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "TeV muons from γ ray primaries ... are rare because they are only produced by higher energy γ rays whose flux is suppressed by the decreasing flux at the source and by absorption on interstellar light."<ref name=Halzen1997>{{ cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Todor Stanev |author3=Gaurang B. Yodh |title=γ ray astronomy with muons |journal=Physical Review D Particles, Fields, Gravitation, and Cosmology |month=April 1, |year=1997 |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=4475-9 |url=http://prd.aps.org/abstract/PRD/v55/i7/p4475_1 |arxiv=astro-ph/9608201 |bibcode=1997PhRvD..55.4475H |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.55.4475 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "[T]here is a window of opportunity for '''muon astronomy''' with the AMANDA, Lake Baikal, and MILAGRO detectors."<ref name=Halzen1997/> "The muons created through decays of secondary pions and kaons are fully polarized, which results in electron/positron decay asymmetry, which in turn causes a difference in their production spectra."<ref name=Moskalenko>{{ cite journal |author=I. V. Moskalenko |author2=A. W. Strong |title=Production and propagation of cosmic-ray positrons and electrons |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1, |year=1998 |volume=493 |issue=2 |pages=694-707 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/493/2/694 |arxiv=astro-ph/9710124 |bibcode=1998ApJ...493..694M |doi=10.1086/305152 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}} [[Image:Proton proton cycle.png|thumb|right|250px|The diagram contains the reactions in the proton-proton chain including neutrino production. Credit: [[w:User:SzDóri|Dorottya Szam]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The highest flux of solar neutrinos come directly from the proton-proton interaction, and have a low energy, up to 400 keV. There are also several other significant production mechanisms, with energies up to 18 MeV. <ref>A. Bellerive, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0312045 Review of solar neutrino experiments]. Int.J.Mod.Phys. A19 (2004) 1167-1179</ref> {{clear}} ==Beta particles== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Beta particles}} [[Image:NuclideMap C-F.png|thumb|right|250px|This graph is a chart of the nuclides for carbon to fluorine. Decay modes: <br><br> {{legend|#ff9472|proton emission}} {{legend|#e78cc7|positron emissio] or electron capture}} {{legend|#000000|stable isotope}} {{legend|#63c5de|beta decay}} {{legend|#9b7bbc|neutron emission}} Credit: original: National Nuclear Data Center, stitched: [[c:User:Neokortex|Neokortex]], cropped: [[c:User:Limulus|Limulus]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Beta particles''' are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40. The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also known as beta rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay. They are designated by the Greek letter beta (β). At right is a graph or block diagram that shows the boundaries for nuclear particle stability. The boundaries are conceptualized as '''drip lines'''. The nuclear landscape is understood by plotting boxes, each of which represents a unique nuclear species, on a graph with the number of neutrons increasing on the [[w:abscissa|abscissa]] and number of protons increasing along the [[w:ordinate|ordinate]], which is commonly referred to as the [[w:Chart of nuclides|table of nuclides]], being to [[w:nuclear physics|nuclear physics]] what the more commonly known [[w:periodic table of the elements|periodic table of the elements]] is to [[chemistry]]. However, an arbitrary combination of [[w:protons|protons]] and [[w:neutrons|neutrons]] does not necessarily yield a stable [[w:atomic nucleus|nucleus]], and ultimately when continuing to add more of the same type of [[w:nucleon|nucleon]]s to a given nucleus, the newly formed nucleus will essentially undergo immediate decay where a nucleon of the same [[w:isospin|isospin quantum number]] (proton or neutron) is emitted; colloquially the nucleon has 'leaked' or 'dripped' out of the target nucleus, hence giving rise to the term "drip line". The nucleons drip out of such unstable nuclei for the same reason that water drips from a leaking faucet: the droplet, or nucleon in this case, sees a lower potential which is great enough to overcome surface tension in the case of water droplets, and the [[w:strong nuclear force|strong nuclear force]] in the case of [[w:proton emission|proton emission]] or [[w:alpha decay|alpha decay]]. As nucleons are [[w:Quantization (physics)|quantized]], then only [[w:Integer|integer values]] are plotted on the table of isotopes, indicating that the drip line is not [[w:linear|linear]] but instead looks like a [[w:step function|step function]] up close. Beta particles (electrons) are more penetrating than alpha particles, but still can be absorbed by a few millimeters of aluminum. However, in cases where high energy beta particles are emitted shielding must be accomplished with low density materials, ''e.g.'' plastic, wood, water or acrylic glass (Plexiglas, Lucite). This is to reduce generation of Bremsstrahlung X-rays. In the case of beta⁺ radiation (positrons), the gamma radiation from the electron-positron annihilation reaction poses additional concern. As an example, "[t]he power into the Crab Nebula is apparently supplied by an outflow [wind] of ~10³⁸ erg/s from the pulsar"<ref name=Wilson/> where there are "electrons (and positrons) in such a wind"<ref name=Wilson>{{ cite journal |author=D. B. Wilson |author2=M. J. Rees |title=Induced Compton scattering in pulsar winds |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |month=October |year=1978 |volume=185 |issue=10 |pages=297-304 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1978MNRAS.185..297W |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-08 }}</ref>. These beta particles coming out of the pulsar are moving very close to light speed. "[M]odels in which γ-rays are absorbed in collisions with X-rays producing nonthermal electron-positron pairs, which in turn radiate further X-rays [have been developed]."<ref name=Zdziarski>{{ cite journal |author=Andrzej A. Zdziarski |author2=Gabriele Ghisellini |author3=Ian M. George |author4=R. Svensson |author5=A. C. Fabian |author6=Chris Done |title=Electron-positron pairs, Compton reflection, and the X-ray spectra of active galactic nuclei |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November 1, |year=1990 |volume=363 |issue=11 |pages=L1-4 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990ApJ...363L...1Z |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...363L...1Z |doi=10.1086/185851 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-15 }}</ref> "[T]he reprocessing of radiation by ''e''⁺ ''e''^- pairs could be a sufficiently robust mechanism to yield the canonical spectrum, independent of the details of the particle acceleration mechanism and the parameters of the source, such as the X- and γ-ray luminosity, ''L'', and the size, R."<ref name=Zdziarski/> "[T]he hard X-ray spectrum of a growing number of [active galactic nuclei] AGN [in] the 1-30 keV X-ray emission has four distinct components":<ref name=Zdziarski/> # "an incident power law spectrum with a spectral index αⁱ_x ≃ 0.9,"<ref name=Zdziarski/> # "an emission line at the energy ~6.4 keV (interpreted as a fluorescent iron K-line),"<ref name=Zdziarski/> # "an absorption edge at 7-8 keV (interpreted as an iron K-edge), and"<ref name=Zdziarski/> # "a broad excess of emission with respect to the underlying power law at energies ≳ 10 keV (interpreted as Compton reflection from cold [T < 10⁶ K, optically thick] material)." <ref name=Zdziarski/> {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} [[Image:Cyclotron motion.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Beam of electrons are moving in a circle in a magnetic field (cyclotron motion). Lighting is caused by excitation of atoms of gas in a bulb. Credit: [[c:User:Sfu|Marcin Białek]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Although [[electron astronomy]] is usually not recognized as a formal branch of astronomy, the measurement of electron fluxes helps to understand a variety of natural phenomena. ""[E]lectron astronomy" has an interesting future".<ref name=Hudson>{{ cite journal |author=H. S. Hudson |author2=A. B. Galvin |title=Correlated Studies at Activity Maximum: the Sun and the Solar Wind, In: ''Correlated Phenomena at the Sun, in the Heliosphere and in Geospace'' |publisher=European Space Agency |location=Noordwijk, The Netherlands |month=September |year=1997 |editor=A. Wilson |pages=275-82 |url= |bibcode=1997ESASP.415..275H |doi= |pmid= |isbn=92-9092-660-0 |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> "Electron beams can be generated by thermionic emission, field emission or the anodic arc method. The generated electron beam is accelerated to a high kinetic energy and focused towards the [target]. When the accelerating voltage is between 20 kV – 25 kV and the beam current is a few amperes, 85% of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into thermal energy as the beam bombards the surface of the [target]. The surface temperature of the [target] increases resulting in the formation of a liquid melt. Although some of incident electron energy is lost in the excitation of X-rays and secondary emission, the [target] material evaporates under vacuum."<ref name=Gray>{{ cite book |author=[[User:Dgray|Dgray]] |title=Materials Science and Engineering/Doctoral review questions/Daily Discussion Topics/01162008 |date=January 17, 2008 |url=http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Materials_Science_and_Engineering/Doctoral_review_questions/Daily_Discussion_Topics/01162008#E-Beam_Source |accessdate=2013-07-21 }}</ref> The "emission phenomena observed in active galactic nuclei [includes] the production of compact radio sources separating at superluminal speeds".<ref name=Laviolette>{{ cite journal |author=Paul A. Laviolette |title=Cosmic-ray volleys from the Galactic Center and their recent impact on the Earth environment |journal=Earth, Moon, and Planets |month=March |year=1987 |volume=37 |issue=03 |pages=241-86 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987EM%26P...37..241L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987EM%26P...37..241L |doi=10.1007/BF00116639 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-29 }}</ref> Outbursts "of cosmic ray electrons from the Galactic Center [may] penetrate the Galaxy relatively undamped and [may be able] to have a major impact on the [[Solar System]] through their ability to vaporize and inject cometary material into the interplanetary environment. [One] such 'superwave', passing through the Solar System toward the end of the Last Ice Age, [may have been] responsible for producing major changes in the Earth's climate and for indirectly precipitating the terminal Pleistocene extinction episode. The high concentration of ¹⁰Be, NO₃^-, Ir and Ni observed in Late Wisconsin polar ice are consistent with this scenario."<ref name=Laviolette/> {{clear}} ==Delta rays== A '''delta ray''' is characterized by very fast [[w:electron|electron]]s produced in quantity by [[w:alpha particles|alpha particles]] or other fast energetic charged particles knocking orbiting electrons out of [[w:atoms|atoms]]. Collectively, these electrons are defined as delta radiation when they have sufficient energy to ionize further atoms through subsequent interactions on their own. "The conventional procedure of delta-ray counting to measure charge (Powell, Fowler, and Perkins 1959), which was limited to resolution sigma_z = 1-2 because of uncertainties of the criterion of delta-ray ranges, has been significantly improved by the application of delta-ray range distribution measurements for ¹⁶O and ³²S data of 200 GeV per nucleon (Takahashi 1988; Parnell ''et al.'' 1989)."<ref name=Burnett>{{ cite journal |author=T. H. Burnett (The JACEE Collaboration) |display-authors=etal |title=Energy spectra of cosmic rays above 1 TeV per nucleon |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=January |year=1990 |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=L25-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=GIF&db_key=AST |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B |doi=10.1086/185642 |pmid= |pdf=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> Here, the delta-ray tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for "[d]irect measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei above 1 TeV/nucleon ... in a series of balloon-borne experiments".<ref name=Burnett/> ==Epsilon rays== '''Epsilon radiation''' is tertiary radiation caused by secondary radiation (''e.g.'', delta radiation). Epsilon rays are a form of particle radiation and are composed of electrons. The term is very rarely used today. ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:INTEGRAL-spacecraft410.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Positron astronomy results have been obtained using the INTEGRAL spectrometer SPI shown. Credit: Medialab, ESA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "[[Positron astronomy]] is 30 years old but remains in its infancy."<ref name=Milne>{{ cite journal |author=P.A.Milne |author2=J.D.Kurfess |author3=R.L.Kinzer |author4=M.D.Leising |author5=D.D.Dixon |title=Investigations of positron annihilation radiation, In: ''Proceedings of the 5th COMPTON Symposium'' |publisher=American Institute of Physics |location=Washington, DC |month=April |year=2000 |volume=510 |issue=4 |pages=21-30 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9911184 |arxiv=astro-ph/9911184v1 |bibcode=2000AIPC..510...21M |doi=10.1063/1.1303167 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> In 2009, the Fermi Gamma Ray Telescope in Earth orbit observed an intense burst of gamma rays corresponding to positron annihilations coming out of a storm formation. Scientists wouldn't have been surprised to see a few positrons accompanying any intense gamma ray burst, but the lightning flash detected by Fermi appeared to have produced about 100 trillion positrons. This has been reported by media in January 2011, it is an effect, never considered to happen before.<ref>http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-thunderstorms-antimatter-beams-fermi-radiation-science-space/</ref> "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Nuclear transmutations== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Transmutations}} [[Image:Table isotopes en.svg|thumb|right|250px|This graph shows positron emissions, among others, from nuclear transmutation. Credit: [[c:user:Napy1kenobi|Napy1kenobi]] and [[c:user:Sjlegg|Sjlegg]].{{tlx|free media}}]] If the proton and neutron are part of an [[w:atomic nucleus|atomic nucleus]], these decay processes [[w:Nuclear transmutation|transmute]] one chemical element into another. For example: :<math> ^A_ZN \rightarrow ~ ^{~~~A}_{Z-1}N' + e^+ + \nu_e, </math> where A = 22, Z = 11, ''N'' = Na, ''Z''-1 = 10, and ''N''' = Ne. Beta decay does not change the number of [[w:nucleon|nucleon]]s, ''A'', in the nucleus but changes only its [[w:electric charge|charge]], ''Z''. Thus the set of all [[w:nuclide|nuclide]]s with the same ''A'' can be introduced; these [[w:isobar (nuclide)|''isobaric'' nuclides]] may turn into each other via beta decay. Among them, several nuclides (at least one) are beta stable, because they present local minima of the [[w:mass excess|mass excess]]: if such a nucleus has (''A'', ''Z'') numbers, the neighbour nuclei (''A'', ''Z''&minus;1) and (''A'', ''Z''+1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (''A'', ''Z''), but not vice versa. For all odd mass numbers ''A'' the global minimum is also the unique local minimum. For even ''A'', there are up to three different beta-stable isobars experimentally known. There are about 355 known [[w:beta-decay stable isobars|beta-decay stable nuclides]] total. {{clear}} ==Radioactivity== {{main|Radioactivity}} In {{SubatomicParticle|Beta+}} decay, or "positron emission", the weak interaction converts a nucleus into its next-lower neighbor on the periodic table while emitting an positron ({{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}) and an electron neutrino ({{SubatomicParticle|Electron neutrino}}): :<math> ^A_ZN \rightarrow ~ ^{~~~A}_{Z-1}N' + e^+ + \nu_e. </math> {{SubatomicParticle|Beta+}} decay cannot occur in an isolated proton because it requires energy due to the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. {{SubatomicParticle|Beta+}} decay can only happen inside nuclei when the value of the [[w:binding energy|binding energy]] of the mother nucleus is less than that of the daughter nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles. ''Positron emission''' or '''beta plus decay''' ([[w:Beta particle|β⁺]] decay) is a type of [[beta decay]] in which a [[w:proton|proton]] is converted, via the [[w:weak force|weak force]], to a [[w:neutron|neutron]], releasing a positron and a [[w:neutrino|neutrino]]. [[w:Isotope|Isotope]]s which undergo this decay and thereby emit positrons include [[w:carbon-11|carbon-11]], [[w:Isotopes of potassium|potassium-40]], [[w:nitrogen-13|nitrogen-13]], [[w:Isotopes of oxygen|oxygen-15]], [[w:fluorine-18|fluorine-18]], and [[w:Isotopes of iodine|iodine-121]]. As an example, the following equation describes the beta plus decay of carbon-11 to [[w:boron|boron]]-11, emitting a positron and a neutrino: :<math> ^{11}_{6}C \rightarrow ~ ^{11}_{5}B + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma {(0.96 MeV)}. </math> ==Positroniums== [[Image:Positronium.svg|thumb|right|200px|An electron and positron orbit around their common centre of mass. This is a bound quantum state known as positronium. Credit: [[c:User:Manticorp|Manticorp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' an exotic atom consisting of a positron and an electron, but having no nucleus or an onium consisting of a positron (anti-electron) and an electron, as a particle&ndash;anti-particle bound pair is called '''positronium'''. Being unstable, the two particles annihilate each other to produce two gamma ray photons after an average lifetime of 125 ps or three gamma ray photons after 142 ns in vacuum, depending on the relative spin states of the positron and electron. The ''singlet'' state with antiparallel spins ([spin quantum number] ''S'' = 0, ''M_s'' = 0) is known as '''para-positronium''' (''p''-Ps) and denoted {{SubatomicParticle|para-positronium}}. It has a mean lifetime of 125 picoseconds and decays preferentially into two gamma quanta with energy of 511 keV each (in the center of mass frame). Detection of these photons allows for the reconstruction of the vertex of the decay. Para-positronium can decay into any even number of photons (2, 4, 6, ...), but the probability quickly decreases as the number increases: the branching ratio for decay into 4 photons is {{val|1.439|(2)|e=-6}}.<ref name=Karshenboim2003>{{cite journal |author=Savely G. Karshenboim |year=2003 |title=Precision Study of Positronium: Testing Bound State QED Theory |doi=10.1142/S0217751X04020142 |journal=International Journal of Modern Physics A [Particles and Fields; Gravitation; Cosmology; Nuclear Physics] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=3879–96 |arxiv=hep-ph/0310099 |bibcode = 2004IJMPA..19.3879K }}</ref> para-positronium lifetime (S = 0):<ref name=Karshenboim2003/> :<math>t_{0} = \frac{2 \hbar}{m_e c^2 \alpha^5} = 1.244 \times 10^{-10} \; \text{s}</math> The ''triplet'' state with parallel spins (''S'' = 1, ''M_s'' = −1, 0, 1) is known as '''ortho-positronium''' (''o''-Ps) and denoted ³S₁. The triplet state in vacuum has a mean lifetime of {{val|142.05|0.02|u=ns}}<ref name=Badertscher>{{cite journal |author=A. Badertscher |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=An Improved Limit on Invisible Decays of Positronium |journal=Physical Review D |volume=75 |pages=032004 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.75.032004 |arxiv=hep-ex/0609059 |bibcode = 2007PhRvD..75c2004B |issue=3 }}</ref> and the leading mode of decay is three gamma quanta. Other modes of decay are negligible; for instance, the five photons mode has branching ratio of ~{{val|1.0|e=-6}}.<ref name=Czarnecki> {{cite journal |author=Andrzej Czarnecki, Savely G. Karshenboim |year=1999 |title=Decays of Positronium |volume=14 |issue=99 |journal=B.B. Levchenko and V.I. Savrin (eds.), Proc. of the the International Workshop on High Energy Physics and Quantum Field Theory (QFTHEP, Moscow , MSU-Press 2000, pp. 538 - 44. |arxiv=hep-ph/9911410 |bibcode = 1999hep.ph...11410C }}</ref> ortho-positronium lifetime (S = 1):<ref name=Karshenboim2003/> :<math>t_{1} = \frac{\frac{1}{2} 9 h}{2 m_e c^2 \alpha^6 (\pi^2 - 9)} = 1.386 \times 10^{-7} \; \text{s}</math> {{clear}} ==Annihilations== [[Image:Annihilation.png|thumb|right|250px|Naturally occurring electron-positron annihilation is a result of beta plus decay. Credit: Jens Maus.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Annihilation Radiation.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Germanium detector spectrum shows the annihilation radiation peak (under the arrow). Note the width of the peak compared to the other gamma rays visible in the spectrum. Credit: Hidesert.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''positron''' or '''antielectron''' is the [[w:antiparticle|antiparticle]] or the [[w:antimatter|antimatter]] counterpart of the electron. The positron has an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of +1e, a [[w:spin (physics)|spin]] of ½, and has the same mass as an electron. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron, [[w:annihilation|annihilation]] occurs, resulting in the production of two or more [[w:gamma ray|gamma ray]] [[w:photon|photon]]s. '''Def.''' the process of a [[wikt:particle|particle]] and its corresponding [[wikt:antiparticle|antiparticle]] combining to produce energy is called '''annihilation'''. The figure at right shows a positron (e⁺) emitted from an atomic nucleus together with a [[wikt:neutrino|neutrino]] (v). Subsequently, the positron moves randomly through the surrounding matter where it hits several different electrons (e^-) until it finally loses enough energy that it interacts with a single electron. This process is called an "annihilation" and results in two diametrically emitted photons with a typical energy of 511 keV each. Under normal circumstances the photons are not emitted exactly diametrically (180 degrees). This is due to the remaining energy of the positron having conservation of momentum. '''Electron–positron annihilation''' occurs when an electron ({{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}) and a [[w:positron|positron]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}, the electron's [[w:antiparticle|antiparticle]]) collide. The result of the collision is the [[w:annihilation|annihilation]] of the electron and positron, and the creation of [[w:gamma ray|gamma ray]] [[w:photon|photon]]s or, at higher energies, other particles: :{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}}&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}} The process [does] satisfy a number of [[w:conservation law|conservation law]]s, including: * [[w:Charge conservation|Conservation of electric charge]]. The net [[w:electric charge|charge]] before and after is zero. * Conservation of [[w:momentum|linear momentum]] and total [[w:energy|energy]]. This forbids the creation of a single gamma ray. However, in [[w:quantum field theory|quantum field theory]] this process is [described]; see [[w:Annihilation#Examples of annihilation|examples of annihilation]]. * Conservation of [[w:angular momentum|angular momentum]]. As with any two charged objects, electrons and positrons may also interact with each other without annihilating, in general by [[w:elastic scattering|elastic scattering]]. The creation of only one photon can occur for tightly bound atomic electrons.<ref name=Sodickson>{{ cite journal |author=L. Sodickson |author2=W. Bowman |author3=J. Stephenson |author4=R. Weinstein |year=1960 |title=Single-Quantum Annihilation of Positrons |journal=Physical Review |volume=124 |pages=1851 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.124.1851 |bibcode = 1961PhRv..124.1851S }}</ref> In the most common case, two photons are created, each with energy equal to the [[w:rest energy|rest energy]] of the electron or positron (511 keV).<ref name=Atwood>{{cite journal |author=W.B. Atwood |author2=P.F. Michelson |author3=S.Ritz |year=2008 |title=Una Ventana Abierta a los Confines del Universo |journal=Investigación y Ciencia |volume=377 |pages=24–31 |doi= }}</ref> It is also common for three to be created, since in some angular momentum states, this is necessary to conserve [[w:C parity|C parity]].<ref name=Griffiths>{{cite book |author=D.J. Griffiths |date=1987 |title=Introduction to Elementary Particles |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0-471-60386-4 }}</ref> Any larger number of photons [can be created], but the probability becomes lower with each additional photon. When either the electron or positron, or both, have appreciable [[w:kinetic energy|kinetic energies]], other heavier particles can also be produced (such as [[w:D meson|D meson]]s), since there is enough kinetic energy in the relative velocities to provide the [[w:rest energy|rest energies]] of those particles. Photons and other light particles may be produced, but they will emerge with higher energies. At energies near and beyond the mass of the carriers of the [[w:weak interaction|weak force]], the [[w:W and Z bosons|W and Z bosons]], the strength of the weak force becomes comparable with [[w:electromagnetism|electromagnetism]].<ref name=Griffiths/> It becomes much easier to produce particles such as neutrinos that interact only weakly. The heaviest particle pairs yet produced by electron–positron annihilation are [[w:W boson|{{SubatomicParticle|W boson+}}–{{SubatomicParticle|W boson-}}]] pairs. The heaviest single particle is the [[w:Z boson|Z boson]]. Annihilation radiation is not monoenergetic, unlike gamma rays produced by [[w:radioactive decay|radioactive decay]]. The production mechanism of annihilation radiation introduces [[w:Doppler broadening|Doppler broadening]].<ref name=Gilmore>Gilmore, G., and Hemmingway, J.: "Practical Gamma Ray Spectrometry", page 13. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1995</ref> The annihilation peak produced in a gamma spectrum by annihilation radiation therefore has a higher [[w:full width at half maximum|full width at half maximum]] (FWHM) than other gamma rays in [the] spectrum. The difference is more apparent with high resolution detectors, such as [[w:Germanium|Germanium]] detectors, than with low resolution detectors such as [[w:Sodium iodide|Sodium iodide]]. Because of their well-defined energy (511 keV) and characteristic, Doppler-broadened shape, annihilation radiation can often be useful in defining the energy calibration of a gamma ray spectrum. ==Pair production== The reverse reaction, electron–positron creation, is a form of [[w:pair production|pair production]] governed by [[w:Two-photon physics|two-photon physics]]. '''Two-photon physics''', also called '''gamma-gamma physics''', [studies] the interactions between two photons. If the energy in the center of mass system of the two photons is large enough, matter can be created.<ref name=Moffat>{{ cite journal |author=Moffat JW |title=Superluminary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Initial Value Problem in Cosmology |journal=Intl J Mod Phys D |month= |year=1993 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=351–65 |arxiv=gr-qc/9211020 |doi=10.1142/S0218271893000246 |bibcode = 1993IJMPD...2..351M }}</ref> :{{SubatomicParticle|Photon}}&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Electron}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{SubatomicParticle|Positron}} In nuclear physics, [the above reaction] occurs when a high-energy photon interacts with a nucleus. The photon must have enough energy [> 2*511 keV, or 1.022 MeV] to create an electron plus a positron. Without a nucleus to absorb momentum, a photon decaying into electron-positron pair (or other pairs for that matter such as a muon and anti-muon or a tau and anti-tau can never conserve energy and momentum simultaneously.<ref name=Hubbell>{{ cite journal | last=Hubbell | first=J. H. | title=Electron positron pair production by photons: A historical overview | journal=Radiation Physics and Chemistry | year=2006 | month=June | volume=75 | issue=6 | pages=614–623 | doi=10.1016/j.radphyschem.2005.10.008 | bibcode=2006RaPC...75..614H }}</ref> These interactions were first observed in Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett's counter-controlled cloud chamber. In 2008 the Titan laser aimed at a 1-millimeter-thick gold target was used to generate positron–electron pairs in large numbers.<ref name=Bevy>{{ cite book |author= |title=Laser technique produces bevy of antimatter |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27998860/ |date=2008 |accessdate=2008-12-04 }}</ref> "The LLNL scientists created the positrons by shooting the lab's high-powered Titan laser onto a one-millimeter-thick piece of gold."<ref name=Bevy/> ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}} "Radio observations at 210 GHz taken by the Bernese Multibeam Radiometer for KOSMA (BEMRAK) [of] high-energy particle acceleration during the energetic solar flare of 2003 October 28 [...] at submillimeter wavelengths [reveal] a gradual, long-lasting (>30 minutes) component with large apparent source sizes (~60"). Its spectrum below ~200 GHz is consistent with synchrotron emission from flare-accelerated electrons producing hard X-ray and γ-ray bremsstrahlung assuming a magnetic field strength of ≥200 G in the radio source and a confinement time of the radio-emitting electrons in the source of less than 30 s. [... There is a] close correlation in time and space of radio emission with the production of pions".<ref name=Trottet>{{ cite journal |author=G. Trottet |author2=Säm Krucker |author3=T. Lüthi |author4=A. Magun |title=Radio Submillimeter and γ-Ray Observations of the 2003 October 28 Solar Flare |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=May 1 |year=2008 |volume=678 |issue=1 |pages=509 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/678/1/509 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/528787 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref> ==Solar neutrinos== {{main|Stars/Sun/Neutrinos}} [[Image:Neusun1 superk1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This "neutrino image" of the Sun is produced by using the Super-Kamiokande to detect the neutrinos from nuclear fusion coming from the Sun. Credit: R. Svoboda and K. Gordan (LSU).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Neutrinos are hard to detect. The Super-Kamiokande, or "Super-K" is a large-scale experiment constructed in an unused mine in Japan to detect and study neutrinos. The image at right required 500 days worth of data to produce the "neutrino image" of the Sun. The image is centered on the Sun's position. It covers a 90° x 90° octant of the sky (in right ascension and declination). The higher the brightness of the color, the larger is the neutrino flux. "The detection of solar neutrinos demonstrates that fusion energy is the basic source of energy received from the sun."<ref name="Bahcall">{{cite journal |author=John N. Bahcall |author2=K. Lande |author3=R. E. Lanou Jr |author4=J. G. Learned |author5=R. G. H. Robertson |author6=L. Wolfenstein |title=Progress and prospects in neutrino astrophysics |journal=Nature |month=May |year=1995 |volume=375 |issue=6526 |pages=29-34 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Natur.375...29B |arxiv= |bibcode=1995Natur.375...29B |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-07 }}</ref> In detecting solar neutrinos, it became clear that the number detected was half or a third than that predicted by models of the solar interior. The problem was solved by revising the properties of neutrinos and understanding the limits of the detection mechanisms - only one third of the forms of neutrinos coming in was being detected and all neutrinos oscillate between the three forms. The first experiment to detect the effects of neutrino oscillation was Ray Davis's Homestake Experiment in the late 1960s, in which he observed a deficit in the flux of [[Sun (star)|solar]] neutrinos with respect to the prediction of the Standard Solar Model, using a chlorine-based detector. This gave rise to the Solar neutrino problem. Many subsequent radiochemical and water Cherenkov detectors confirmed the deficit, but neutrino oscillation was not conclusively identified as the source of the deficit until the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory provided clear evidence of neutrino flavor change in 2001. Solar neutrinos have energies below 20&nbsp;MeV and travel an astronomical unit between the source in the Sun and detector on the Earth. At energies above 5&nbsp;MeV, solar neutrino oscillation actually takes place in the Sun through a resonance known as the Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (MSW) effect, a different process from the vacuum oscillation. Most neutrinos passing through the Earth emanate from the Sun. About 65&nbsp;billion (6.5 x 10¹⁰) solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth.<ref name="Bahcall2005">{{cite journal |author=J. Bahcall |year=2005 |title=New solar opacities, abundances, helioseismology, and neutrino fluxes |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=621 |issue= |pages=L85–L88 |arxiv=astro-ph/0412440 |bibcode=2005ApJ...621L..85B |doi=10.1086/428929 }}</ref> The Mikheyev Smirnov Wolfenstein (MSW) effect is important at the very large electron densities of the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]] where electron neutrinos are produced. The high-energy neutrinos seen, for example, in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) and in Super-Kamiokande, are produced mainly as the higher mass eigenstate in matter ν_2m, and remain as such as the density of solar material changes. (When neutrinos go through the ''MSW resonance'' the neutrinos have the maximal probability to change their nature, but it happens that this probability is negligibly small—this is sometimes called propagation in the adiabatic regime). Thus, the neutrinos of high energy leaving the sun are in a vacuum propagation eigenstate, ν₂, that has a reduced overlap with the electron neutrino ν_e = ν₁ cosθ + ν₂ sinθ seen by charged current reactions in the detectors. For high-energy solar neutrinos the MSW effect is important, and leads to the expectation that ''P''_ee&nbsp;=&nbsp;sin²''θ'', where θ&nbsp;=&nbsp;34° is the solar mixing angle. This was dramatically confirmed in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), which has resolved the solar neutrino problem. SNO measured the flux of Solar electron neutrinos to be ~34% of the total neutrino flux (the electron neutrino flux measured via the charged current reaction, and the total flux via the neutral current reaction). The SNO results agree well with the expectations. For the low-energy solar neutrinos, on the other hand, the matter effect is negligible, and the formalism of oscillations in vacuum is valid. The size of the source (i.e. the Solar core) is significantly larger than the oscillation length, therefore, averaging over the oscillation factor, one obtains ''P''_ee&nbsp;=&nbsp;1&nbsp;−&nbsp;sin²2''θ''&nbsp;/&nbsp;2. For the same value of the solar mixing angle (θ&nbsp;=&nbsp;34°) this corresponds to a survival probability of P_ee&nbsp;≈&nbsp;60%. This is consistent with the experimental observations of low energy Solar neutrinos by the [[w:Homestake experiment|Homestake experiment]] (the first experiment to reveal the solar neutrino problem), followed by GALLEX, the Gallium Neutrino Observatory (GNO), and Soviet–American Gallium Experiment (SAGE) (collectively, gallium radiochemical experiments), and, more recently, the Borexino experiment. These experiments provided further evidence of the MSW effect. The transition between the low energy regime (the MSW effect is negligible) and the high energy regime (the oscillation probability is determind by matter effects) lies in the region of about 2 MeV for the Solar neutrinos. {{clear}} ==Interstellars== {{main|Interstellar medium}} As of December 5, 2011, "Voyager 1 is about ... 18 billion kilometers ... from the [S]un [but] the direction of the magnetic field lines has not changed, indicating Voyager is still within the heliosphere ... the outward speed of the solar wind had diminished to zero in April 2010 ... inward pressure from interstellar space is compacting [the magnetic field] ... Voyager has detected a 100-fold increase in the intensity of high-energy electrons from elsewhere in the galaxy diffusing into our solar system from outside ... [while] the [solar] wind even blows back at us."<ref name=SteveCole>{{ cite book |author=Steve Cole |author2=Jia-Rui C. Cook |author3=Alan Buis |title=NASA's Voyager Hits New Region at Solar System Edge |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC |date=December 2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/dec/HQ_11-402_AGU_Voyager.html |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name=Ting>{{ cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Each extant subatomic particle may help to understand a radiation source. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles|Alpha-particle astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryon astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hadrons|Hadron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Subatomic astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] 29xgt86rr15m7ui4ds73sue9ayv6gy5 6 170657 2417131 1286671 2022-08-22T00:19:26Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Licensing */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == This is the Sudbury neutrino observatory in Sudbury, England. [[Category:Neutrino astronomy images]] == Licensing == {{Information1 |Description = This is the Sudbury neutrino observatory in Sudbury, England. |Source = The image appears on a website entitled, "Sterile Neutrinos: Are They Dark Matter?" at url=http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/104136.aspx. |Date = 1/23/2011 |Author = NASA |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show fthe Sudbury neutrino observatory in Sudbury, England. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} aijqmbrhhojax8fu9fuxff9bokaau08 0 192744 2417162 1969621 2022-08-22T03:41:24Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals]]''' is a lecture from the [[Portal:Radiation astronomy|radiation astronomy]] department. It is under development for possible inclusion in the course on the [[principles of radiation astronomy]]. You are free to take this quiz based on [[neutrals astronomy]] at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Yes or No, Although electrically neutral atoms from the interstellar volume can penetrate the heliosphere, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. |type="()"} - No + Yes {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Charged-current charged pion production is a process in which a { neutrino (i) } interacts with an atomic { nucleus (i) } and produces a { muon (i) }, a charged { pion (i) } and recoiling nuclear fragments. {True or False, An neutral antimuon is a neutral muon spinning backward in time. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are associated with the IceCube Neutrino Observatory? |type="[]"} + under ice + the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station + Digital Optical Modules + the counting house is on the surface above the array - the baryon neutrino + the electron neutrino {True or False, Like all elementary particles, the neutral meson has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite spin but equal mass and charge. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Which of the following are associated with electromagnetics? |type="[]"} + angular momentum transfer + solar wind + protons + electrons - the baryon neutrino + charge neutralization {True or False, Van Allen radiation belt electrons are constantly removed by collisions with atmospheric neutrals, losses to the magnetopause, and outward radial diffusion. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following is not characteristic of a neutrino? |type="()"} - neutrinos are affected by the weak nuclear force + produced by a positron annihilating an electron - a decay product of a neutron - produced by the near surface fusion on the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] - may have a mass - comes in mutable varieties {Yes or No, T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. |type="()"} - No + Yes {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Meteors - A Cosmic rays - B Neutrons - C Protons - D Electrons - E Positrons - F Gamma rays - G Superluminals - H X-ray jets { C (i) } the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonance frequency { H (i) }. iron, nickel, cobalt, and traces of iridium { A (i) }. Sagittarius X-1 { G (i) }. escape from a typical hard low-mass X-ray binary { F (i) }. collisions with argon atoms { B (i) }. X-rays are emitted as they slow down { E (i) }. Henry Moseley using X-ray spectra { D (i) }. </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # In the absence of gravity high-density baryonic matter is bound by purely strong forces. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Background astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles/Quiz|Beta-particles astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Electron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Intergalactic medium/Quiz]] * [[Interplanetary medium/Quiz]] * [[Interstellar medium/Quiz]] * [[Muon astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Neutrino astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Neutron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Positron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Proton astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Neutrals astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation quizzes]] 9t04junra3pmij4y7p1j7ord7kos70t 0 201325 2417252 2186165 2022-08-22T05:28:27Z Ana028 2947571 /* External Links */ added external link wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Stolen Generations and emotion:<br> What have been the long-term emotional impacts of child removal on survivors of the Stolen Generations?}} == Overview == ''Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander viewers are warned that the following book chapter contains images, and links to other images and videos, which may contain pictures of deceased persons.'' During the 1914s{{huh}} to the late 1960s a government policy within Australia became active and allowed the forced removal of children who were part Indigenous and part white from their mothers. These children who were stolen from their families and communities were placed into institutional foster care, and are known as the “Stolen Generations”. Kinship, land, traditions and customs, and spirituality are all core values of Indigenous people, and their way of life. Through the removal of children, cutting ties with family and land, the inability to practice their culture, and the introduction of physical, mental, and sexual abuse, many Indigenous people suffered emotionally, physically and psychologically. The attempt of this was racial outbreeding{{rewrite}}. They{{who}} attempted to force Indigenous people to assimilate into white society, and annihilate Aboriginal culture. Because of this act, there have been many emotional impacts that the Stolen Generations have suffered, along with their communities, and the generations to come. == Brief History == In 1788 Australia was settled by the English, and termed the land ‘terra nullius’. Terra nullius means, “land not owned”, and the Europeans used this term {{missing}} as to allow themselves to take Australia for their own. According to Petchkovsky, Roque, Jurra, and Butler (2004) between 1788 and approximately 1840 the Indigenous inhabitants of Australia had went{{grammar}} from 750,000 to 40,000. This reduction was due to the impact of the European settlers expanding, dispossession, massacres, and exotic pathogens{{fact}}. The term “Stolen Generations” refers to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were of mixed descent (half English and half Indigenous), and therefore were forcibly removed from their Indigenous families and communities (Kennedy, 2011b).  These children who were removed ended up being placed in Westernised foster settings, large group homes, and missionaries (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). The aim of this removal was to attempt to phase out the Aboriginality within the Indigenous people and assimilate them into white Australian culture (Kennedy, 2011b). This aimed at systemically removing Indigenous children from their families, largely for the purpose of the gradual eradication of Aboriginal cultural identity (Krieken, 1999). These Indigenous children were placed into institutions that were run by the government and the church, and they were forbidden to speak their native tongues and from partaking in cultural traditions, {{grammar}} sometimes disciplined by beatings (Pattel-Gray, 1991; Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). The staff that was in charge of looking after the stolen children was not highly qualified, and had hardly any idea on how to assist the emotional needs of the children{{fact}}. Some institutions the staff were physical and sexual abusers (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004){{grammar}}. The children had limited education, and were mainly taught how to work as domestics or station hands (Kennedy, 2011b). In 1997 a report came out called “Bringing them home: The ‘Stolen Children’” (National Inquiry). This report contained evidence of the harm that was inflicted on the Stolen Generations and their families and communities, and the suffering and the misery that they all experienced (Kennedy, 2011a). According to Kennedy (2011a), not only did the Bringing Them Home report show the emotional impacts that the Stolen Generations, and their families felt, but also set non-Indigenous Australians as compassionate witnesses. == Traditions and Customs == For Indigenous Australian culture, it is passed on through the generations mainly via oral storytelling (Kennedy, 2008){{rewrite}}. A few other examples of how Indigenous Australians passed on their culture was through art, song, and dance. This is an important concept as this is how the white European settlers were able to destroy a majority of the Indigenous culture, as all they had to do to accomplish their goal was to separate the younger generation from the older generation. === Culture === Through the removal of children from their families and communities, a loss of culture, language, and land occurred, which enabled the extinguishing{{huh}} of that culture. When children were removed and taken to institutions, they were not allowed to practice their cultural traditions, and were not allowed to speak their common tongue. Within the Our Generation Film (2012), a Gumatj clan elder talks about how the Westernised world constantly changes, as to suit the change in leadership and in the government. He discusses how their laws change, and how their culture changes with those. However, Indigenous clan laws never change, and this is because their law comes in through ceremony. Another Elder talks of how some Indigenous ceremonies are still active in today’s society; nevertheless, many have been lost and replaced by “white law” as they believe it is a better and more efficient way (Our generation film, 2012). Through this increase in the influence of Western society, but the undermining of the Indigenous culture, this creates a social breakdown in a vast amount of Aboriginal communities{{grammar}}. Within the Our Generation Film (2012) it talks about how there is no positive future for people who are constantly told what to do and where to go by the government through laws and policies. Many Aboriginal testimonies from the Stolen Generations show an impairment in the cultural part of their functioning, as they were rejected from white society, but taken away from their Indigenous society (Petchkovsky & San Roque, 2002). This indicates that the Indigenous laws are ignored and rejected by the white settlers. This sort of ignorance is what causes negative emotional impacts, as these laws hurt and destroy the Indigenous culture. The lack of compassion and understanding in white society assists in causing a sense of hopelessness and rejection within Indigenous communities. For many Indigenous people, this dispossession of their spiritual and cultural roots has allowed life-long suffering, and this suffering carries on from generation to generation. According to Kennedy (2008), through the Indigenous child removal process there was an immense social and personal price, as being taken away from their culture and families became a traumatic experience for both the children and their communities involved. Kennedy (2011b) and Krieken (1999) called the act of removing children from their mothers without consent ‘genocide’ as this was an attempt to destroy the Indigenous culture. === Land === An essential component to Aboriginal life was their land. They lived by having complete harmony with nature (Pattel-Gray, 1991). Through the removal of children from their land, this created a sense of loss for many infants, which became more profound as they grew older. Within the Australia Human Rights film (2014) a professor discusses the child removal schema and states that it was genocide that had occurred to the Indigenous people. He affirmed that the reason behind separating the children from their families and communities was due to annihilating their culture. He goes on to say that not only did the Commonwealth nearly achieve that annihilation of the Indigenous culture, but also they cut off that connection with the land, which is a part of an Indigenous person’s identity. On the land is where Indigenous people feel safe; it is where their home is. It is known that they used the land for their needs, such as food, water, shelter, and so on. However, by taking away that ability to nourish themselves from the land, they find other ways to nourish themselves, such as through alcohol abuse, drug abuse, and junk food. This unhealthy lifestyle is a result of child removal, and the dispossession of their ancestral lands (Our generation film, 2012). According to Pattel-Gray (1991) it is Aboriginal belief that the land owns them, not the other way around. It is because of this practice that European settlers termed the country “terra nullius,” as Indigenous people never set up fences or houses, as they were free to the land. This assisted in Indigenous people not being recognised as human beings, but as part of the flora and fauna of Australia. Within the Our Generation Film (2012) a woman Aboriginal talks about how it is Indigenous culture to move about the land, and be able to be with the land. However, once the white Europeans had settled on Australian soil, Indigenous people were told to stay in one place. Indigenous children were taken away from their country by the church and welfare, and were basically put into a yard and were told that they were not allowed to leave, not even to see their families. An Indigenous person’s knowledge and identity is placed upon their land, and to be taken away from that is like taking away a part of their being. An Aboriginal woman from the Djapu clan states that their homelands are a very significant part to who they are as human beings. She discusses how it is important to the survival of their culture, and how much they are connected to the land. The government both did not and does not understand their system, and continues to not recognise their law. (Our generation film, 2012). Kennedy (2011b) states that the child removal process had devastating effects on the lives of the Indigenous people and on their communities, and that these effects continue to this day. === Identity === As stated previously, through the removal of children from their Indigenous culture, and forcibly placed into white culture, it increased the sense of not belonging for many Indigenous children, and made room for confusion, loss, and depression. Many Indigenous people were not accepted into the white society, and were not told about where they originally came from, thus creating a sense of confusion of what their identity was. In many cases of the Stolen Generations, many children were told lies about their mothers, and were not allowed any form of contact at all with their families. These children were denied any knowledge about their families, and most believed they were abandoned, when in fact they were stolen (Kennedy, 2004). A loss of their land assisted in the loss of identity for many Indigenous people. Pattel-Gray (1991) states that for Aboriginal people the earth is sacred, it is where their identity comes from and where their spirituality begins. He goes on to say that through involving themselves within the natural world, they are able to look after their well-being. Within the Our Generation Film (2012) a Liyagawumirr clan elder discussed the impact of the forcibly removed children, and how their culture, land, and family were lost. He stated that he had no feeling towards it, no pain, just a hurt. He said that these feelings of hurt would continue from generation to generation, highlighting how detrimental the process of child removal was on all Indigenous people. One Aboriginal woman within the Our Generation Film (2012) asks what she is; Is she an Australian? Is she a Yolungu person? She cannot answer this as if she was a Yolungu person she would have rights, but as an Aboriginal she does not. She then questions if she is an Australian, but remembers that she has been rejected and discarded as an Australian.  Because of this loss of self-identity, it caused a number of emotional impacts for Indigenous people, such as: relationship difficulties, clinically significant impairment in social occupation and cultural occupation, complex post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, a lack of confidence, anxiety, self-harm, borderline personality disorder and so on (Petchkovsky & San Roque, 2002; Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). These impacts, and many more, are due to childhood trauma and neglect that were caused due to the child removal process. == Trauma == As stated above there are a wide range of emotional impacts due to the dispossession and child removal of Indigenous people, and this caused trauma for many involved. Not only was trauma inflicted on the children for being forcibly removed when they did not want to go, but also on the mothers, families, and communities who also did not want the children to go (Kennedy, 2011b). The National Inquiry explains the continuing effects of the Stolen Generations through using trauma discourse, and within this exposed to the public the treatment that Indigenous people, particularly women and children, went through, and labeled it as a traumatic event (Kennedy, 2011b). This traumatic event occurred through lies, force, brutality, abuse, violence, and an absence of comfort and affection, which resulted in more traumas for children, families, and the community (Kennedy, 2011b). These negative experiences assist in the inability to cope with the adult world and how to successfully handle the consequences of childhood trauma (Grahan, 2009). Indigenous Australian children make up only 3% of Australia’s population; however, represent 24% of children that are placed within in and out of home care (Douglas & Walsh, 2013). This statistic can be determined to be the result of child removal practices, which allowed the removal of children from their families and culture, which continues to affect Indigenous people{{fact}}. Many Indigenous people have developed a sort of hopelessness, which means that people who are consistently exposed to negative events and situations where they have no control, may start to believe that their actions have no control over situations (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). Therefore, this loss of identity and new formed hopelessness experienced by children who were stolen, continues to affect the children of today, as this mentality has been passed down from generation to generation, as those who suffered the child removal policies do not know how to be role models. In saying this, the trauma did not end with the separation from their mothers and communities, but continued within the institutions and the homes that they were sent to (Petchkovsky & San Roque; Petchkovsky, et al., 2004).   Trauma causes many symptoms of its own, such as:{{grammar}} re-experiencing, recollections, dreams, flashbacks, and cues that may elicit emotional and/or physiological responses (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). Due to this, many Indigenous people cope by emotionally shutting down, and/or avoiding anything that could make them remember the trauma that they went through (Petchkovsky & San Roque; Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). These emotional impacts disabled emotional nurturing for many Indigenous people, and impacted on their parenting abilities and skills in maintaining relationships. It caused Indigenous people to seek alcohol and drugs to help relieve their pain, as they were unable to keep their balance due to the dispossession of their children, their land, their culture, and their identity. === Poverty === Poverty is another factor that has unfortunately occurred for a majority of Indigenous people, as a result of the Stolen Generations. Not only is poverty an issue, but this increases the chances for Indigenous people to have alcohol and drug abuse problems, suicide, poor health, education and child neglect, lack of job opportunities, and so on (Kennedy, 2008). Many Indigenous communities after the child removal policies, attempted to stay within their communities and keep their traditions and culture alive. However, due to the introduction of white society, and the ignorance of Indigenous culture, many Indigenous communities have been negatively affected. The removal from family assisted in altering the Aboriginal children’s environments, confusing them and making them unable to know how to survive (Hennessey, 2001). When orally interviewing lawyers, Douglas and Walsh (2013) found that through the child removal policies and practices, a loss of identity and poverty highly occurred within Indigenous communities. Within the Our Generation Film (2012) an Aboriginal elder discusses how most Aboriginal people nowadays are suffering from poverty, as when the European settlers colonized Australia they attempted to assimilate Indigenous people into white society, but did not give them the necessary tools or education to survive. The elder states that before Australia was colonized, all Indigenous people were rich and healthy, but now they are suffer from illnesses brought over by Europeans and are in poverty because nobody showed the Indigenous how to live in a white society. === Abuse === The forced separation of Aboriginal children from their mothers resulted in severe psychological consequences for the children, and many died at a young age due to introduced illnesses and suicide (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). For the children growing up to be mothers of their own, many found that they had issues bonding with their children, and were unable to successfully create and maintain social relationships during their lifetime. Many believe that this is the cause for why so many Aboriginal children today go into in and out of home care, as their parents are unable to bond and become emotionally attached to them, and some may even suffer from substance and alcohol abuse due to the severe trauma they went through growing up. Many testimonies taken from Indigenous people who were part of the Stolen Generation tell of the physical, sexual, and emotional abuse that they went through, and how they are now dependent on drugs, alcohol, and have an increase of violence and suicide in their lives (Kennedy, 2008). Many mothers who had children taken away from them are known to have suffered similar results due to the loneliness and heartbreak they went through. Many Indigenous people who were children that were part of the Stolen Generation state that they have concentration difficulties, and have increase irritability (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). Many of these Indigenous people state that due to this circumstance they are further debilitated in being nurturing parents, as they are unable to handle their children due to the effects of child removal policies. The National Inquiry assisted in acknowledging the effects of the trauma that many Indigenous people went through due to the removal of Aboriginal children from their mothers. The National Inquiry also acknowledged the continuing effects of trauma continuing within Indigenous communities, these could be seen through the high levels of violence, acohol and drug dependency, family breakdown, self-harm, and suicide (Kennedy, 2011b). FED (n.d) also assisted in showing some of the lasting effects of the child removal policies, as a report found that mothers from the Stolen Generations were three times more likely than other Indigenous mothers to experience violence. The report goes on to say that this could be a cause of learned helplessness, as when they were children and were taken away, they may have been use to violence and abuse, so when they are older they do not feel that they have control over the situation. Within the Our Generation Film (2012), an Aboriginal woman talks about how they, as mothers, discipline their kids as much as they know how, but with western society’s influence they are not sure of what is being passed on. She goes on to say that the white society that has been introduced to Indigenous people is an invader, and anything that comes from it is also an invader, as it has invaded their system, belief, life, mind, and soul. Within the Australian Human Rights Commission film (2014) it states that it has been found that the effects of children being separated from their mothers and families have been passed on from generation to generation, and have negatively affected parenting skills, as these were lost when children were placed into institutions where they grew up and by the time they were eighteen and able to leave, they were dumped with no home and no family to go to.  Integrating into white Australian society was a challenge for many Indigenous children. Indigenous children and mothers, due to the child removal policy, suffered emotional disturbances and experienced feelings of loss, hurt, and pain (Kennedy, 2011b). Domestic and family violence is an increasing issue within Indigenous communities, and Indigenous children who grow up in out of home care have an increased chance of having contact with the criminal justice system (Douglas & Walsh, 2013). Many Indigenous people suffer from emotional dis-attachment, nightmares, insomnia, and low self-esteem (Petchkovsky, et al., 2004). Many Indigenous people who suffered from the Stolen Generation feel a sense of rejection and humiliation for who they are, and have a sense of confusion of their identity and who they are as a human being. == Conclusion == In conclusion, it can be seen that through the Australian government policy of removing children who were part white and part Aboriginal from their mothers and families was debilitating to those it affected. Not only were the children traumatised due to being stolen, but also the mothers and communities{{grammar}}{{rewrite}}. Research shows that the survivors of the stolen generation had many emotional impacts due to the severe trauma they went through during the time they were taken and the time they were old enough to leave{{fact}}. These emotional impacts were lifelong, and even have continued from generation to generation. == See Also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Saying sorry]] == References == Australian human rights commission. (2014, June 11). Bringing them home: separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families [Video file]. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sl82VMuuKI0</nowiki> Douglas, H., & Walsh, T. (2013). Continuing the Stolen Generations: Child Protection Interventions and Indigenous People. ''International Journal Of Children's Rights'', ''21''(1), 59-87. doi:10.1163/157181812X639288 FED: Stolen generations mums more like to experience violence. (n.d). ''AAP Australian National News Wire''. Graham, J. (2009). Review of Orphaned by the colour of my skin—A stolen generation story. ''Journal Of Family Studies'', ''15''(1), 107. Hennessy, G. (2001). Genocide with good intentions, the stolen generation and my place. ''Social Alternatives'', ''20''(3), 45-49. Kennedy, R. (2004). The affective work of stolen generations testimony: From the archives to the classroom. ''Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly'', ''27''(1), 48-77. Kennedy, R. (2008). Vulnerable Children, Disposable Mothers: Holocaust and Stolen Generations Memoirs of Childhood. ''Life Writing'', ''5''(2), 161-184. doi:10.1080/14484520802386535 Kennedy, R. (2011a). An Australian archive of feelings. ''Australian Feminist Studies'', ''26''(69), 257-279. doi:10.1080/08164649.2011.606603 Kennedy, R. (2011b). Australian Trials of Trauma: The Stolen Generations in Human Rights, Law, and Literature. ''Comparative Literature Studies'', ''48''(3), 333-355. Krieken, R. V. (1999). The barbarism of civilization: cultural genocide and the 'stolen generations'. ''British Journal Of Sociology'', ''50''(2), 297-315. Our Generation Film. (2012, December 6). Our Generation [Video file]. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tcq4oGL0wlI</nowiki> Pattel-Gray, A. (1991). ''Through aboriginal eyes.'' Canberra, ACT: WCC publications Petchkovsky, L., Roque, C. S., Jurra, R. N., & Butler, S. (2004). Indigenous maps of subjectivity and attacks on linking: Forced separation and its psychiatric sequelae in Australia's stolen generation. ''Aejamh (Australian E-Journal For The Advancement Of Mental Health)'', ''3''(3), doi:10.5172/jamh.3.3.113 Petchkovsky, L., & San Roque, C. (2002). Tjunguwiyanytja, attacks on linking: forced separation and its psychiatric sequelae in Australia's 'stolen generations'. ''Transcultural Psychiatry'', ''39''(3), 345-366 22p. == External Links == [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sl82VMuuKI0] Bringing them home: separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families [Video file] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tcq4oGL0wlI] Our Generation [Video file] [[imdbtitle:0252444|''Rabbit-Proof Fence'' Film]] (IMDB) [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Family]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Government]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Indigenous/Australian]] 6vaee52bm23dsdvt33sxjxgqu0iuqsq 0 202322 2417302 2416674 2022-08-22T07:01:47Z 121.45.170.127 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METE}} {{title|Self-esteem and culture:<br>What are the cultural influences on self-esteem?}} __TOC__ {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Self-esteem == ==== What is self esteem? ( paragraph) ==== * How do you feel about yourself? Internal monitor * Self liking & attractiveness * Self confidence * Self verification * developed from adolescent until middle and decreased in 50-60 * high self esteem suggest high well-being {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Case study {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Theories of Self-esteem === * === How do we evaluate self esteem? === * Rate a certain behaviour * Subjective's response * Information of experimental and motivational === Why is self-esteem important? === * Play an important role in daily life * Self-esteem has association with positive outcome (Furnham & Cheng, 2000)(Diener & Diener, 1995) * Associated with interpersoanl relationship * Associated with physical health == Culture == {{tip|􏰄'Cultu􏰀e is a fuzz􏰇 set of 􏰁asi􏰅 assu􏰂ptio􏰆s a􏰆d 􏰍alues, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence 􏰐􏰁ut do 􏰆ot dete􏰀􏰂i􏰆e􏰑 ea􏰅h 􏰂e􏰂􏰁e􏰀􏰋s 􏰁eha􏰍iou􏰀 a􏰆d his/he􏰀 i􏰆te􏰀p􏰀etatio􏰆s of the 􏰄􏰂ea􏰆i􏰆g􏰋 of othe􏰀 people􏰋s 􏰁eha􏰍iou􏰀.'-----Spencer-Oatey 2008: 3}} === The impacts of culture === * Shape one's behaviour * Shape one's thinking pattern * Social norm * Comman sense == How does culture affect self-esteem? == Affect Sense of self worth ===== Cross-culture study for self-esteem on Chinese and western culture (Research) ===== Wang, Y., Ollendick, T.H. A Cross-Cultural and Developmental Analysis of Self-Esteem in Chinese and Western Children. ''Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev'' 4, 253–271 (2001). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017551215413</nowiki> === Culture influence self-esteem between different gender === ==== Individual vs collective culture ==== Quizzes Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == Coping with low self-esteem impact by culture == ==== How does culture lower people's self-esteem ==== ==== How to cope? ==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Case study {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== Culture: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/55873665/global_pad_-_what_is_culture-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1660822704&Signature=SB0EgUKmBygRKjQihETQK0EqbSKowrbNoL8ZsSVbLe8yITbfw9Oe4oprZw88P-R32ucpto4j1WTIeqe5S3nbOVaiOLrXDBfi6oZ5KEA54dn9ThB6OQIDRM0Qz~6MLsNQswk4-j0CYC7GuOVqBlC1vIhxlwSI8RW~vMkfICKCommVXqsKSd90U-mgGHBOcUoZuPGlxNEn4TZXl6O~S9wJql4MmiVQKXRiBAneVgfm1WMEAyJVgYzCIXNrSYGkJ457cGDBdF02UZ6Cs~0w2KLai4MbU-056uWUmKoLqKLiS818zdfHXa~YConjkPfFftrnFMqf7KTzRh~FcS5EhLxDbA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-esteem]] ce65920sixuvcwfad654td3nz70r22k 0 203256 2417144 2325721 2022-08-22T02:24:23Z U3183466 2947633 /* Health Implications */ Removed text that said "Provide more information" wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Overcoming learned helpnessness:<br>How can learned helplessness be overcome?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0uvVDHxhPM}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:seligman.jpg..png|thumb|left|alt=A cartoon centipede reads books and types on a laptop.|Founder of Learned Helplessness ''[[Martin Seligman]]''.]] Learned helplessness is the behaviour exhibited by individuals who have endured repeated painful or aversive stimuli which they were unable to avoid; these events are deemed as uncontrollable by the individual and they learn that their associated responses are independent to their outcomes (Alloy, Peterson, Abramson, & Seligman, 1984). As a result of this learning, an individual surmises that any response will be pointless (Alloy et al., 1984); they learn that they have lost control and so they give up trying. This learning expectation can be applied to future events or situations and can impact future learning behaviours (Alloy et al., 1984). This page will discuss learned helplessness with a focus on how a person who experiences this can overcome learned helplessness through empowerment, cognitive therapy and learned optimism. This page will provide treatment options and discuss their success. ==Key Research and Theory== The theory of Learned Helplessness was conceptualized by Martin Seligman in the 1960s and 1970s. Learned helplessness is a type of behavioural conditioning which can affect adults, children and animals. In 1965, Martin Seligman and his team were researching Classical Conditioning, the process by which an animal or human associates one thing with another. In the Stage 1 of Seligman’s experiment he would place a dog into a crate and ring a bell each time he administered a shock to the dog. The dog was unable to escape the shock and after a while, Seligman noticed that the dog would respond to just the sound of the bell in the absence of a shock. The dog was now ‘conditioned’ to associate the sound of the bell with the shock consistent with Classical conditioning theory. In Stage 2 of Seligman’s experiment, he placed the dog into a crate which had a small fence in the middle dividing it into two separate sections. On one side of the fence, a shock would be administered and on the other a shock would not be administered. The fence was low enough for the dog to jump and escape the shock if it wanted to. Seligman placed the dog on the side of the fence that administered a shock and hypothesised that the dog would try to escape the shock and jump the low fence. Instead, the dogs lay down. Seligman’s experiments consistently showed that the dog would not attempt to escape the shocks; it seemed that in Stage 1 of the experiment the dogs had learned that they could not avoid the shocks, so they gave up in Stage 2 of the experiment. Seligman described their condition as ‘Learned Helplessness. Seligman found that when events are uncontrollable the organism learns that its behaviour and outcomes are independent, and this learning produces the motivational, cognitive, and emotional effects of uncontrollability (Maier, Steven F.; Seligman, Martin E., 1976). ===Experiments on Animals=== Many studies have taken place regarding the link between learned helplessness and depression. Until recently the cellular basis of depression has been poorly understood, perhaps owing to the multifaceted nature of depressive disorders (Pittenger & Duman, 2008). The study of “Synaptic potentiation onto habenula neurons in the learned helplessness model of depression (Le Et.al. 2009)” was partially conducted on monkeys and indicated that neurons in the lateral habenula (LHb), a nucleus that facilitates communication between forebrain and midbrain structures, increase their activity when the animal receives a stimulus that predicts aversive conditions or does not receive an expected positive reward (Matsumoto, 2007). For example, anticipation or disappointment of a negative outcome. This study shows that in the learned helplessness models of depression, excitatory synapses from the LHb neurons increase the strength of nerve impulses along pathways in dopamine-rich areas which have been used previously, either short-term or long-term. LHb neurons exert a controlling influence on dopamine-rich regions within the brain which control reward-seeking behaviour (Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, 2007) and therefore hold relevance to learned helplessness and participate in depressive disorders (Matsumoto 2009). The increase in the strength of nerves impulses correlates with an animal’s helplessness behaviour and is due to an enhanced presynaptic release probability. This study provided insight into the cellular mechanisms with human and animal brains revealing that when LHb neurons increase the strength of nerve impulses along neural pathways depression-like symptoms are more prevalent. The study attempted to deplete the transmitter release by repeated electrical stimulation of the brain. Deep brain stimulation has been shown to be effective for patients who are depressed (Sartorius 2010). The electrical stimulation markedly suppressed the synapses that caused the LHb neurons to fire. “This finding suggests that large changes in a small proportion of cells in the LHb may be capable of modifying an animal’s behaviour.” The results of brain scans and slice indicated that learned helplessness and depression in rats could be directly attributed to the LHb neurons. The results of the experiment indicate that excitatory synaptic activity in the LHb neurons may be a key modulator of learned helplessness. As stated in the study “reducing synaptic transmission onto LHb neurons through a Deep Brain Stimulation protocol led to acute reversal of learned helplessness (Li, Et al. 2009).” This is compelling research which suggests deep brain stimulation may be an effective treatment for humans and rodents alike. Further studies in this area may reveal the cellular processes that occur during different moods. This study suggested that further study of the LHb neurons may lead to effective treatments and reversal of some forms of depressive orders. ==Health Implications== ===Physical Health=== Research shows that pessimistic explanations of negative events are related to poor physical health (Buchanan, 1995; Kamen-Siegel, Roding, Seligman, & Dwyer, 1991). It is argued that learned helplessness leads to a pessimistic explanatory style which affects health indirectly by inhibiting health promoting behaviours, increasing depression and stress and increasing social isolation (Bennet, & Elliot, 1997). ===Explanatory style and health=== When a person feels overwhelmed or believes they{{grammar}} are unable to change their physical health it inevitably declines. For example, an individual may decide they{{grammar}} want to improve their health by losing weight or simply improving their{{grammar}} fitness. However, past experience may tell them that they can never lose weight or they will always be fat. A surplus of diet and exercise information can be overwhelming and cause a person to give up on exercise before they begin. A person who experiences depression, anxiety and learned helplessness may attribute their past failures to things outside of their control such as “I am obese because of my genetics”; “I cannot lose weight because diets do not work for me” or “I will never be healthy because I have diabetes”. A person who says these things aloud or to themselves has a pessimistic explanatory style. This causes a person to give up before they try because of the feelings they experience when they consider past outcomes or simply ponder their goals. Because they may experience feelings of being overwhelmed, helpless and anxious, their inability to try means they unknowingly display health inhibiting behaviours, increasing their depression, stress and anxiety when trying to achieve a particular goal. When assessments of the causes of negative events are deemed pervasive, feelings of helplessness are expected to increase (Peterson et al., 1995). If an individual thinks that the cause of a negative event will follow them through to other situations, they are more likely to feel helplessness, begin catastrophizing and become severely overwhelmed by these thoughts. Feelings such as these can lead to sadness, loneliness, anxiety, and depression. One way to overcome this catastrophizing is to mediate the effects of stress, begin practicing health promoting behaviour and maintain a strong support network as well as positive relationships. Research by Bennet and Elliot (2009) speculate that individuals who “experience feelings of helplessness are needier than others and subsequently seek out more emotional and material help from their friends and families”. It is important for individuals who experience these feelings to express them to someone who they trust{{fact}}. For more ways to overcome these feelings, see [[#Treatment|Treatment]] ===Depression=== In 1974, Martin Seligman suggested that depression can be caused by Learned Helplessness. Seligman suggessted the 'Giving up' behaviour was produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events. Seligman (1989) States explanatory style is the habitual pattern of explanations an individual makes for good and bad events. Abraham and Seligman (1978) explain that individuals with an optimistic explanatory style are less likely to display helplessness deficits when faced with a negative situation than an individual who displays a pessimistic explanatory style (Abramson, Seligman and Teasdale, 1978). When faced with a set of undesirable circumstances, people will struggle vigorously to escape, counteract or overcome the situation. However, those who experience helplessness do not try to overcome or escape situations, their previous experiences have led them to believe that trying to struggle, escape or overcome a particular situation is futile. Once a person believes that they cannot control their situation they adopt depressive emotionality and experience emotions such as apathy, depression and listlessness. Individuals who display learned helplessness show signs of lethargy and depressive emotional responses in situations that call for a more positive emotional response. For example, much like the rats in Seligman’s experiment, when a person who has learned helplessness is faced with a set of circumstances that they could potentially overcome, they lose the will to try to overcome them. People in similar situations begin to attribute their failure to their own personal attributes such rather than their actions; people who have learned helplessness may say things such as “I am not good enough”, “I am not educated enough”, “ I will never be successful’. Those who experience helplessness respond differently in the face of failure than others. Generally, these people give up or they do not try. ===Motivation=== For children and adults who have learned helplessness, their motivation to try can be severely impaired due to irrational beliefs about themselves, the world and their ability to succeed. Failure can be defined as a ‘loss of control over a desired outcome’. Mastery of belief is the amount of control one believes they have over a particular situation. Peterson et al. (1993) explains that when a person has strong mastery they perceive a strong link between their actions and the impact they have on outcomes. However, when mastery is low, their beliefs are less resilient and the individual may perceive that their personal actions, influences or behaviour has limited or no effect on the outcome. This can have a significant impact on the person's motivation levels. In the face of adversity and failure, many people see it as a minor set-back and are energised by the challenge to succeed at the next challenge{{Fact}}. However those who experience helplessness respond to failure by giving up. Helplessness oriented people shy away from challenges, fall apart in the face of setbacks, begin to question and then outright doubt their ability. This can have a significant impact on career outcomes; for example if a person applies for a promotion, is unsuccessful and has learned helplessness, may respond by saying or thinking things such as ‘I am useless, I will never be promoted because I am dumb’ and so on. This person cannot be consoled or convinced that it is a minor setback and that they should continue striving for success and achievement; it is likely that they will give up entirely, internalising the situation emotionally and believing they are useless, unworthy and that there is not point in trying again. On the other hand, for someone without learned helplessness, they can logically attribute their set back to a poorly written application, not enough skills or perhaps simply bad luck. A study conducted by Butkowsky and Willows (1980) sought to determine if children with reading difficulties would display negative self-perception that may contribute to motivational and performance deficits. Butkowsky and Willows (1980) studied 72 boys who were in Year 5 and were experiencing reading difficulties. The boys ranged from poor, average and good reading ability. Each child was assessed on reading tasks in which their success or failure was manipulated. The results of the study were consistent with the hypothesis; that the poor readers were observed displaying characteristics indicative of learned helplessness and low self-concepts of ability. These children displayed low self-esteem and showed significantly lower estimates of potential success. These children showed less persistence than the other children and they attributed their failures to lack of ability and to factors that were outside of their personal control (Butkowsky & Willows, 1980). Once a child had failed a particular task, they{{grammar}} did not believe that they could be successful during the next task. Therefore, they were less willing to try believing that they could not improve their ability and that it was out of their control. These children were shown to have low motivation to improve their ability and were less willing to strive to success than the children who had a good reading ability but failed their tasks also. The children who had a good reading ability, but were manipulated to fail their tasks displayed more willingness to strive for success, believing they could improve their skills and persevere. It is quite common for those who experience learned helplessness to have irrational beliefs about the way the world works and themselves{{fact}}. Those who have learned helplessness often learn it at an early age {{Fact}}they may learn that a particular type of behaviour promotes a negative response in a parent so they cease that behaviour; however as they grow older, they may attribute their failures to factors that are outside of their control. Each person will experience failures during their life, many failures are unrelated to a persons ability or unrelated to them at all. However, for those who have learned helplessness these failures unintentionally reinforce to children or adults that their actions do not influence the outcome. For example, if a child experiences physical abuse when they are younger, they may try to escape this abuse. After a while they realise that trying to escape or cry has no affect, they stop trying to escape. As the child develops into adulthood, he or she may irrationally think that when a negative physical situation arises, they cannot escape or control it and they may therefore give up. This type of response can be detrimental to a persons close intimate relationships, education, career and family life. However, this type of behaviour is a learned response and can be changed. ==Treatment== {{expand}} ===Empowerment=== There are several options available that can assist a person to overcome learned helplessness. Each person will respond to treatment differently, so it is important to consider what is right for you or someone you may know who wants to overcome learned helplessness. This page only considers treatment for humans. A crucial step towards overcoming learned helplessness is to recognise that it is not an inherent personality trait and that with perseverance and treatment it can it can be overcome (Abramson, L., Seligman, M., & Teasdale, J. 1978). A person who wants to overcome learned helplessness needs to feel empowered to do so. Overcoming learned helplessness means empowering a person or yourself towards taking intentional actions, promoting optimal experience, positive functioning, positive emotions, a resilient sense of self, and healthy development away from impulsive functioning, counterproductive functioning, habitual experience, negative emotion, a fragile sense of self, maladaptive or dysfunctional development{{fact}}. This may mean finding the motivation to exercise, using positive self-talk, attributing positive emotions to positive experiences and moving away from a pessimistic explanatory style and moving towards a more optimistic explanatory style. This could also mean that you need to work on building a positive sense of self and building resilience against negative events that may occur in your life, realising that not everything is within your control, but rather than using negative events as setbacks or a reflection of inability, by truly assessing those events to see if you could have performed better, prepared better or challenged yourself more. Often there will be events that you were underprepared for or a skill you did not acquire in time for ‘that job’, however these setbacks in life can be viewed as challenges that need to be conquered. Perhaps one of the hardest habits to break is the thought patterns that allow a person to maintain their state of mind, whether it be depression, anxiety or a pessimistic frame of mind. The thought patterns that sustain depression and inhibit health promoting behaviours are often what holds a person back from overcoming helplessness. These thought patterns may exist in the form of smoking, drinking, unsafe sexual practices or abuse of self-administered-medications; relationships may fail, careers may not progress and health generally deteriorates. People who overcome learned helplessness often find that by taking each day at a time and focusing on the long term goal, they are able to quit the habits that were holding them back and begin fighting depression and anxiety. By having a good understanding of motivation and emotional problems your capacity to find workable solutions and real world motivational solutions to your emotional problems will improve. If you are trying to help a friend overcome learned helplessness, consider how you may encourage a person who has experienced 'perceived' failure their entire life, a person who does not believe their actions directly relate to situational outcomes, a person who experiences depression and regularly experiences the world in a negative way, a person who expects to fail to try a treatment plan. This may seem like a difficult task at first, but if you encourage the person and empower them will a supportive social network, encouragement and a plan they may be able to begin to work through their motivational and emotional problems. ===Positive Explanatory Style Treatment Case Study=== A study conducted by Dweck (1975) aimed to see if altering a child‘s perception of the relationship between his behaviour and the occurrence of failure (pessimistic explanatory style) would result in a change in the child’s response to failure. A group of children received re-training on ways to perceive failure. Group A were taught to take responsibility for failure and to attribute it to insufficient effort (Dweck, 1975). It was believed this would lead to the children increasing their persistence in the face of failure. Research suggests that people with higher expectations of success lead to greater persistence in the face of difficulty (Battle, 1965). The study considered that while success is the most effective way to motivate children and adults, errors in everyday life will need to be accepted and children need to learn to accept that their performance will not always be perfect. Children and adults who are trying to overcome learned helplessness need to consider whether they can completely eliminate failure from every situation or if they could teach themselves to deal with it more effectively instead (Dweck, 1975). Dweck (1975) explains that the study began with the assumption that the manner in which a person deals with an aversive situation, such as failure, determines the way in which the person responds to that event. Therefore, if a child believes failure to be a result of external failures or their lack of ability the child is unlikely to persist with their efforts. On the contrary, if a child believes the failure is due to a lack of motivation, the child is likely to try harder in his or her efforts in a future attempt to obtain the goal. The children were given a math test after extensive training in positive explanatory style and their responses were measured. Prior to the training, each child displayed severely deteriorated performance immediately after failure, a problem they had tried to solve the previous day became sources of great emotional pain and general difficulty. Once the test was completed, children demonstrated increased persistence in the face of failure, with the results of the study strongly supporting the hypothesis that a pessimistic explanatory style can be overcome through therapy or training in the case of children (Dweck, 1975). Interestingly, another part of the study trained children to strive to make nil errors; this errorless training saw children who received a perfect mark excel and their performance and motivation were superior. However, the downside of this type of training is that is it unrealistic to expect a perfect score all the time and in life generally. The children who were encouraged to achieve a perfect score did not respond well to failure when their results returned errors. This should be a consideration for adults who seek to achieve perfection. Further research is needed to determine if the extent to which failure retains its meaning as a cue for continued failure will decrease if an adult practises positive attribution. Continued positive attribution will eventually lead to a more positive explanatory response to failure. Research by Bennet and Elliot showed that individuals who experience learned helplessness score higher on the depression scale and tend to suffer from pessimistic explanatory style. This can be treated with cognitive therapy, supportive social networks as well as individual effort. Cognitive therapy teaches the pessimist that failure in one situation does not predict or ensure failure in another unrelated situation. Therapy and self-determination teaches individuals to abandon using global causal explanations and catastrophising behaviour, as this change in thought association may improve an individual’s mental health, and therefore influence their physical health. === Learned Optimism=== Learned optimism is another term coined by Martin Seligman. Seligman explains that just like learned helplessness, optimism can also be learned. Seligman and many other positive psychology studies show that people with an optimistic outlook are higher achievers and have better overall health. However, pessimism has been proven to be much more common{{fact}}. Someone with a pessimistic explanatory style is more likely to give up in the face of adversity and to experience depression and anxiety{{fact}}. Seligman encourages pessimists to learn to be optimists by thinking about their reactions to adversity in a new way. The resulting optimism and change in explanatory style is a ‘learned optimism’. A person with an optimistic outlook will perceive failure as an event which was simply unlucky and really just a simple setback or challenge, rather than a permanent or personal reflection of one’s ability to succeed. Explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative. Psychologists have identified three components in explanatory style: *'''Permanence:''' Permanence is the way an optimistic person interprets the events in their life. Optimistic people tend to believe negative events to be more temporary than permanent and recover from setbacks quickly, whereas others may take longer periods to recover or may never recover. They also believe good things happen for reasons that are permanent, rather than seeing the transient nature of positive events. Optimists point to specific temporary causes for negative events; pessimists point to permanent causes. (Seligman) *'''Pervasiveness:''' Optimistic people compartmentalize helplessness, whereas pessimistic people assume that failure in one area of life means failure in life as a whole (Seligman). Optimistic people also allow good events to influence other areas of their lives rather than just the particular area in which the event occurred. *'''Personalization:''' Optimists tend to attribute failure to causes outside of themselves whereas pessimists tend to blame their inability or blame themselves for events that occur. Optimists are therefore able to process failure faster and experience higher levels of self-esteem and confidence. Optimists generally take greater personal responsibility for failure, seeing it as a setback or challenge rather than a failure that affects all areas of their life. Research suggests that pessimistic explanatory style is associated with depression, this would imply that if a person challenged their own thinking and learned optimism that their depression may be alleviated. ==Intervention Plans== Intervention plans can be successful if a person is experiencing significant affect in their life due to a failure. A strategy can be devised to assist the person to alleviate their reaction to failure, depression and anxiety. '''Strategy 1:''' A strategy aimed at overcoming a fixed mindset can be implemented for learned helplessness. Often a person with learned helplessness may have depleted self control, a pessimistic explanatory style, hubristic pride, malicious envy, thought suppression, depression, anxiety and immature defence mechanisms{{fact}}. Here is how an intervention plan may be structured to target pessimistic explanatory style and alleviate the negative impact failure has on an individual. The intervention need to ensure that it is supporting psychological needs such as comfort, strong support network, trust and satisfaction that an outcome will be achieved. The intervention needs to target an individual's mindset and focus on increasing growth and changing their mindset. For example, the individual could learn optimism. Promoting Emotional Knowledge is important for any intervention plan. In order for a person to be able to change, they must have cultivated a good understanding of emotions and why they feel a certain way in order to overcome and work through those emotions. In any intervention plan, a person must be willing to make long term changes and work hard to achieve their desired outcome. An intervention plan must be driven by the patient, rather than the psychologist. If the patient is inadequately motivated, it is unlikely that success will prevail. ==See Also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness: How we learn to give up]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[[Wikipedia:Explanatory style||Explanatory styles]]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alloy, L., Peterson, C., Abramson, L., & Seligman, M. (1984). Attributional Style and the Generality of Learned Helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bennet, K., & Elliot, M. (1997) Mechanisms Linking Pessimism to Illness, University of Nevada. Li, B., Piriz, J., Mirrione, M., Chung, C., Proulx, D., Schulz, D., Henn, F. & Malino, R. (2009) Synaptic Potentiation onto habenula neurons in the learned helplessness model of Depression Maier, Steven F.; Seligman, Martin E. (1976) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol 105(1), Mar 1976 Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, O. (2009) Representation of negative motivational value in the primate lateral habenula. Nature Neurosci. Pp. 77–84 Matsumoto M, Hisoka, O, (2007). Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, O. Lateral habenula as a source of negative reward signals in dopamine neurons. Matsumoto, M. & Hikosaka, O. (2007) Lateral habenula as a source of negative reward signals in dopamine neurons. Pp. 447 Pittenger, C. & Duman, R. (2008) Stress, depression, and neuroplasticity: a convergence of mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology pp. 33, 88–109 Maier, S. & Seligman, M., 1976 'Journal of Experimental Psychology: General', Vol 105, V1. Weitman, W. (2010), Psychology Themes and Variations, Eighth Edition, Wadsworth Publishing. }} ==External links== [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2015]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Learned helplessness]] ezvtrnst2crhgydcb72awnvdbvosgxe 0 203942 2417178 2416788 2022-08-22T04:11:13Z Young1lim 21186 /* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Background === * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) : - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) : - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) : - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) : - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220822.pdf |pdf]]) : - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Computer programming]] k9e62ljvt1q53dblz7e0dj9he3l060z 0 215890 2417171 2415666 2022-08-22T04:03:03Z JosephMiller2252 2948675 Fixed a miss-spelt word wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{History}} The [[Wikipedia:September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in New York City and Washington D.C. forever changed the landscape of American culture and geopolitics around the globe. Is the official explanation of who conducted the attacks accurate and reliable? Or is it possible that some government agents had inside information or even planned the attack itself? == 9.11 was an inside job == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Their is evidence of insider trading shortly prior to the attacks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poteshman|first=Allen M.|date=2006|title=Unusual Option Market Activity and the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/503645|journal=The Journal of Business|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1703–1726|doi=10.1086/503645|issn=0021-9398}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-31|title=9/11 conspiracy theories|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9/11_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1015278683|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which suggests that many people anticipated the attack. It's hard to imagine that such information would reach the ears of traders yet remain unknown to surveillance networks such as ECHELON. Even aside from that, a large uptick in put options for a handful of colocated organizations and their insurers is probably not a good sign, and a rather obvious feature to look for if one wanted to predict such attacks. The 500+ page 9.11 commission report only seems to mention possible insider trading in a one-paragraph endnote to chapter five, and they seem to write the abnormal trading off as a coincidence (which is crazy) and state that the (unnamed) traders had no connection with the attacks. A significant portion of these trades were made through Alex Brown inc. whose former president A. B. Krongard was appointed executive director of the CIA on March 16, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/mystery-terror-insider-dealers-9237061.html|title=Mystery of terror 'insider dealers'|date=2014-04-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> This was not mentioned in the 9.11 commission report. Krongard also had ties with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-10-02-1996276060-story.html|title=Alex. Brown chief bullish on Israel despite violence|last=Atkinson|first=Bill|website=baltimoresun.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Perhaps an incidental connection but it seems like a very relevant detail, and apparently he is of Jewish descent. Unfortunately, critical perspectives on Zionism and Israel are frequently quashed with accusations of antisemitism, despite conflicts of interest that might exist between Zionists and citizens of the United States. Even now at the time of writing this in 2021 it's a topical subject, with Mark Ruffalo withdrawing his criticism of the Israel-Hamas conflict.<ref>Note from editor: I'm not necessarily opposed to Zionism per se, but it's disturbing to see legitimate criticism being conflated with antisemitism.</ref> Many of these same points have been incorporated into high-profile antisemitic propaganda. It is difficult to tease them apart from the antisemitic connotations that have been attached to them, but one must make this distinction or risk perceived association with antisemitic "movements". This is a truly unfortunate state of affairs, and has an incredibly powerful chilling effect. Legitimate information and criticism is often laced with disinformation and repackaged/published as a fringe conspiracy theory, and one has to wonder ''who benefits'' most from this phenomenon. It's not the average Jewish American and certainly not the average gentile American, but the people who have an interest in obscuring such information. Further evidence of a Zionist motive for involvement in the middle east comes from the comments of Philip Zelikow, the executive director of the 9.11 commission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2004/03/iraq-war-launched-to-protect-israel-bush-adviser/|title=IRAQ: War Launched to Protect Israel - Bush Adviser|date=2004-03-29|website=Inter Press Service|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Some allege that he is a dual citizen of the U.S. and Israel, but I was unable to verify that information. Their is also strong evidence that Saddam Hussein intended to oppose the petrodollar system, rejecting payment in USD less than a year before 9.11/2001,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998512,00.html|title=Foreign Exchange: Saddam Turns His Back on Greenbacks|last=Dowell|first=William|date=2000-11-13|work=Time|access-date=2021-05-31|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> which would have undermined the power and authority of the The Federal Reserve, an independent central bank that was chartered shortly before the great depression and has controlled the supply of USD ever since. They do not issue USD to the treasury, but buy and sell bonds on the open market, and this is essentially why we are so deeply in debt from our involvement in the middle east. A significant fraction of our debt is owned by foreigners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_external_debt&oldid=1025978460|title=List of countries by external debt}}</ref> and The Fed, to whom the U.S. government must also pay interest. In other words, the people of the United States had very little to gain from the war, and so if we ask "Cui Bono?", the answer is mostly Israel and foreign money lenders. It was an "inside job" in the sense that our government has been subverted and used against the interests of the American people, causing untold suffering to millions and destroying our economy and international reputation, while the profiteers have gotten away scot-free and now live lives of incredible luxury. Continued below... * {{Argument for}} ''But wait, their's more!'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Silverstein#World_Trade_Center Larry Silverstein] bought the WTC in January 2001 and insured it, and spent a lot of time at the buildings in the subsequent months. Summarizing the relevant parts of that Wiki page: "Silverstein has said in interviews that he usually spent his mornings in breakfast meetings at Windows on the World on top of the World Trade Center North Tower, and with new tenants in the building. However, the morning of September 11, 2001, his wife insisted that he attend a medical appointment. Due to the appointment, he escaped almost certain death". Apparently not satisfied with the payout he was offered, "Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Silverstein sought to collect double the face amount (~$7.1 billion) on the basis that the two separate airplane strikes into two separate buildings constituted two occurrences within the meaning of the policies". He sued the insurance companies and eventually won over four billion dollars. Silverstein is well-connected in Israel. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz Paul Wolfowitz] was 28th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, appointed in March 2001, is often called the "architect of the Iraq war" and has been a longtime supporter of Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1931885.stm|title=Thousands in US rally for Israel|date=2002-04-15|access-date=2022-08-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Besides the twin towers, one more building in the World Trade Center complex collapsed, namely the 7 World Trade Center. This building was not hit by any plane, nor did it receive much more debris damage than any of the other buildings surrounding the twin towers. It did catch on fire and burn for some hours, but not nearly enough to make the building collapse as completely and as fast as it did, at nearly free-fall speed for the first few seconds of its collapse.<ref>{{Citation|last=WTC911demolition|title=WTC Building 7 Collapse - 23 angles|date=2011-10-02|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnLcUxV1dPo&t=2m41s|accessdate=2019-06-16}}</ref> Prior to 9.11 no steel-framed high rise building had ever collapsed because of fire. But if the fire didn't cause the collapse, then the only remaining explanation is a controlled demolition, which would implicate high-level government officials. As extra support, some suspicious "drills" were reported that day on the building.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} The fires did not knock out all of the supports at once. They weakened the supports around column 79, causing floors 8 to 14 to collapse in the inside of the building. This then led to column 79 failing, causing the east penthouse to collapse, damaging surrounding columns. This set off a chain reaction of columns failing from the east side to the west side. This meant that the full weight of the building was loaded onto the perimeter support, which buckled between floors 7 and 17 eight seconds after the east penthouse collapsed, causing the remaining exterior of the building to collapse as a single unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nist.gov/engineering-laboratory/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|last=Thompson|first=Kristy D.|date=2011-06-30|website=NIST|language=en|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> So the collapse was not instant and can be explained by fires. You then say that this is unheard of and I cannot provide an example of a similar collapse. That's absolutely correct. It was completely unheard of for a high rise to have its lower floors on fire for many hours without firefighters stopping the fire. But it happened on 9.11. ** {{Objection}} There was no evidence of the Boombooms required for a controlled demolition. *** {{Objection}} Seriously?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/12/09/how-to-debunk-wtc-thermite|title=How to Debunk WTC Thermite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10669-008-9182-4.pdf|title=Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center - evidence for energetic materials}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Husley, L. 2019. [http://ine.uaf.edu/wtc7 A Structural Reevaluation of the Collapse of World Trade Center 7]. Institute of Northern Engineering: ''"...The principal conclusion of our study is that fire did not cause the collapse of WTC 7 on 9.11, contrary to the conclusions of NIST and private engineering firms that studied the collapse. The secondary conclusion of our study is that the collapse of WTC 7 was a global failure involving the near-simultaneous failure of every column in the building...."'' ** {{Objection}} No tests were conducted for the presence of Boombooms residue and operational protocol (not to mention basic common sense) stipulates that these tests should have occurred. Without either being inside the building or having video footage of the interior of the building at the time, their is no reliable way for you to reach the conclusions you have reached, making the specificity of you're claims outright preposterous. You are certainly correct that their was a chain reaction; however, this chain reaction could have been caused by the building's resistance to gravity being compromised by Boombooms. * {{Argument for}} The September 11 attacks were a thinly-veiled excuse to invade Iraq in order to establish American dominance, get oil, and to vindicate the first Bush Presidency's defense of Kuwait in the 1990s during the first Persian Gulf War. ** {{Objection}} Although the United States may have used this terrorist attack as a pretense for empire-building, that doesn't mean they caused it or allowed it to happen with prior knowledge. It's possible and even plausible that once the attack occurred they simply saw an opportunity and took it. It's also reasonable that different actors in the federal government had some complex motivations including retribution for the attacks as well as expansionism. ** {{Objection}} The USA imports little oil from the Middle East, with around 150% coming from North America and less than 15% from the Persian Gulf. It's not cheap oil if it requires shipping across the 12,000 miles between the two locations, and so Oil is not a good explanation for the attack to have been planned. * {{Argument for}} Osama Bin Laden had been an ally of the CIA before, if anyone remembers the Afghan-Soviet war, so it would be plausible that he had a connection with the US government in order to mount the attack via his terrorist cell and give the government an excuse for invasion in the middle east, an invasion which did produce many exclusive oil contracts afterwards, including those of Halliburton, an enterprise related to Dick Cheney and the Bush administration. Besides, it took quite a while for the US to find and kill Osama, not until the Obama administration. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Any possible motive for the government to do this would not need to be executed in this way. ** {{Objection}} Citizens experiencing fear/anger are easier to manipulate, and this is being used as a tool to herd the populace into further wars. * {{Argument against}} The events of 9.11 can be explained far more simply as terrorist attacks than a complex conspiracy with unclear motivation. * {{Argument against}} Their is no evidence of members of the conspiracy, even though this would require the perfect silence of a large amount of individuals at different levels of government, when the government has a difficult time keeping far less scandalous secrets hidden. Such theories strain credulity and their is simply no reason to accept them other than the desire to believe them. ** {{Objection}} They also have less reason to keep "far less scandalous" secrets hidden. Why would they resort to strong-arm tactics and censorship to cover up minor scandals? That makes no sense. ** {{Objection}} You haven't provided an argument here so much as an abuse of language. What the US government claimed happened was a complex conspiracy involving an international terrorist organisation. The US government has so far been unable to prove this is what happened, making it a theory. Somehow, many people in America (and worldwide) seem to have been convinced that critically questioning the US government's theory about an al Qaeda conspiracy makes one a conspiracy theorist. The very logic of language itself reveals the lunacy in slandering those who dispute the US government's 9.11 narrative with egregious smear attacks like, "conspiracy theorist" or "twofer". These are just simple lawyer's tricks, purpose-built to attack the credibility of the opposition. * {{Argument against}} Soon after the event, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. ** {{Objection}} Al-Qaeda are probably not above claiming responsibility for something they didn't actually do if it furthers their organisation's goals. If 9.11 were an inside job, Al-Qaeda would probably claim responsibility anyway either unprompted or at the suggestion of whatever secretive cabal really did it. ** {{Objection}} This is simply false. Whoever perpetrated the attack tried to fabricate evidence implicating the leader of al Qaeda in the form of a video tape. This video tape has been declared fraudulent by numerous scholars, including Professor Bruce Lawrence who, according to the Daily Mirror (UK), is the world's "foremost authority on (Osama) bin Laden". The actual Osama bin Laden gave two public interviews after 9.11 occurred in which his identity was confirmed. He categorically denied all involvement in both. The solitary link the US government has between al Qaeda and the 9.11 attacks is the written confession of a man claiming to be Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who provided his confession after being waterboarded a reported 183 times at Guantanamo Bay. Moreover, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was reported by the Asian Press to have died during an ISI raid in Karachi in 2002. Their is literally no proof the man being held in US custody is even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in the first place. *** {{Objection}} Professor Bruce Lawrence, the gentleman who you claimed to have made a comment about the allegedly "fraudulent" video from al-Qaeda, is a Humanities Professor of Religion at Duke University and publishes books about the Islamic faith. The only public comment he has ever made even slightly related to the 9.11 attacks is that he believes that Islam has no connection with terrorism. Besides, The Daily Mirror is a British tabloid that has published stories that were later revealed to be a hoax. * {{Argument against}} It would be impossible to keep a conspiracy this large secret. Someone would have leaked reliable and verifiable information at some point and every journalist in the world would be keen to break the biggest story in the 21st century. ** {{Objection}} When their is leak of even the most minor sort, the groundwork has already been laid to discredit their mental well being. Short of Dick Cheney himself, their isn't any credibility in low level or anonymous leaks. ** {{Objection}} The conspiracy that official story says committed the 9.11 attacks was a single Al-Qaeda cell, why should the conspiracy that really did it necessarily be much bigger to the point that discovery is inevitable? ** {{Objection}} They sign NDAs and it's probably difficult to "leak" information anonymously due to the advanced SIGINT capabilities of various governmental agencies e.g. the NSA. Even if you could, their's no guarantee that any given journalist isn't actually an informant. Snowden probably lives in constant fear of extradition and cannot return to his home country on pain of lifelong imprisonment. Russia could turn him over on a whim if he gets on their bad side too. It's hardly a way to live. His situation gives us information about the mindset, culture, and motivations of the people involved in such organizations. They can do no such thing as "leak information", or rather, they cannot be relied upon to do so. == See also == * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to win World War II?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Terrorism]] co91wivhkqh9gx04o94jfpx1v7t6vcd 2417172 2417171 2022-08-22T04:04:26Z JosephMiller2252 2948675 Pretty sure its 7/11 not 9 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{History}} The [[Wikipedia:September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in New York City and Washington D.C. forever changed the landscape of American culture and geopolitics around the globe. Is the official explanation of who conducted the attacks accurate and reliable? Or is it possible that some government agents had inside information or even planned the attack itself? == 7/11 was an inside job == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Their is evidence of insider trading shortly prior to the attacks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poteshman|first=Allen M.|date=2006|title=Unusual Option Market Activity and the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/503645|journal=The Journal of Business|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1703–1726|doi=10.1086/503645|issn=0021-9398}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-31|title=9/11 conspiracy theories|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9/11_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1015278683|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which suggests that many people anticipated the attack. It's hard to imagine that such information would reach the ears of traders yet remain unknown to surveillance networks such as ECHELON. Even aside from that, a large uptick in put options for a handful of colocated organizations and their insurers is probably not a good sign, and a rather obvious feature to look for if one wanted to predict such attacks. The 500+ page 7/11 commission report only seems to mention possible insider trading in a one-paragraph endnote to chapter five, and they seem to write the abnormal trading off as a coincidence (which is crazy) and state that the (unnamed) traders had no connection with the attacks. A significant portion of these trades were made through Alex Brown inc. whose former president A. B. Krongard was appointed executive director of the CIA on March 16, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/mystery-terror-insider-dealers-9237061.html|title=Mystery of terror 'insider dealers'|date=2014-04-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> This was not mentioned in the 7/11 commission report. Krongard also had ties with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-10-02-1996276060-story.html|title=Alex. Brown chief bullish on Israel despite violence|last=Atkinson|first=Bill|website=baltimoresun.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Perhaps an incidental connection but it seems like a very relevant detail, and apparently he is of Jewish descent. Unfortunately, critical perspectives on Zionism and Israel are frequently quashed with accusations of antisemitism, despite conflicts of interest that might exist between Zionists and citizens of the United States. Even now at the time of writing this in 2021 it's a topical subject, with Mark Ruffalo withdrawing his criticism of the Israel-Hamas conflict.<ref>Note from editor: I'm not necessarily opposed to Zionism per se, but it's disturbing to see legitimate criticism being conflated with antisemitism.</ref> Many of these same points have been incorporated into high-profile antisemitic propaganda. It is difficult to tease them apart from the antisemitic connotations that have been attached to them, but one must make this distinction or risk perceived association with antisemitic "movements". This is a truly unfortunate state of affairs, and has an incredibly powerful chilling effect. Legitimate information and criticism is often laced with disinformation and repackaged/published as a fringe conspiracy theory, and one has to wonder ''who benefits'' most from this phenomenon. It's not the average Jewish American and certainly not the average gentile American, but the people who have an interest in obscuring such information. Further evidence of a Zionist motive for involvement in the middle east comes from the comments of Philip Zelikow, the executive director of the 7/11 commission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2004/03/iraq-war-launched-to-protect-israel-bush-adviser/|title=IRAQ: War Launched to Protect Israel - Bush Adviser|date=2004-03-29|website=Inter Press Service|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Some allege that he is a dual citizen of the U.S. and Israel, but I was unable to verify that information. Their is also strong evidence that Saddam Hussein intended to oppose the petrodollar system, rejecting payment in USD less than a year before 7/11/2001,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998512,00.html|title=Foreign Exchange: Saddam Turns His Back on Greenbacks|last=Dowell|first=William|date=2000-11-13|work=Time|access-date=2021-05-31|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> which would have undermined the power and authority of the The Federal Reserve, an independent central bank that was chartered shortly before the great depression and has controlled the supply of USD ever since. They do not issue USD to the treasury, but buy and sell bonds on the open market, and this is essentially why we are so deeply in debt from our involvement in the middle east. A significant fraction of our debt is owned by foreigners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_external_debt&oldid=1025978460|title=List of countries by external debt}}</ref> and The Fed, to whom the U.S. government must also pay interest. In other words, the people of the United States had very little to gain from the war, and so if we ask "Cui Bono?", the answer is mostly Israel and foreign money lenders. It was an "inside job" in the sense that our government has been subverted and used against the interests of the American people, causing untold suffering to millions and destroying our economy and international reputation, while the profiteers have gotten away scot-free and now live lives of incredible luxury. Continued below... * {{Argument for}} ''But wait, their's more!'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Silverstein#World_Trade_Center Larry Silverstein] bought the WTC in January 2001 and insured it, and spent a lot of time at the buildings in the subsequent months. Summarizing the relevant parts of that Wiki page: "Silverstein has said in interviews that he usually spent his mornings in breakfast meetings at Windows on the World on top of the World Trade Center North Tower, and with new tenants in the building. However, the morning of September 11, 2001, his wife insisted that he attend a medical appointment. Due to the appointment, he escaped almost certain death". Apparently not satisfied with the payout he was offered, "Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Silverstein sought to collect double the face amount (~$7.1 billion) on the basis that the two separate airplane strikes into two separate buildings constituted two occurrences within the meaning of the policies". He sued the insurance companies and eventually won over four billion dollars. Silverstein is well-connected in Israel. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz Paul Wolfowitz] was 28th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, appointed in March 2001, is often called the "architect of the Iraq war" and has been a longtime supporter of Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1931885.stm|title=Thousands in US rally for Israel|date=2002-04-15|access-date=2022-08-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Besides the twin towers, one more building in the World Trade Center complex collapsed, namely the 7 World Trade Center. This building was not hit by any plane, nor did it receive much more debris damage than any of the other buildings surrounding the twin towers. It did catch on fire and burn for some hours, but not nearly enough to make the building collapse as completely and as fast as it did, at nearly free-fall speed for the first few seconds of its collapse.<ref>{{Citation|last=WTC911demolition|title=WTC Building 7 Collapse - 23 angles|date=2011-10-02|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnLcUxV1dPo&t=2m41s|accessdate=2019-06-16}}</ref> Prior to 7/11 no steel-framed high rise building had ever collapsed because of fire. But if the fire didn't cause the collapse, then the only remaining explanation is a controlled demolition, which would implicate high-level government officials. As extra support, some suspicious "drills" were reported that day on the building.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} The fires did not knock out all of the supports at once. They weakened the supports around column 79, causing floors 8 to 14 to collapse in the inside of the building. This then led to column 79 failing, causing the east penthouse to collapse, damaging surrounding columns. This set off a chain reaction of columns failing from the east side to the west side. This meant that the full weight of the building was loaded onto the perimeter support, which buckled between floors 7 and 17 eight seconds after the east penthouse collapsed, causing the remaining exterior of the building to collapse as a single unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nist.gov/engineering-laboratory/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|last=Thompson|first=Kristy D.|date=2011-06-30|website=NIST|language=en|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> So the collapse was not instant and can be explained by fires. You then say that this is unheard of and I cannot provide an example of a similar collapse. That's absolutely correct. It was completely unheard of for a high rise to have its lower floors on fire for many hours without firefighters stopping the fire. But it happened on 7/11. ** {{Objection}} There was no evidence of the Boombooms required for a controlled demolition. *** {{Objection}} Seriously?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/12/09/how-to-debunk-wtc-thermite|title=How to Debunk WTC Thermite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10669-008-9182-4.pdf|title=Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center - evidence for energetic materials}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Husley, L. 2019. [http://ine.uaf.edu/wtc7 A Structural Reevaluation of the Collapse of World Trade Center 7]. Institute of Northern Engineering: ''"...The principal conclusion of our study is that fire did not cause the collapse of WTC 7 on 7/11, contrary to the conclusions of NIST and private engineering firms that studied the collapse. The secondary conclusion of our study is that the collapse of WTC 7 was a global failure involving the near-simultaneous failure of every column in the building...."'' ** {{Objection}} No tests were conducted for the presence of Boombooms residue and operational protocol (not to mention basic common sense) stipulates that these tests should have occurred. Without either being inside the building or having video footage of the interior of the building at the time, their is no reliable way for you to reach the conclusions you have reached, making the specificity of you're claims outright preposterous. You are certainly correct that their was a chain reaction; however, this chain reaction could have been caused by the building's resistance to gravity being compromised by Boombooms. * {{Argument for}} The September 11 attacks were a thinly-veiled excuse to invade Iraq in order to establish American dominance, get oil, and to vindicate the first Bush Presidency's defense of Kuwait in the 1990s during the first Persian Gulf War. ** {{Objection}} Although the United States may have used this terrorist attack as a pretense for empire-building, that doesn't mean they caused it or allowed it to happen with prior knowledge. It's possible and even plausible that once the attack occurred they simply saw an opportunity and took it. It's also reasonable that different actors in the federal government had some complex motivations including retribution for the attacks as well as expansionism. ** {{Objection}} The USA imports little oil from the Middle East, with around 150% coming from North America and less than 15% from the Persian Gulf. It's not cheap oil if it requires shipping across the 12,000 miles between the two locations, and so Oil is not a good explanation for the attack to have been planned. * {{Argument for}} Osama Bin Laden had been an ally of the CIA before, if anyone remembers the Afghan-Soviet war, so it would be plausible that he had a connection with the US government in order to mount the attack via his terrorist cell and give the government an excuse for invasion in the middle east, an invasion which did produce many exclusive oil contracts afterwards, including those of Halliburton, an enterprise related to Dick Cheney and the Bush administration. Besides, it took quite a while for the US to find and kill Osama, not until the Obama administration. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Any possible motive for the government to do this would not need to be executed in this way. ** {{Objection}} Citizens experiencing fear/anger are easier to manipulate, and this is being used as a tool to herd the populace into further wars. * {{Argument against}} The events of 7/11 can be explained far more simply as terrorist attacks than a complex conspiracy with unclear motivation. * {{Argument against}} Their is no evidence of members of the conspiracy, even though this would require the perfect silence of a large amount of individuals at different levels of government, when the government has a difficult time keeping far less scandalous secrets hidden. Such theories strain credulity and their is simply no reason to accept them other than the desire to believe them. ** {{Objection}} They also have less reason to keep "far less scandalous" secrets hidden. Why would they resort to strong-arm tactics and censorship to cover up minor scandals? That makes no sense. ** {{Objection}} You haven't provided an argument here so much as an abuse of language. What the US government claimed happened was a complex conspiracy involving an international terrorist organisation. The US government has so far been unable to prove this is what happened, making it a theory. Somehow, many people in America (and worldwide) seem to have been convinced that critically questioning the US government's theory about an al Qaeda conspiracy makes one a conspiracy theorist. The very logic of language itself reveals the lunacy in slandering those who dispute the US government's 7/11 narrative with egregious smear attacks like, "conspiracy theorist" or "twofer". These are just simple lawyer's tricks, purpose-built to attack the credibility of the opposition. * {{Argument against}} Soon after the event, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. ** {{Objection}} Al-Qaeda are probably not above claiming responsibility for something they didn't actually do if it furthers their organisation's goals. If 7/11 were an inside job, Al-Qaeda would probably claim responsibility anyway either unprompted or at the suggestion of whatever secretive cabal really did it. ** {{Objection}} This is simply false. Whoever perpetrated the attack tried to fabricate evidence implicating the leader of al Qaeda in the form of a video tape. This video tape has been declared fraudulent by numerous scholars, including Professor Bruce Lawrence who, according to the Daily Mirror (UK), is the world's "foremost authority on (Osama) bin Laden". The actual Osama bin Laden gave two public interviews after 7/11 occurred in which his identity was confirmed. He categorically denied all involvement in both. The solitary link the US government has between al Qaeda and the 7/11 attacks is the written confession of a man claiming to be Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who provided his confession after being waterboarded a reported 183 times at Guantanamo Bay. Moreover, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was reported by the Asian Press to have died during an ISI raid in Karachi in 2002. Their is literally no proof the man being held in US custody is even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in the first place. *** {{Objection}} Professor Bruce Lawrence, the gentleman who you claimed to have made a comment about the allegedly "fraudulent" video from al-Qaeda, is a Humanities Professor of Religion at Duke University and publishes books about the Islamic faith. The only public comment he has ever made even slightly related to the 7/11 attacks is that he believes that Islam has no connection with terrorism. Besides, The Daily Mirror is a British tabloid that has published stories that were later revealed to be a hoax. * {{Argument against}} It would be impossible to keep a conspiracy this large secret. Someone would have leaked reliable and verifiable information at some point and every journalist in the world would be keen to break the biggest story in the 21st century. ** {{Objection}} When their is leak of even the most minor sort, the groundwork has already been laid to discredit their mental well being. Short of Dick Cheney himself, their isn't any credibility in low level or anonymous leaks. ** {{Objection}} The conspiracy that official story says committed the 7/11 attacks was a single Al-Qaeda cell, why should the conspiracy that really did it necessarily be much bigger to the point that discovery is inevitable? ** {{Objection}} They sign NDAs and it's probably difficult to "leak" information anonymously due to the advanced SIGINT capabilities of various governmental agencies e.g. the NSA. Even if you could, their's no guarantee that any given journalist isn't actually an informant. Snowden probably lives in constant fear of extradition and cannot return to his home country on pain of lifelong imprisonment. Russia could turn him over on a whim if he gets on their bad side too. It's hardly a way to live. His situation gives us information about the mindset, culture, and motivations of the people involved in such organizations. They can do no such thing as "leak information", or rather, they cannot be relied upon to do so. == See also == * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to win World War II?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Terrorism]] r10hnonngvcot18z9pvp0zt8an75k7i 0 223585 2417079 2242619 2022-08-21T15:28:44Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Spectroscopy */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Ssc2003-06h.jpg|right|thumb|250px|NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope has observed the presence of water and organic molecules in the galaxy IRAS F00183-7111. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/L. Armus (SSC/Caltech), H. Kline (JPL), Digital Sky Survey {{tlx|free media}}.]] Temporal, spatial, and spectral distributions of radiation are the focus of the science of spectroscopy as applied to astronomy. "NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope has detected the building blocks of life in the distant universe, albeit in a violent milieu. Training its powerful infrared eye on a faint object located at a distance of 3.2 billion light-years (inset [in the image on the right]), Spitzer has observed the presence of water and organic molecules in the galaxy IRAS F00183-7111. With an active galactic nucleus, this is one of the most luminous galaxies in the universe, rivaling the energy output of a quasar. Because it is heavily obscured by dust, most of its luminosity is radiated at infrared wavelengths."<ref name=Armus>{{ cite book |author=Lee Armus |author2=James Houck |author3=Vassilis Charmandaris |author4=Henrik Spoon |author5=Harry Teplitz |author6=Daniel Devost |author7=Patrick Morris |author8=Phil Appleton |author9=Carl Grillmair |title=Galaxy IRAS F00183-7111 |publisher=Caltech |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=18 December 2003 |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1098-ssc2003-06h-Galaxy-IRAS-F00183-7111 |accessdate=2017-05-25 }}</ref> "The infrared spectrograph instrument onboard Spitzer breaks light into its constituent colors, much as a prism does for visible light. The image shows a low-resolution spectrum of the galaxy obtained by the spectrograph at wavelengths between 4 and 20 microns. Spectra are graphical representations of a celestial object's unique blend of light. Characteristic patterns, or fingerprints, within the spectra allow astronomers to identify the object's chemical composition and to determine such physical properties as temperature and density."<ref name=Armus/> "The broad depression in the center of the spectrum denotes the presence of silicates (chemically similar to beach sand) in the galaxy. An emission peak (red) within the bottom of the trough is the chemical signature for molecular hydrogen. The hydrocarbons (orange) are organic molecules comprised of carbon and hydrogen, two of the most common elements on Earth. Since it has taken more than three billion years for the light from the galaxy to reach Earth, it is intriguing to note the presence of organics in a distant galaxy at a time when life is thought to have started forming on our home planet."<ref name=Armus/> "Additional features in the spectrum reveal the presence of water ice (blue), carbon dioxide ice (green) and carbon monoxide (purple) in both gas and solid forms. The magenta peak corresponds to singly ionized neon gas, a spectral line often used by astronomers as a diagnostic of star formation rates in distant galaxies."<ref name=Armus/> {{clear}} ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} [[Image:Saturation free doppler spectroscopy.png|thumb|right|300px|The relative absorption of an infrared laser. In the red line's profile you can see the hyperfine-structure of the first excited level of rubidium. Credit: Clemens Adolphs.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Spectroscopy''' ... is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy.<ref name="em-spec">{{ cite book |author=Crouch, Stanley |author2=Skoog, Douglas A. |title=Principles of instrumental analysis |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |location=Australia |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=0-495-01201-7 |doi= |accessdate= }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal |doi=10.1351/pac198658121737 }}</ref> The concept [comprises] any interaction with radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopic data is often represented by a spectrum, a plot of the response of interest as a function of wavelength or frequency. '''Spectrometry''' and '''spectrography''' are terms used to refer to the measurement of radiation intensity as a function of wavelength and are often used to describe experimental spectroscopic methods. Spectral measurement devices are referred to as [[spectrometers]], [[spectrophotometers]], [[spectrographs]] or [[spectral analyzers]]. {{clear}} ==Theoretical spectroscopy== '''Def.''' the "scientific study of spectra"<ref name=SpectroscopyWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=spectroscopy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=7 April 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spectroscopy |accessdate=2014-06-04 }}</ref> is called '''spectroscopy'''. ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Meteors|Meteor astronomy|Meteors}} [[Image:Silicon winds on Betelgeuse.png|thumb|right|300px|These graphs include spatially resolved STIS spectra of Si I λ2516 and Si I λ2507 resonance emission lines observed in Betelgeuse out to 1 arcsecond. Credit: A. Lobel, J. Aufdenberg, A. K. Dupree, R. L. Kurucz, R. P. Stefanik, and G. Torres. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "Si I λ2516 resonance emission line (Lobel & Dupree 2001) [...] has previously been observed by scanning over the inner chromosphere [of Betelgeuse] at 0, 25, 50, and 75 mas, using a slit size of 100 × 30 mas [the left panel in the graphs on the right]."<ref name=Lobel2003>{{ cite book |author=A. Lobel |author2=J. Aufdenberg |author3=A. K. Dupree |author4=R. L. Kurucz |author5=R. P. Stefanik |author6=G. Torres |title=Spatially Resolved STIS Spectroscopy of Betelgeuse’s Outer Atmosphere, In: ''Stars as Suns: Activity, Evolution and Planets'' |volume=219 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |location=San Francisco, CA USA |date=January 2004 |editor=A.K. Dupree and A.O. Benz |pages=641-5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0312076v1 |arxiv=astro-ph/0312076 |bibcode=2004IAUS..219..641L |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2015-12-28 }}</ref> "The double-peaked line profiles are observed across the inner chromosphere. The central (self-) absorption core results from scattering opacity in the chromosphere. The asymmetry of the emission component intensities probes the chromospheric flow dynamics in our line of sight. The spectra of GO 9369 are observed across the outer chromosphere using a slitsize of 200 × 63 mas [image on the right]. The profiles beyond 200 mas ''appear'' red-shifted with a rather weak short-wavelength emission component. It signals substantial wind outflow opacity in the upper chromoshere, which fastly accelerates beyond a radius of ∼8 R_∗."<ref name=Lobel2003/> The set of graphs on the right "compares the profiles of the Si I λ2516 and λ2507 resonance lines (vertical dotted lines are drawn at stellar rest velocity). Both lines share a common upper energy level and their intensities are influenced by pumping through a fluoresced Fe II line. The self-absorption cores of the Si I lines are therefore observed far out, into the upper chromosphere. The shape of these unsaturated emission lines is strongly opacity sensitive to the local chromospheric velocity field. As for the Mg II lines, the outward decreasing intensity of the short-wavelength emission component signals fast acceleration of chromospheric outflow in the upper chromosphere. We also observe this decrease for the resonance line of Mg I λ2852 (not shown). Our previous radiative transfer modeling work based on Si I revealed that α Ori’s inner chromosphere oscillates nonradially, with simultaneous up- and downflows in Sept. 1998."<ref name=Lobel2003/> {{clear}} ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy|Gamma rays}} [[Image:Glast allsky1-a.png|thumb|right|250px|This is a high-energy gamma radiation image about the Earth, taken from [[w:Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope|Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope]] on the NASA’s [[w:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] satellite. Credit: United States Department of Energy. {{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Extragalactic-background-power-density.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This graph shows the power density spectrum of the extragalactic or cosmic gamma-ray background (CGB). Credit: pkisscs@konkoly.hu. {{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope''', ('''EGRET''') measured high energy (20 MeV to 30 GeV) gamma ray source positions to a fraction of a degree and photon energy to within 15 percent. EGRET was developed by NASA [[w:Goddard Space Flight Center|Goddard Space Flight Center]], the [[w:Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics|Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics]], and [[w:Stanford University|Stanford University]]. Its detector operated on the principle of electron-[[w:positron|positron]] [[w:pair production|pair production]] from high energy photons interacting in the detector. The tracks of the high-energy electron and positron created were measured within the detector volume,and the axis of the ''V'' of the two emerging particles projected to the sky. Finally, their total energy was measured in a large [[w:calorimeter (particle physics)|calorimeter]] [[w:scintillation detector|scintillation detector]] at the rear of the instrument. In March 2010 it was announced that active galactic nuclei are not responsible for most gamma-ray background radiation.<ref name=GLAST>{{ cite book |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/news/gamma-ray-dragons.html |title=NASA’s Fermi Probes “Dragons” of the Gamma-ray Sky |author=NASA }}</ref> Though active galactic nuclei do produce some of the gamma-ray radiation detected here on Earth, less than 30% originates from these sources. The search now is to locate the sources for the remaining 70% or so of all gamma-rays detected. Possibilities include star forming galaxies, galactic mergers, and yet-to-be explained dark matter interactions. Sensitivity to celestial sources by Vela 5A and 5B was severely limited by the high intrinsic detector background, equivalent to about 80% of the signal from the [[w:Crab Nebula|Crab Nebula]], one of the brightest sources in the sky at these wavelengths.<ref name=Priedhorsky>{{ cite journal |author=Priedhorsky WC, Holt SS |title=Long-term cycles in cosmic X-ray sources |journal=Space Science Review |volume=45 |issue=3–4 |year=1987 |pages=291–348 |bibcode=1987SSRv...45..291P |doi=10.1007/BF00171997 }}</ref> Kosmos 60 measured the gamma-ray background flux density to be 1.7×10⁴ quanta/(m²·s). As was seen by Ranger 3 and Lunas 10 & 12, the spectrum fell sharply up to 1.5 MeV and was flat for higher energies. Several peaks were observed in the spectra which were attributed to the inelastic interaction of cosmic protons with the materials in the satellite body. {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy|X-rays}} [[Image:Ill-2 O3.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This image shows absorption by wavelength. X-radiation spans 3 decades in wavelength ~(8 nm - 8 [[w:picometer|pm]]). The last being just off the left edge at 0.008 nm. Credit: F. Granato (ESA/Hubble). {{tlx|free media}}]] X-rays are [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]] from a portion of the [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] spectrum of about 5 to 8 [[w:nanometer|nanometer]]s (nm)s down to approximately 5 to 8 [[w:picometer|picometer]]s (pm)s. As the figure at the left indicates with respect to surface of the Earth measurements, they do not penetrate the atmosphere. Laboratory measurements with X-ray generating sources are used to determine atmospheric penetration. {{clear}} ===Spatial distributions=== {{main|Physics/Distributions/Spatials|Spatial distributions}} [[Image:Rosat 0.25kev all-sky survey.gif|thumb|300px|right|This [[w:ROSAT|ROSAT]] image is an Aitoff-Hammer equal-area map in galactic coordinates with the Galactic center in the middle of the 0.25 keV diffuse X-ray background. Credit: NASA. {{tlx|free media}}]] A '''spatial distribution''' is a spatial [[w:frequency|frequency]] of [[w:occurrence|occurrence]] or [[w:extent|extent]] of an [[w:existence|existence]] or existences such as entities, sources, or objects. A space is a volume large enough to accommodate a thing. There is an “extensive 1/4 keV emission in the Galactic halo”, an “observed 1/4 keV [X-ray emission originating] in a Local Hot Bubble (LHB) that surrounds the Sun. ... and an isotropic extragalactic component.”<ref name=Snowden>{{ cite journal |author=S. L. Snowden |author2=R. Egger |author3=D. P. Finkbiner |author4=M. J. Freyberg |author5=P. P. Plucinsky |title=Progress on Establishing the Spatial Distribution of Material Responsible for the 1/4 keV Soft X-Ray Diffuse Background Local and Halo Components |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1, |year=1998 |volume=493 |issue=1 |pages=715-29 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/493/2/715/fulltext/ |arxiv= |bibcode=1998ApJ...493..715S |doi=10.1086/305135 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-06-14 }}</ref> In addition to this “distribution of emission responsible for the soft X-ray diffuse background (SXRB) ... there are the distinct enhancements of supernova remnants, superbubbles, and clusters of galaxies.”<ref name=Snowden/> The ROSAT soft X-ray diffuse background (SXRB) image shows the general increase in intensity from the Galactic plane to the poles. At the lowest energies, 0.1 - 0.3 keV, nearly all of the observed soft X-ray background (SXRB) is thermal emission from ~10⁶ K plasma. Generally, a [[coronal cloud]], a cloud composed of plasma, is usually associated with a star or other celestial or astronomical body, extending sometimes millions of kilometers into space, or thousands of light-years, depending on the associated body. The high temperature of the coronal cloud gives it unusual spectral features. These features have been traced to highly ionized atoms of elements such as iron which indicate a plasma's temperature in excess of 10⁶ K (MK) and associated emission of X-rays. {{clear}} ===Spectral distributions=== {{main|Physics/Distributions/Spectrals|Spectral distributions}} [[Image:TheElectromagneticSpectrum.jpg|thumb|450px|right|The electromagnetic spectrum. The red line indicates the room temperature thermal energy. Credit: [[b:nanotechnology|Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology]]. {{tlx|free media}}]] A '''spectral distribution''' is often a plot or intensity, brightness, flux density, or other characteristic of a spectrum versus the spectral property such as wavelength, frequency, energy, particle speed, refractive or reflective index, for example. The first three dozen or so astronomical X-ray objects detected other than the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] "represent a brightness range of about a thousandfold from the most intense source, Sco XR-1, ''ca.'' 5 x 10^-10 J m^-2 s^-1, to the weakest sources at a few times 10^-13 J m^-2 s^-1."<ref name=Friedman69>{{ cite journal |author=Friedman H |title=Cosmic X-ray observations |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |month=November |year=1969 |volume=313 |issue=1514 |pages=301-15 |url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2416439 |bibcode=1969RSPSA.313..301F |arxiv= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ===Temporal distributions=== {{main|Physics/Distributions/Temporals|Temporal distributions}} [[Image:Gursky GX 263 +3 Vela X?.png|thumb|right|300px|These two spectra show the proportional counting rates during the roll maneuver for GX 263 +3. Credit: H. Gursky, E. M. Kellogg, and P. Gorenstein. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] A '''temporal distribution''' is a distribution over time. Also known as a time distribution. A temporal distribution usually has the independent variable 'Time' on the [[w:Abscissa|abscissa]] and other variables viewed approximately orthogonal to it. The time distribution can move forward in time, for example, from the present into the future, or backward in time, from the present into the past. Usually, the abscissa is plotted forward in time with the earlier time at the intersection with the [[w:Ordinate|ordinate]] variable at left. Geologic time is often plotted on the abscissa versus phenomena on the ordinate or as a twenty-four hour clock analogy. "An X-ray source was observed in the constellation Vela from an attitude-controlled Aerobee 150 rocket launched from the White Sands Missile Range on February 2, 1968. The object, which may be the previously reported Vel XR-1 (Chodil ''et al.'' 1967), lies close to the galactic plane; we designate it as GX263+3."<ref name=Gursky>{{ cite journal |author=H. Gursky |author2=E. M. Kellogg |author3=P. Gorenstein |title=The Location of the X-ray Source in Vela |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1968 |volume=154 |issue=11 |pages=71-4 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/1968ApJ...154L..71G |arxiv= |bibcode=1968ApJ...154L..71G |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2015-12-15 }}</ref> The image on the upper right "shows the counting rates plotted against time during the maneuver in which the new source was observed. The peaks labeled 1, 2, 3, anf 4 all refer to this source. Peaks 1 and 2 determine a location that is the same within experimental error as the location determined by peaks 3 and 4. The reduction in background level from 130 to 150 sec after launch occurs when a large portion of the field of view falls below the horizon."<ref name=Gursky/> The second image down on the right shows the most "probable celestial locations defined by the peaks in [the upper image on the right] and counting-rate ratios are shown as line segments. Separations between intersections are consistent with a single X-ray source and statistical errors in determination of times of peak counting rates. Shaded area around intersections, and enlargement, show the region of uncertainty of the source. Lines labeled ''1st pass'' and ''2d pass'' refer to the center of the field of view during scan. Area inclosed by dashed lines is the region of uncertainty [well within Vela and the Chodil polygon] of Vel XR-1 as reported by Chodil ''et al.'' (1967)."<ref name=Gursky/> "The location of the source as α(1950) = 8^h57^m, δ(1950) = -41°15', with a region of uncertainty of about 3 square degrees, as shown in the [second figure down on the right]. The associated galactic coordinates are ''l''^II = 263.3°, ''b''^II = 2.9°. [...] This source lies about 3° from the position of the source Vel XR-1 as reported by Chodil ''et al.'' (1967) and is within its region of uncertainty. The two objects are probably coincident, since we see no other sources in the vicinity."<ref name=Gursky/> Actually, according to NASA's [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] , the X-ray source at ''l''^II = 263.3°, ''b''^II = 2.9° is 5.26° from Vela XR-1 at ''l''^II = 259° 08' 33.8", ''b''^II = 00 19' 35.7" not about 3°. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy|Ultraviolets}} [[Image:Capella Short Wave Spectrometer.png|right|thumb|250px|This is an ultraviolet spectrum of the spectral class K0III main star of the Capella system. Credit: A. K. Dupree, N. S. Brickhouse, G. A. Doschek, J. C. Green, and J. C. Raymond. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] The spectrum displayed on the right uses short wavelength ultraviolet to capture the strong Fe XVIII lines at 9.372 nm and 10.376 nm, Fe XIX at 10.820 nm and another Fe XVIII line at 13.266 nm.<ref name=Dupree>{{ cite journal |author=A. K. Dupree |author2=N. S. Brickhouse |author3=G. A. Doschek |author4=J. C. Green |author5=J. C. Raymond |title=The Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrum of Alpha Aurigae (Capella) |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=November |year=1993 |volume=418 |issue=11 |pages=L42-44 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1993ApJ...418L..41D&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=1993ApJ...418L..41D |doi=10.1086/187111 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-05-26 }}</ref> "The spectra were acquired during 1992 December 10-13. Capella was at phase 0.82-0.86 (Barlow et al. 1993, where phase 0.0 corresponds to orbital quadrature with the more massive [cooler] primary star [spectral class K0III] receding with maximum positive velocity)."<ref name=Dupree/> "A continuous distribution of temperatures (10⁵ - 10^7.8) is present in the Capella system."<ref name=Dupree/> {{clear}} ==Polarized light== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals/Polars|Polarized light|Polars}} [[Image:Polarized_light_Kervella.png|thumb|right|300px|Asymmetric Betelgeuse and its environment is imaged in visible light (top) and polarized visible light (bottom). Credit: P. Kervella, E. Lagadec, M. Montargès, S. T. Ridgway, A. Chiavassa, X. Haubois, H.-M. Schmid, M. Langlois, A. Gallenne, and G. Perrin. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] In the image on the right, "Asymmetric Betelgeuse and its environment [are] imaged in visible light (top) and polarized visible light (bottom). Each column is a different filter. The red dashed circle indicates Betelgeuse’s infrared photospheric radius. The light dashed circle is three times this."<ref name=Rawls>{{ cite book |author=Meredith Rawls |title=Zooming in on Betelgeuse |publisher=Astrobites |location= |date=24 November 2015 |url=http://astrobites.org/2015/11/24/zooming-in-on-betelgeuse/ |accessdate=2016-01-01 }}</ref> Both are specialized spatial distributions vs. intensity. "As you can see in the images [on the right], Betelgeuse is not symmetric, and neither is its circumstellar material. The top row shows brightness in different visible-light filters while the bottom row shows degree of polarization (light colors are more polarized than dark)."<ref name=Rawls/> "Most of the imaged polarized light is far from the star’s photosphere, and is probably polarized due to dust scattering. However, bits of this dust are close to the star, too! It’s well known that red supergiants like Betelgeuse lose significant amounts of mass. Mass loss seems to be connected to the huge convective cells inside supergiants, because they too are not spherically symmetric, but we don’t know precisely how. We do know the lost mass forms a circumstellar envelope around the star and and provides the material from which dust can form. It follows that if the dust was all far away or all close-in, that would tell us something about how it got there. Instead, at any single distance away from the star, we find different amounts of dust and gas in a range of different temperatures and densities."<ref name=Rawls/> {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy|Visuals}} [[Image:Fringe visibility Betelgeuse.png|right|thumb|300px|Visibility curves of Betelgeuse. Credit: F. Roddier, C. Roddier, and, R. Petrov, F. Martin, G. Ricort, and C. Aime. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A careful look to our visibility curves [on the right, full line is our data and broken line is speckle data from Aime ''et al.'' 1985] reveals a small periodic modulation that we have interpreted as possibly due to a stellar companion (Roddier, Roddier, and Karovska 1984). The estimated position angle is 85° ± 5° (mod. 180°). The period of modulation corresponds to an angular distance of 0.4"-0.5" and the depth of modulation to a magnitude difference of the order of 3.5-4."<ref name=Roddier1986>{{ cite journal |author=F. Roddier |author2=C. Roddier |author3=R. Petrov |author4=F. Martin |author5=G. Ricort |author6=C. Aime |title=New Observations of Alpha Orionis with a Rotation Shearing Interferometer |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=15 June |year=1986 |volume=305 |issue= |pages=L77-L80 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Claude_Aime/publication/234281653_New_observations_of_Alpha_Orionis_with_a_rotation_shearing_interferometer/links/55bf400408aed621de122b40.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2017-01-03 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy|Infrareds}} [[Image:Betelgeuse photosphere.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an interferometric image of the photosphere of Betelgeuse. Credit: Richard Mushotzky, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Betelgeuse interferometry.jpg|thumb|left|300px|This is the surface of Betelgeuse imaged using infrared interferometry at 1.64 µm. Credit: X. Haubois, G. Perrin, S. Lacour, T. Verhoelst, S. Meimon, L. Mugnier, E. Thiebaut, J.P. Berger, S.T. Ridgway, J.D. Monnier, R. Millan-Gabet, and W. Traub. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] The image on the right is an interferometric image of the photosphere of Betelgeuse at 1.64 microns. The image on the left is the unsmoothed infrared interferometry of the surface (photosphere) of Betelgeuse at 1.64 µm. "The image reveals the presence of two giant bright spots, whose size is equivalent to the distance Earth-Sun : they cover a large fraction of the surface. It is a first strong and direct indication of the presence of phenomena of convection, transport of heat by the moving matter, in a star other than the Sun."<ref name=Haubois>{{ cite book |author=Xavier Haubois |author2=Guy Perrin |title=Unprecedented details on the surface of the Betelgeuse star |publisher=Observatoire de Paris, LESIA, et CNRS |location=Paris, France |date=1 January 2010 |url=https://www.obspm.fr/spip.php?page=imprimer&id_article=1948&lang=fr |accessdate=2015-12-31 }}</ref> "The analysis of the brightness of the spots shows a variation of 500 degrees compared to the average temperature of the star (3 600 Kelvins). The largest of the two structures has a dimension equivalent to the quarter of the star diametre (or one and a half the distance Earth-Sun). This marks a clear difference with the Sun where the cells of convection are much finer and reach hardly 1/20th of the solar radius (a few Earth radius). These characteristics are compatible with the idea of luminous spots produced by the convection."<ref name=Haubois/> {{clear}} ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy|Submillimeters}} [[Image:Nhsc2009-021a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shown here is a portion of the SPIRE spectrum of VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa). Credit: ESA/NASA/JPL-Caltech. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] "This is one of the early spectra obtained with the SPIRE fourier transform spectrometer on Herschel. Shown here is a portion of the SPIRE spectrum of VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa), a red supergiant star near the end of its life, which is ejecting huge quantities of gas and dust into interstellar space. The inset is a SPIRE camera map of VY CMa, in which it appears as a bright compact source near the edge of a large extended cloud."<ref name=Groenewegen>{{ cite book |author=M. Groenewegen |title=SPIRE spectrum of VY Canis Majoris |publisher=Caltech |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=November 27, 2009 |url=http://www.herschel.caltech.edu/image/nhsc2009-021a |accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> "The VY CMa spectrum is amazingly rich, with prominent features from carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H₂O). More than 200 other spectral features have been identified so far in the full spectrum, and several unidentified features are being investigated. Many of the features are due to water, showing that the star is surrounded by large quantities of hot steam. Observations like these will help to establish a detailed picture of the mass loss from stars and the complex chemistry occurring in their extended envelopes. As in all of the SPIRE spectra, the underlying emission increases towards shorter wavelengths, and is due to the emission from dust grains. The shape of the dust spectrum provides information on the properties of the dust."<ref name=Groenewegen/> "VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa) is a red supergiant star located about 4900 light years from Earth in the constellation Canis Major. It is the largest known star, with a size of 2600 solar radii, and also one of the most luminous, with a luminosity in excess of 100 000 times that of the Sun. The mass of VY CMa lies in the range 30-40 solar masses, and it has a mass-loss rate of 2 x 10^-4 solar masses per year."<ref name=Groenewegen/> "The shell of gas it has ejected displays a complex structure; the circumstellar envelope is among the most remarkable chemical laboratories known in the Universe, creating a rich set of organic and inorganic molecules and dust species. Through stellar winds, these inorganic and organic compounds are injected into the interstellar medium, from which new stars orbited by new planets may form. Most of the carbon supporting life on Earth was forged by this kind of evolved star. VY CMa truly is a spectacular object, it is close to the end of its life and could explode as a supernova at any time."<ref name=Groenewegen/> {{clear}} ==Microwaves== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Microwaves|Microwave astronomy}} [[Image:PowerSpectrumExt.svg|thumb|right|250px|WMAP 3-year Power spectrum of CMB is compared to recent measurements of BOOMERanG, CBI, VSA and ACBAR. Credit: NASA/WMAP Science Team. {{tlx|free media}}]] The figure at the right "shows the three-year WMAP spectrum compared to a set of recent balloon and ground-based measurements that were selected to most complement the WMAP data in terms of frequency coverage and l range. The non-WMAP data points are plotted with errors that include both measurement uncertainty and cosmic variance, while the WMAP data in this l range are largely noise dominated, so the effective error is comparable. When the WMAP data are combined with these higher resolution CMB measurements, the existence of a third acoustic peak is well established, as is the onset of Silk damping beyond the 3rd peak."<ref name=Hinshaw>{{ cite journal |author=G. Hinshaw |author2=M. R. Nolta |author3=C. L. Bennett |author4=R. Bean |author5=O. Doré |author6=M. R. Greason |author7=M. Halpern |author8=R. S. Hill |author9=N. Jarosik |author10=A. Kogut |author11=E. Komatsu |author12=M. Limon |author13=N. Odegard |author14=S. S. Meyer |author15=L. Page |author16=H. V. Peiris |author17=D. N. Spergel |author18=G. S. Tucker |author19=L. Verde |author20=J. L. Weiland |author21=E. Wollack |author22=E. L. Wright |title=Three-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP1) Observations: Temperature Analysis |journal=The Astrophysical Journal (Supplement Series) |month=5 January |year=2007 |volume=170 |issue=2 |pages=288-334 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0603451.pdf |arxiv=astro-ph/0603451 |bibcode=2007ApJS..170..288H |doi=10.1086/513698 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy|Radio astronomy|Radios}} [[Image:Betelgeuse radio wavelengths.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a 7 mm radio image of Betelgeuse's atmosphere. Credit: NRAO/AUI and J. Lim, C. Carilli, S.M. White, A.J. Beasley, and R.G. Marson. {{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Betelgeuse radio.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The asymmetric structure of Betelgeuse in radio waves is likely due to activity in the outer atmosphere of the star. Credit: NRAO/AUI. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] The image on the right is of Betelgeuse at 7 mm (45 Gz) radio waves. "Close to the star, we find that the atmosphere has an irregular structure, and a temperature (3,450 +/- 850K) consistent with the photospheric temperature but much lower than that of gas in the same region probed by optical and ultraviolet observations. This cooler gas decreases steadily in temperature with radius, reaching 1,370 +/- 330K by seven stellar radii. The cool gas coexists with the hot chromospheric gas, but must be much more abundant as it dominates the radio emission."<ref name=Lim>{{ cite journal |author=Jeremy Lim |author2=Chris L. Carilli |author3=Stephen M. White |author4=Anthony J. Beasley |author5=Ralph G. Marson |title=Large convection cells as the source of Betelgeuse's extended atmosphere |journal=Nature |month=April |year=1998 |volume=392 |issue=676 |pages=575-7 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1998Natur.392..575L |arxiv= |bibcode=1998Natur.392..575L |doi=10.1038/33352 |pmid= |accessdate=2015-12-28 }}</ref> The asymmetric structure of Betelgeuse in radio waves shown in the image on the left is likely due to activity in the outer atmosphere of the star. {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens|Hydrogens}} [[Image:Hydrogen emission Kervella.png|thumb|right|300px|These two images show emission and absorption of hydrogen alpha. Credit: P. Kervella, E. Lagadec, M. Montargès, S. T. Ridgway, A. Chiavassa, X. Haubois, H.-M. Schmid, M. Langlois, A. Gallenne, and G. Perrin. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Two of the filters used to image Betelgeuse are sensitive to the familiar red hydrogen alpha spectral feature. Because one filter is broader than the other, subtracting the light in the narrow filter from the light seen with the broad filter yields a map of where hydrogen gas is emitting or absorbing light. It also turns out to be highly asymmetric. Most of the hydrogen emission is confined within a distance of three times Betelgeuse’s near-infrared radius. It’s a similar distance from the star as most of the polarized dust, but the spatial distributions are different."<ref name=Rawls>{{ cite book |author=Meredith Rawls |title=Zooming in on Betelgeuse |publisher=Astrobites |location= |date=24 November 2015 |url=http://astrobites.org/2015/11/24/zooming-in-on-betelgeuse/ |accessdate=2016-01-01 }}</ref> In the image on the right, "Left: A map of hydrogen emission (red) and absorption (blue) in the vicinity of Betelgeuse, with the same dashed lines [The red dashed circle indicates Betelgeuse’s infrared photospheric radius. The light dashed circle is three times this.] for reference. Right: Color composite of three of the filters from the first figure (the narrow hydrogen alpha filter is excluded)."<ref name=Rawls/> "Betelgeuse’s asymmetries persist in both in dust and gas, with a major interface between the two located around three times the near-infrared stellar radius. These asymmetries agree with different types of past observations and also strongly point toward a connection between supergiant mass loss and vigorous convection."<ref name=Rawls/> {{clear}} ==Ions== {{main|Plasmas/Ions|Ions}} [[Image:Chromospheric emission lines.png|thumb|right|300px|This set of graphs shows spatially resolved chromospheric emission lines of Fe I, Fe II, Al II, and C II. Credit: A. Lobel, J. Aufdenberg, A. K. Dupree, R. L. Kurucz, R. P. Stefanik, and G. Torres. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] "[I]on lines of Fe II, Al II, and C II [have been observed] out to 1′′ in the upper chromosphere. [The set of graphs on the right] shows (scaled) emission lines of Fe II λ2716 (UV 62), Al II λ2669 (UV 1), and C II λ2327 (UV 1)."<ref name=Lobel>{{ cite book |author=Alex Lobel |author2=Andrea Dupree |author3=Roland Gilliland |title=LIKE A HUMAN HEART: BETELGEUSE'S CHROMOSPHERE BEATS ASYMMETRICALLY |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |date=13 January 2000 |url=https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/archive/alobel0100.html |accessdate=2015-12-28 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Chromospheres== {{main|Stars/Chromospheres|Chromospheres}} [[Image:Magnesium wings.png|thumb|right|300px|This set of graphs shows the detailed profiles of the Mg II h & k lines observed up to 1000 mas. Credit: A. Lobel, J. Aufdenberg, A. K. Dupree, R. L. Kurucz, R. P. Stefanik, and G. Torres. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] The set of graphs on the right "shows the detailed profiles of the Mg II ''h'' & ''k'' lines observed up to 1000 mas. The emission line intensities decrease by a factor of ∼700 from chromospheric disk center (TP 0) to 1′′. These optically thick chromospheric lines show remarkable changes of their detailed shapes when scanning off-limb. The full width across both emission components at half intensity maximum decreases by ∼20%, while the broad and saturated central absorption core narrows by more than 50%. Beyond 600 mas the central core assumes a constant width which results from absorption contributions by the local interstellar medium (d_∗≃132 pc). We observe a strong increase of the (relative) intensity of the long-wavelength emission component in both lines beyond 200 mas. It signals fast wind acceleration beyond this radius. Note that the short-wavelength emission components of the ''k'' and ''h'' lines are blended with chomospheric Mn I lines (decreasing the ''k''- and increasing the ''h''-component), but that become much weaker in the outer chromosphere."<ref name=Lobel2003/> {{clear}} ==Betelgeuse== {{main|Stars/Betelgeuse|Betelgeuse}} [[Image:Upper end of Betelgeuse spectrum.jpg|thumb|center|500px|This is a spectrum of Betelgeuse taken with a SkyWatcher 200p / EQ5 / SynScan Tracking Star Analyser 100. Credit: Raymond Gilchrist. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Spectrum_of_Betelgeuse.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This spectrum of Betelgeuse ranges from about 520.0 nm (blue-green) to about 640.0 nm (yellow). Credit: Jeremy Sepinsky. {{tlx|fairuse}}]] Above is a spectrum of Betelgeuse "taken with a SkyWatcher 200p / EQ5 / SynScan Tracking Star Analyser 100."<ref name=Gilchrist/> The above spectrum of Betelgeuse has magnesium (Mg I) lines and strong titanium oxide (TiO₂) bands. Its temperature is between 2,000 to 3,600 K.<ref name=Gilchrist>{{ cite book |author=Raymond Gilchrist |title=Betelgeuse Graph and Spectrum |publisher=Flickr.com |location= |date=23 January 2013 |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/raygil/8409572424 |accessdate=2016-01-03 }}</ref> The spectrum of Betelgeuse on the right ranges from about 520.0 nm (blue-green) to about 640.0 nm (yellow) on the right end. {{clear}} ==CNO stars== {{main|Stars/CNOs|CNO stars}} Analysis "of the photometry, the radial velocity and the rotational velocities shows that the stars are concentrated in a small range of ''U''-''B'' colors, that they generally exhibit variable radial velocity and slow rotation."<ref name=Jaschek>{{ cite journal |author=Mercedes Jaschek, Carlos Jaschek |title=The CNO stars |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=December |year=1974 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=401-8 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1974A%26A....36..401J&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode=1974A&A....36..401J |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-10-18 }}</ref> A "large fraction exhibits evidence of [temporal] changes in the spectrum."<ref name=Jaschek/> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Spectrographs]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Astronomical spectroscopy}} <!-- footer categories --> [[Category:Astrochemistry/Lectures]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Spectroscopy/Lectures]] cnb7vcjar7kqglzj4ho18nkm2pvci0g 0 230360 2417047 2416715 2022-08-21T13:05:13Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 /* Contents */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Global Open Educational Resources Logo.svg|thumb|right|Open Educational Resources Logo]] '''Open educational resources''' ('''OER''') are freely accessible, openly licensed text, media, and other digital assets that are useful for teaching, learning, and assessing as well as for research purposes.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Open educational resources]]</ref> Communties use and alter OER according to their requirements and constraints. A scientific analysis of these alteration, forking or extension of OER provide insights in the drivers and needs of communities. == Contents == The following resources can be found in these {{Subpages/Simple}}: * [[/Introduction/]] - Introduction to OER * [[/Lesson/]] - Lesson on OER * [[/Sources/]] - Sources of OER (table of resources w/ counts of data available from each) * [[/Student Authoring/]] - Resources supporting student-authored content * [[/Adoptions/]] - Schools and courses using OER * [[/Open Courses/]] - Open course lists * [[/Open Textbooks/]] - Open textbook lists * [[/Training/]] - For teachers * [[/Localization/|Geographic Information Systems and tailored educational resources for a specific region]] * [[/Tailored WikiBooks/]] * [[Green Open Access]] * [[Wikiversity:Edit-a-thon]] to create OER == See Also == * [[Wikipedia: Open educational resources]] * [[Open Badges]] as digital certificates and record of achievements for OER courses and learning activities. * [[PanDocElectron]] for using Wikiversity Resource as Slide Presentations with the option to annotate slides in a browser with a stylus. * [[Intellectual Honesty]] * [[Open Community Approach]] and OER as one main constituent * [[Reproducible Science]] == External Learning Resources for OER == * [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/pathways Lumen Learning: Adopting Open Educational Resources in the Classroom] * [http://pressbooks.oer.hawaii.edu/oertraining2018 Hawaii.edu: OER Training] == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Capacity Building]] [[Category:Learning]] [[Category:Resources]] <noinclude> [[de:Open Educational Resources]] </noinclude> <noinclude> [[fr:Aide:Ressources_éducatives_libres]] </noinclude> <noinclude> [[zh:開放教育資源]] </noinclude> 51pdo2b0577pko7bl7cm79rmvitznni 0 232469 2417204 2416807 2022-08-22T04:39:43Z Young1lim 21186 /* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220822.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220820.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] o3ycplqhu9v2cr4bfy0j8iiuf0n10k2 2417271 2417204 2022-08-22T05:57:26Z Young1lim 21186 /* Serial Bus */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220822.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220822.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 4guy0nruj928saiurwy7w0k7rjlvhau 0 233913 2417096 2408811 2022-08-21T19:52:35Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Finding peer reviewers */ Removed as per [[Talk:WikiJournal_of_Medicine]] wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}</noinclude> {{Sliding_right_TOC}} This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication. {{TOClimit|1}} ==Editing published works== [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply "none stated") when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections. ==How to contribute== ===Help run the journal=== * Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction * Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] * Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals * [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal ===Keep in touch=== *Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read *Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project *Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism *Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter'''] *Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]''' ===Outreach=== {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}} Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals *The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation]) *Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article *Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information **{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission *Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation'']) *Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]]) *Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list *Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]] ===Improve systems and procedures=== *Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]]. ===Other=== *Check on [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']] *Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']] **If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]] *[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]] *'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]]) *Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']] ==Inviting a submission== Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects: :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}} :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}} Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&oldid=1623175 example]). :{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}} ==Receiving a submission== As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure. ===Works without need for confidentiality=== In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]]. If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]]. Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already. ===Confidential works=== Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]]. ===Importing from Wikipedia=== If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps: # [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to <code>WikiJournal Preprints/Title</code> (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages) # Remove infobox, external links, and categories # Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page # Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]: #* at the top of the page: <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]<nowiki>|</nowiki></code> #* at the bottom of the page: <code><nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> # Inform author by adding <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> to their Wikipedia talkpage ===Creating location for peer review=== Articles with no talkpage yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text "<code><nowiki>{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}</nowiki></code>"). ===Creating article metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Creating article metadata in wikidata"></span>=== Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it have link on the right hand menu "QID: Q12345". If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: "[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]". Check that this item includes: *{{P|P1476}} = article title *{{P|P31}} = {{Q|Q580922}} *{{P|P50}} = each author's name **{{P|P1545}} = author order **{{P|P968}} = email of corresponding author *{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|Q100164397}} *{{P|P7347}} = peer review url *{{P|P275}} = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}}) *{{P|P793 }} = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers **{{P|P585}} = date **{{P|P276}} = {{Q|Q100164397}} **{{P|P664}} = {{WikiJournal current volume}} ====Updating author metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Updating author metadata in wikidata"></span>==== Additionally, for each author: *{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation) **{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department) *{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise *{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent *{{P|P496}} = ORCID *{{P|P4174}} = username ===Plagiarism checking=== All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&project=wikiversity&action=search&use_engine=1&turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as: *<nowiki>{{Pass}}</nowiki> Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&project=wikiversity&action=search&use_engine=1&turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> *<nowiki>{{Pass}}</nowiki> Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&project=wikiversity&action=search&use_engine=1&turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> * Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&project=wikiversity&action=search&use_engine=1&turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia. ==Rejecting articles== Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus. If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review ("desk reject"). A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected. If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process. Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']]. Currently, only "nonsense" pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process. ==Arranging peer review== Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued. ===Responsibility=== Each submitted work is designated to one or more "[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]" among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}} ===Finding peer reviewers=== Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods: # Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). # The journal maintains a [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#List_of_registered_peer_reviewers|list of peer reviewers]] across a variety of specialities. # Check the recent papers cited by the submission. # Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus]) # Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons] # Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database]. In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion). [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria: * Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity. * Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested * Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest. ===Inviting a peer reviewer=== Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}} ===Reminding a peer reviewer=== Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email even if they did not respond to the first. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}} ===Confirming a peer reviewer=== Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}} ===Importing reviews=== In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article. ==Processing received peer reviews== === Checking the review === Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying "none declared". Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of: * The title of the work that is peer reviewed * Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period) * A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]] If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review. ===Uploading the review=== Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the "discussion" page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) ::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}} ===Updating review metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Updating review metadata in wikidata"></span>=== When a review is posted to the article discussion page, it should display a link to add the information to Wikidata: *{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer **{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses) **{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed) ====Updating reviewer metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Updating reviewer metadata in wikidata"></span>==== Additionally, each reviewer should have: *{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation) **{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department) *{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise *{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent *{{P|P496}} = ORCID This automatic link doesn't appear for anonymous editors who have to be added separately ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]): *{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}} **{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise **{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc) ==Article amendments and publication decision== === Author response to review === At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review. # Editing the article itself to address any issues # Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template) Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}} === Editorial decision === An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once: *Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article *The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments) *The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine |*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback. }} In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}} ==== Accepting articles ==== Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes: *[[#Updating_metadata_in_wikidata|update the metadata in wikidata]] *[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to "''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''" *[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI) *[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under "[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]" at top menu) *[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]] *[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]] *[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available. ==== Declining articles ==== If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar: * Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons * Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date * Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage * If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review ==Inclusion of approved articles== [[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]] === Updating published article metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Updating published article metadata in wikidata"></span>=== Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added: *{{P|P356}} = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year) *{{P|P31}} = {{Q|Q13442814}} *{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}} *{{P|P577}} = date *{{P|P478}} = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year) *{{P|P433}} = 1 *{{P|P304}} = the chronological order of the work for this year *{{P|P953}} = URL of final PDF *{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]): *{{P|P921}} = main subject *{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks *{{P|P2860}} = references cited ===Page location=== [[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from <code>WikiJournal_Preprints/Title</code> to <code>{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title</code> (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record). ===Inclusion in the current volume and issue=== Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]). ===Assignment of digital object identifier=== Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [http://www.crossref.org/webDeposit web deposit form], using the following metadata: Data Type Selection: Journal <u>Journal information</u> :Title: '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}''''' :Abbr.: '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}''''' :Journal DOI: 10.15347/'''{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}''' :URL: '''{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|journal URL|[http://www.{{WikiJXyz}}.org http://www.{{WikiJXyz}}.org]}}/''' (the final '''/''' is necessary) :Print ISSN: (leave blank) :Elect ISSN: '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}''' :Volume: '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year) :Issue: '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles) :Issue DOI: (leave blank) :Issue URL: (leave blank) :Publication dates; :Type: print: (leave blank) :Type: online; :Year: '''{{CURRENTYEAR}}''' :Month: (leave blank) :Day: (leave blank) Continue to "Add article", and enter article-specific details. <u>Article information</u> :Title: '''title of article''' :DOI: '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year) :URL: '''full url of article''' :Contributors: '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliations are not needed). :First page: '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year) :Last page: (leave blank) Whenever metadata are updated, all applicable fields need to be filled in again and previous data is over-written. <u>User information</u> :Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup] :Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup] :e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}''' ===Submitting reference metadata=== Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]: *Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit' *Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit' *Include the information: :Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}''' :Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references :Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup] :Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup] ===Registering article in DOAJ=== Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form]. ===Depositing XML=== When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text "<code><nowiki>{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|</nowiki>'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''<nowiki>}}}}</nowiki></code>" which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'. ===Inform the authors=== Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]]. Otherwise a journal editor should do these. :{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance template}} ==PDF files== ===Creation of PDF files=== [[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]] # First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date # The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended) #: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum] |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}} }} # Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template # Use Ctrl+H to find-replace <code>space</code> with <code>space</code> (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces) # Remove "↑ Jump to" from reference list # File > Options > Advanced > Image Size and Quality > "Do Not Compress images in file" (retain full-resolution images) # File > Save as > docx # File > Save as > PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF "printing"]] since this can lead to misformatting) ===Uploading PDF files to the journal=== #Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder] |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder] }} #[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any <code>:</code> characters, since they can't be included in filenames) #*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use <code><nowiki>{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}</nowiki></code> using the article's Wikidata QID. ===Updating PDF files=== When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page. For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template]. The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the <code>File:[Article title].pdf</code> page and clicking "Upload a new version of this file". ==Wikipedia inclusion== Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content. ===As content=== *Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the <code>{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}</code> template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]]) *Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]]) *Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]]) Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia. ;Process *The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. *The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.: *:"<code><nowiki>Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:</nowiki>{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}<nowiki>/...]], [[doi:10.15347/</nowiki>{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}<nowiki>.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license</nowiki></code>"<br> Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license *Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include: ** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions) ** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep ** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]] ** Remove <code>w:</code> prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary) ** Replace <code><nowiki>[[xyz|xyz]]</nowiki></code> with <code><nowiki>[[xyz]]</nowiki></code> (tidier, but not strictly necessary) * Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers **{{P|P585}} = date **{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}} **{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page * Add the <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> template in the References and at the top of the Talk page == Wikidata inclusion <span class="anchor" id="WikiData inclusion"></span> == Articles and authors can have Wikidata items created via [[toolforge:sourcemd/|this tool]]. Articles are added via their DOI, and authors via their ORCID. Several can be added at once as a batch. Currently any update of Wikidata items based on the content of a WikiJournal article has to be done manually. ==Scientific misconduct== Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts]. Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision. ;See also [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]] ==Adding and removing journal editors== ===Adding editorial board members=== Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps. # Add this text <code><nowiki>{{subst:</nowiki>[[Template:WikiJournal accepted board member|WikiJournal accepted board member]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> underneath their application on the [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board applications page]], which will paste these points as a checklist <section begin=checklist_board/> # [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) #:{{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}} # Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # Add their name and start data to the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on wikidata # Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] <section end=checklist_board/> ===Removing editorial board members=== Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]). # Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link]) # Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]] # Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted # Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed ===Adding associate editors=== Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps # Add this text <code><nowiki>{{subst:</nowiki>[[Template:WikiJournal accepted associate editor|WikiJournal accepted associate editor]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> underneath their application on the [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor applications page]], which will paste these points as a checklist <section begin=checklist_assoc/> # [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) #: {{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}} # Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # Add their name and start data to the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on wikidata # Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed # Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{<includeonly>subst:</includeonly>CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] <section end=checklist_assoc/> Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information. ===Removing associate editors=== Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]). # Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] # Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted # Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed ===Updating editor metadata in Wikidata <span class="anchor" id="Updating editor metadata in Wikidata"></span>=== Add to the relevant editorial team ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}): *{{P|P98}} = editor **{{P|P580}} = date Additionally, to each editor: *{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation) **{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department) *{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise *{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent *{{P|P496}} = ORCID *{{P|P4174}} = username ==Social media accounts== ===Adding admins=== Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group]. Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords: * [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period * [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content. ===Recommended use of social media=== General guidelines: *Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles *When citing a publication, always include the doi *Include an image whenever possible Examples posts: *A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article *Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience *Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc) *Relevant news articles from other outlets *Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications) </div></div> [[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] 2eijoinmr38pfwxulbgidgnzzxrde23 0 245802 2417126 2409335 2022-08-21T23:19:02Z OhanaUnited 18921 correcting page # wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | w1 = Systematic review | first1 = Jack | last1 = Nunn | orcid1 = 0000-0003-0316-3254 | affiliation1 = La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia | correspondence1 = {{nospam|jack.nunn|latrobe.edu.au}} | first2 = Steven | last2 = Chang{{affiliation|name=Nunn}} | orcid2 = 0000-0002-3193-7969 | abstract = '''Systematic reviews''' are a type of [[w:literature review|review]] that uses repeatable analytical methods to collect secondary data and analyse it. Systematic reviews are a type of evidence synthesis which formulate research questions that are broad or narrow in scope, and identify and synthesize data that directly relate to the systematic review question.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://getitglossary.org/term/systematic+review|title=systematic review|website=GET-IT glossary|access-date=18 November 2015}}</ref> While some people might associate ‘systematic review’ with 'meta-analysis', there are multiple kinds of review which can be defined as ‘systematic’ which do not involve a meta-analysis. Some systematic reviews critically appraise research studies, and synthesize findings qualitatively or quantitatively.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Armstrong R, Hall BJ, Doyle J, Waters E|date=March 2011|title=Cochrane Update. 'Scoping the scope' of a cochrane review|journal=Journal of Public Health|volume=33|issue=1|pages=147–50|doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdr015|pmid=21345890}}</ref> Systematic reviews are often designed to provide an exhaustive summary of current evidence relevant to a [[w:research question|research question]]. For example, systematic reviews of [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trials]] are an important way of informing [[w:evidence-based medicine|evidence-based medicine]],<ref name="CEBM_about">{{cite web|url=http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1914|title=What is EBM?|date=2009-11-20|publisher=Centre for Evidence Based Medicine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406110628/http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1914|archive-date=2011-04-06|access-date=2011-06-17}}</ref> and a review of existing studies is often quicker and cheaper than embarking on a new study. While systematic reviews are often applied in the [[w:Biomedical research|biomedical]] or healthcare context, they can be used in other areas where an assessment of a precisely defined subject would be helpful.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ader|first1=Herman J.|last2=Mellenbergh|first2=Gideon J.|last3=Hand|first3=David J.|title=Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion|publisher=Johannes van Kessel Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-90-79418-02-2|chapter=Methodological quality|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCnOj4ZFyjkC&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr#v=onepage&q=%22Methodological%20quality%22&f=false}}</ref> Systematic reviews may examine clinical tests, public health interventions, environmental interventions,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bilotta|first1=Gary S.|last2=Milner|first2=Alice M.|last3=Boyd|first3=Ian|year=2014|title=On the use of systematic reviews to inform environmental policies|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=42|pages=67–77|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2014.05.010}}</ref> social interventions, [[w:adverse effects|adverse effects]], qualitative evidence syntheses, methodological reviews, policy reviews, and [[w:Economic evaluation|economic evaluations]].<ref name="CRD2008">{{cite book|url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/crd/Systematic_Reviews.pdf|title=Systematic reviews: CRD's guidance for undertaking reviews in health care.|date=2008|publisher=University of York, Centre for Reviews and Dissemination|isbn=978-1-900640-47-3|location=York|access-date=17 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.cebma.org/wp-content/uploads/Pettigrew-Roberts-SR-in-the-Soc-Sc.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616034557/http://www.cebma.org/wp-content/uploads/Pettigrew-Roberts-SR-in-the-Soc-Sc.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-16|title=Systematic reviews in the social sciences|vauthors=Petticrew M, Roberts H|date=2006|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-2110-1}}</ref> An understanding of systematic reviews and how to implement them in practice is highly recommended for professionals involved in the delivery of [[w:health care|health care]], public health and public policy. }} ==Characteristics== Systematic reviews can be used to inform decision making in many different disciplines, such as evidence-based healthcare and evidence-based policy and practice.<ref name=":0" /> A systematic review can be designed to provide an exhaustive summary of current literature relevant to a research question. A systematic review uses a rigorous and transparent approach for research synthesis, with the aim of assessing and, where possible, minimizing bias in the findings. While many systematic reviews are based on an explicit quantitative meta-analysis of available data, there are also qualitative reviews and other types of mixed-methods reviews which adhere to standards for gathering, analyzing and reporting evidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bearman|first=Margaret|last2=Dawson|first2=Phillip|date=2013|title=Qualitative synthesis and systematic review in health professions education|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/medu.12092|journal=Medical Education|language=en|volume=47|issue=3|pages=252–260|doi=10.1111/medu.12092|issn=1365-2923}}</ref> Systematic reviews of quantitative data or mixed-method reviews sometimes use statistical techniques (meta-analysis) to combine results of eligible studies. Scoring levels are sometimes used to rate the quality of the evidence depending on the methodology used, although this is discouraged by the Cochrane Library.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current|title=Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions|date=2019-09-20|website=training.cochrane.org|editor-last=Higgins|editor-first=Julian P.T.|series=version 6.1|location=|pages=section 4.6|language=en|access-date=2020-09-14|editor2-last=Thomas|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Chandler|editor3-first=Jacqueline|editor4-last=Cumpston|editor4-first=Miranda|editor5-last=Li|editor5-first=Tianjing|editor6-last=Page|editor6-first=Matthew J.|editor7-last=Welch|editor7-first=Vivian A.}}</ref> As evidence rating can be subjective, multiple people may be consulted to resolve any scoring differences between how evidence is rated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestpractice.bmj.com/info/toolkit/learn-ebm/what-is-grade/|title=What is GRADE?|last=Siemieniuk|first=Reed|last2=Guyatt|first2=Gordon|date=|website=BMJ Best Practice|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCnOj4ZFyjkC&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Advising on Research Methods: A Consultant's Companion|last=Adèr|first=Hermanus Johannes|date=2008|publisher=Johannes van Kessel Publishing.|isbn=978-90-79418-01-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/resource/grade-handbook|title=GRADE Handbook|last=|first=|publisher=|year=2013|isbn=|editor-last=Schünemann|editor-first=Holger|location=|pages=|language=en|access-date=2020-08-26|editor-last2=Brożek|editor-first2=Jan|editor-last3=Guyatt|editor-first3=Gordon|editor-last4=Oxman|editor-first4=Andrew}}</ref> The [[wikipedia:EPPI-Centre|EPPI-Centre]], [[wikipedia:Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] and the [[wikipedia:The Joanna Briggs Institute|Joanna Briggs Institute]] have all been influential in developing methods for combining both qualitative and quantitative research in systematic reviews.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harden|first=Angela|last2=Thomas|first2=James|last3=Cargo|first3=Margaret|last4=Harris|first4=Janet|last5=Pantoja|first5=Tomas|last6=Flemming|first6=Kate|last7=Booth|first7=Andrew|last8=Garside|first8=Ruth|last9=Hannes|first9=Karin|date=2018-05-01|title=Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group guidance series—paper 5: methods for integrating qualitative and implementation evidence within intervention effectiveness reviews|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895435617313549|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=97|pages=70–78|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.11.029|issn=0895-4356}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/|title=EPPI-Centre Home|website=eppi.ioe.ac.uk|access-date=2020-06-29}}</ref> Several reporting guidelines exist to standardise reporting about how systematic reviews are conducted. Such reporting guidelines are not quality assessment or appraisal tools. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement<ref name=":2" /> suggests a standardized way to ensure a transparent and complete reporting of systematic reviews, and is now required for this kind of research by more than 170 medical journals worldwide.<ref name=":0" /> Several specialized PRISMA guideline extensions have been developed to support particular types of studies or aspects of the review process, including PRISMA-P for review protocols and PRISMA-ScR for scoping reviews.<ref name=":0" /> A list of PRISMA guideline extensions is hosted by the EQUATOR (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research) Network.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/prisma/|title=Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement|last=|first=|date=|website=www.equator-network.org|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-29}}</ref> For qualitative reviews, reporting guidelines include ENTREQ (Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research) for qualitative evidence syntheses; RAMESES (Realist And MEta-narrative Evidence Syntheses: Evolving Standards) for meta-narrative and realist reviews;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Geoff|last2=Greenhalgh|first2=Trish|last3=Westhorp|first3=Gill|last4=Buckingham|first4=Jeanette|last5=Pawson|first5=Ray|date=2013|title=RAMESES publication standards: meta‐narrative reviews|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jan.12092|journal=[[w:Journal of Advanced Nursing|Journal of Advanced Nursing]]|language=en|volume=97|pages=987–1004|doi=10.1111/jan.12092}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Geoff|last2=Greenhalgh|first2=Trish|last3=Westhorp|first3=Gill|last4=Buckingham|first4=Jeanette|last5=Pawson|first5=Ray|date=2013|title=RAMESES publication standards: realist syntheses |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jan.12095|journal=[[w:Journal of Advanced Nursing|Journal of Advanced Nursing]]|language=en|volume=97|pages=1005-1022|doi=10.1111/jan.12095}}</ref> and eMERGe (Improving reporting of Meta-Ethnography) for meta-[[wikipedia:Ethnography|ethnograph]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Flemming|first=Kate|last2=Booth|first2=Andrew|last3=Hannes|first3=Karin|last4=Cargo|first4=Margaret|last5=Noyes|first5=Jane|date=2018-05|title=Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group guidance series—paper 6: reporting guidelines for qualitative, implementation, and process evaluation evidence syntheses|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617313276|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=97|pages=79–85|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.10.022}}</ref> Developments in systematic reviews during the 21st century included realist reviews and the meta-narrative approach, both of which addressed problems of variation in methods and heterogeneity existing on some subjects.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> == Types of systematic review== There are over 30 types of systematic review and the '''Table 1''' below summarises some of these, but it is not exhaustive.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Grant|first=Maria J.|last2=Booth|first2=Andrew|date=2009|title=A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x|journal=Health Information & Libraries Journal|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|pages=91–108|doi=10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x|issn=1471-1842}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/944453327|title=Guidance on choosing qualitative evidence synthesis methods for use in health technology assessments of complex interventions|last1=Booth|first1=A|last2=Noyes|first2=J|last3=Flemming|first3=K|last4=Gerhardus|first4=A|last5=Wahlster|first5=P |last6=Van der Wilt|first6=GJ|last7=Mozygemba|first7=K|last8=Refolo|first8=P|last9=Sacchini|first9=D|last10=Tummers|first10=M|last11=Rehfuess|first11=E |date=2016|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=32|pages=|oclc=944453327}}</ref> It is important to note that there is not always consensus on the boundaries and distinctions between the approaches described below. {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: A summary of some of the types of systematic review. |- ! Review type !! Summary |- | Mapping review/systematic map || A mapping review maps existing literature and categorizes data. The method characterizes quantity and quality of literature, including by study design and other features. Mapping reviews can be used to identify the need for primary or secondary research.<ref name=":0" /> |- | Meta-analysis || A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple quantitative studies. Using statistical methods, results are combined to provide evidence from multiple studies. The two types of data generally used for meta-analysis in health research are individual participant data and aggregate data (such as odds ratios or relative risks). |- | Mixed studies review/mixed methods review || Refers to any combination of methods where one significant stage is a literature review (often systematic). It can also refer to a combination of review approaches such as combining quantitative with qualitative research.<ref name=":0" /> |- | Qualitative systematic review/qualitative evidence synthesis || This method for integrates or compares findings from qualitative studies. The method can include ‘coding’ the data and looking for ‘themes’ or ‘constructs’ across studies. Multiple authors may improve the ‘validity’ of the data by potentially reducing individual bias.<ref name=":0" /> |- | Rapid review || An assessment of what is already known about a policy or practice issue, which uses systematic review methods to search for and critically appraise existing research. Rapid reviews are still a systematic review, however parts of the process may be simplified or omitted in order to increase rapidity.<ref>{{Cite web|archive-date=2020-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916051435/https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/c.php?g=849703&p=6154326|url=https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/c.php?g=849703&p=6154326|title=What is a rapid review? Systematic Review Library Guides at CQ University|website=library.cqu.edu.au|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref> Rapid reviews were used during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covidrapidreviews.cochrane.org/welcome|title=Home|website=covidrapidreviews.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> |- | Systematic review || A systematic search for data, using a repeatable method. It includes appraising the data (for example the quality of the data) and a synthesis of research data. |- | Systematic search and review || Combines methods from a ‘critical review’ with a comprehensive search process. This review type is usually used to address broad questions to produce the most appropriate evidence synthesis. This method may or may not include quality assessment of data sources.<ref name=":0" /> |- | Systematized review || Include elements of systematic review process, but searching is often not as comprehensive as a systematic review and may not include quality assessments of data sources. |} ===Scoping reviews=== Scoping reviews are distinct from systematic reviews in several important ways. A scoping review is an attempt to search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1364557032000119616|title = Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework|journal = International Journal of Social Research Methodology|volume = 8|pages = 19–32|year = 2005|last1 = Arksey|first1 = Hilary|last2 = O'Malley|first2 = Lisa }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.prisma-statement.org/Extensions/ScopingReviews|title=PRISMA|website=www.prisma-statement.org|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> This can mean that the concept search and method (including data extraction, organisation and analysis) are refined throughout the process, sometimes requiring deviations from any protocol or original research plan.<ref name="Peters 141–146">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Micah D. J.|last2=Godfrey|first2=Christina M.|last3=Khalil|first3=Hanan|last4=McInerney|first4=Patricia|last5=Parker|first5=Deborah|last6=Soares|first6=Cassia Baldini|date=2015-09|title=Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews|url=https://journals.lww.com/ijebh/fulltext/2015/09000/Guidance_for_conducting_systematic_scoping_reviews.5.aspx|journal=JBI Evidence Implementation|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=141–146|doi=10.1097/XEB.0000000000000050|issn=2691-3321}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levac|first=Danielle|last2=Colquhoun|first2=Heather|last3=O'Brien|first3=Kelly K|date=2010-12|title=Scoping studies: advancing the methodology|url=http://implementationscience.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69|journal=Implementation Science|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=69|doi=10.1186/1748-5908-5-69|issn=1748-5908}}</ref> A [[w:scoping review|scoping review]] may often be a preliminary stage before a systematic review, which 'scopes' out an area of inquiry and maps the language and key concepts to determine if a systematic review is possible or appropriate, or to lay the groundwork for a full systematic review. The goal can be to assess how much data or evidence is available regarding a certain area of interest.<ref name="Peters 141–146"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colquhoun|first=Heather L.|last2=Levac|first2=Danielle|last3=O'Brien|first3=Kelly K.|last4=Straus|first4=Sharon|last5=Tricco|first5=Andrea C.|last6=Perrier|first6=Laure|last7=Kastner|first7=Monika|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2014-12|title=Scoping reviews: time for clarity in definition, methods, and reporting|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25034198/|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1291–1294|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.03.013|issn=1878-5921|pmid=25034198}}</ref> This process is further complicated if it is mapping concepts across multiple languages or cultures. As a scoping review should be systematically conducted and reported (with a transparent and repeatable method), some academic publishers categorize them as a kind of 'systematic review', which may cause confusion. Scoping reviews are helpful when it is not possible to carry out a systematic synthesis of research findings, for example, when there are no published clinical trials in the area of inquiry. Scoping reviews are helpful when determining if it is possible or appropriate to carry out a systematic review, and are a useful method when an area of inquiry is very broad,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lacaze|first=Paul|last2=Fransquet|first2=Peter|last3=Tiller|first3=Jane|last4=Nunn|first4=Jack S.|date=2019|title=Public Involvement in Global Genomics Research: A Scoping Review|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00079/full|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|language=en|volume=7|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2019.00079|issn=2296-2565}}</ref> for example, exploring how the public are involved in all stages systematic reviews.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pollock A, Campbell P, Struthers C, Synnot A, Nunn J, Hill S, Goodare H, Watts C, Morley R | title = Stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews: a protocol for a systematic review of methods, outcomes and effects | journal = Research Involvement and Engagement | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 9 | date = 2017-04-21 | pmid = 29062534 | pmc = 5611627 | doi = 10.1186/s40900-017-0060-4 }}</ref> There is still a lack of clarity when defining the exact method of a scoping review as it is both an iterative process and is still relatively new.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munn|first=Zachary|last2=Peters|first2=Micah D. J.|last3=Stern|first3=Cindy|last4=Tufanaru|first4=Catalin|last5=McArthur|first5=Alexa|last6=Aromataris|first6=Edoardo|date=2018-12|title=Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach|url=https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=143|doi=10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC6245623|pmid=30453902}}</ref> There have been several attempts to improve the standardisation of the method,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Levac D, Colquhoun H, O'Brien KK | title = Scoping studies: advancing the methodology | journal = Implementation Science | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 69 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20854677 | pmc = 2954944 | doi = 10.1186/1748-5908-5-69 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peters MD, Godfrey CM, Khalil H, McInerney P, Parker D, Soares CB | title = Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews | journal = International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–6 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26134548 | doi = 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000050 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Colquhoun HL, Levac D, O'Brien KK, Straus S, Tricco AC, Perrier L, Kastner M, Moher D | title = Scoping reviews: time for clarity in definition, methods, and reporting | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 67 | issue = 12 | pages = 1291–4 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25034198 | doi = 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.03.013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arksey|first=Hilary|last2=O'Malley|first2=Lisa |date=2005-02-01|title=Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework |journal=International Journal of Social Research Methodology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=19–32|doi=10.1080/1364557032000119616 }}</ref> for example via a PRISMA guideline extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tricco|first=Andrea C.|last2=Lillie|first2=Erin|last3=Zarin|first3=Wasifa|last4=O'Brien|first4=Kelly K.|last5=Colquhoun|first5=Heather|last6=Levac|first6=Danielle|last7=Moher|first7=David|last8=Peters|first8=Micah D.J.|last9=Horsley|first9=Tanya|date=2018-10-02|title=PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation|url=http://annals.org/article.aspx?doi=10.7326/M18-0850|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|language=en|volume=169|issue=7|pages=467|doi=10.7326/M18-0850|issn=0003-4819}}</ref> [[wikipedia:PROSPERO|PROSPERO]] (the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) does not permit the submission of protocols of scoping reviews,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#aboutregpage |title= PROSPERO| work = Centre for Reviews and Dissemination | publisher = University of York |access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> although some journals will publish protocols for scoping reviews.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> == Stages== {{Fig |number = 1 |image = Extraction machine.gif |caption = A visualisation of data being 'extracted' and 'combined' in a Cochrane intervention effect review where a meta-analysis is possible.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> |attribution = |align = right |size = 440px }}While there are multiple kinds of systematic review methods, the main stages of a review can be summarised into five stages: === 1. Defining the research question === Defining an answerable question and agreeing an objective method is required to design a useful systematic review.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> Best practice recommends publishing the protocol of the review before initiating it to reduce the risk of unplanned research duplication and to enable consistency between methodology and protocol.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.prisma-statement.org/Protocols/Registration |title=PRISMA|work = Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) |access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> Clinical reviews of quantitative data are often structured using the acronym [[w:PICO process|PICO]], which stands for 'Population or Problem', 'Intervention or Exposure', 'Comparison' and 'Outcome', with other variations existing for other kinds of research. For qualitative reviews PICo is 'Population or Problem', 'Interest' and 'Context'. === 2. Searching for relevant data sources === Planning how the review will search for relevant data from research that matches certain criteria is a decisive stage in developing a rigorous systematic review. Relevant criteria can include only selecting research that is good quality and answers the defined question.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> The search strategy should be designed to retrieve literature that matches the protocol's specified inclusion and exclusion criteria. The methodology section of a systematic review should list all of the databases and citation indices that were searched. The titles and abstracts of identified articles can be checked against pre-determined criteria for eligibility and relevance. Each included study may be assigned an objective assessment of methodological quality, preferably by using methods conforming to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement,<ref name=":5" /> or the high-quality standards of Cochrane.<ref name="CochraneHandbook" /> Common information sources used in searches include scholarly databases of peer-reviewed articles such as [[w:MEDLINE|MEDLINE]], [[w:Web of Science|Web of Science]], [[w:Embase|Embase]], and [[w:PubMed|PubMed]] as well as sources of unpublished literature such as clinical trial registries and [[w:Grey literature|grey literature]] collections. Key references can also be yielded through additional methods such as citation searching, reference list checking (related to a search method called '[[wikipedia:Pearl growing|pearl growing]]'), manually searching information sources not indexed in the major electronic databases (sometimes called 'hand-searching'),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/resource/tsc-induction-mentoring-training-guide/5-handsearching|title=5. Handsearching|website=training.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-09-14}}</ref> and directly contacting experts in the field.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Papaioannou|first=Diana|last2=Sutton|first2=Anthea|last3=Carroll|first3=Christopher|last4=Booth|first4=Andrew|last5=Wong|first5=Ruth|date=2010|title=Literature searching for social science systematic reviews: consideration of a range of search techniques|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00863.x|journal=Health Information & Libraries Journal|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=114–122|doi=10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00863.x|issn=1471-1842}}</ref> To be systematic, searchers must use a combination of search skills and tools such as database subject headings, keyword searching, [[w:Logical connective|Boolean operators]], proximity searching, while attempting to balance the sensitivity (systematicity) and precision (accuracy). Inviting and involving an experienced information professional or librarian can notably improve the quality of systematic review search strategies and reporting.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rethlefsen ML, Farrell AM, Osterhaus Trzasko LC, Brigham TJ | title = Librarian co-authors correlated with higher quality reported search strategies in general internal medicine systematic reviews | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 68 | issue = 6 | pages = 617–26 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25766056 | doi = 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.11.025 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koffel|first=Jonathan B.|date=2015-05-04|title=Use of Recommended Search Strategies in Systematic Reviews and the Impact of Librarian Involvement: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Recent Authors|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0125931|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=10|issue=5|pages=e0125931|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125931|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC4418838|pmid=25938454}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Costella|first=John|last2=Torabi|first2=Nazi|last3=Meert|first3=Deborah|date=2016|title=Impact of librarians on reporting of the literature searching component of pediatric systematic reviews|url=http://jmla.pitt.edu/ojs/jmla/article/view/139|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association|language=en|volume=104|issue=4|pages=267–277|doi=10.5195/jmla.2016.139|issn=1558-9439|pmc=PMC5079487|pmid=27822147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=Kehu|last2=Yao|first2=Liang|last3=Jiang|first3=Tongxiao|last4=Liang|first4=Fuxiang|last5=Moher|first5=David|last6=Tian|first6=Hongliang|last7=Tian|first7=Jinhui|last8=Li|first8=Lun|date=2014-09-01|title=Network meta-analyses could be improved by searching more sources and by involving a librarian|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(14)00116-4/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=67|issue=9|pages=1001–1007|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.04.003|issn=0895-4356|pmid=24841794}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rethlefsen|first=Melissa L.|last2=Murad|first2=M. Hassan|last3=Livingston|first3=Edward H.|date=2014-09-10|title=Engaging Medical Librarians to Improve the Quality of Review Articles|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2014.9263|journal=JAMA|language=en|volume=312|issue=10|pages=999|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.9263|issn=0098-7484}}</ref> === 3. 'Extraction' of relevant data === Relevant data are 'extracted' from the data sources according to the review method. It is important to note that the data extraction method is specific to the kind of data, and data extracted on ‘outcomes’ is only relevant to certain types of reviews. For example, a systematic review of clinical trials might extract data about how the research was done (often called the method or 'intervention'), who participated in the research (including how many people), how it was paid for (for example funding sources) and what happened (the outcomes).<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> '''Figure 1''' illustrates relevant data being extracted and 'combined' in a Cochrane intervention effect review, where a meta-analysis is possible. === 4. Assess the eligibility of the data === This stage involves assessing the eligibility of data for inclusion in the review, by judging it against criteria identified at the first stage.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> This can include assessing if a data source meets the eligibility criteria, and recording why decisions about inclusion or exclusion in the review were made. Software can be used to support the selection process including text mining tools and machine learning, which can automate aspects of the process.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current|title=Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions|last=|first=|date=2019-09-20|website=training.cochrane.org|publisher=|year=|isbn=|editor-last=Higgins|editor-first=Julian P.T.|series=version 6.1|location=|pages=section 4.6|nopp=y|language=en|chapter=Chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies|access-date=2020-09-14|editor2-last=Thomas|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Chandler|editor3-first=Jacqueline|editor4-last=Cumpston|editor4-first=Miranda|editor5-last=Li|editor5-first=Tianjing|editor6-last=Page|editor6-first=Matthew J.|editor7-last=Welch|editor7-first=Vivian A.|chapter-url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current/chapter-04#section-4-6}}</ref> The ‘Systematic Review Toolbox’ is a community driven, web-based catalogue of tools, to help reviewers chose appropriate tools for reviews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Christopher|last2=Brereton|first2=Pearl|date=2015-04-27|title=Systematic review toolbox: a catalogue of tools to support systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2745802.2745824|journal=Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering|series=EASE '15|location=Nanjing, China|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–6|doi=10.1145/2745802.2745824|isbn=978-1-4503-3350-4}}</ref> === 5. Analyse and combine the data === Analysing and combining data can provide an overall result from all the data. Because this combined result uses qualitative or quantitative data from all eligible sources of data, it is considered more reliable as it provides better evidence, as the more data included in reviews, the more confident we can be of conclusions. When appropriate, some systematic reviews include a meta-analysis, which uses statistical methods to combine data from multiple sources. A review might use quantitative data, or might employ a qualitative meta-synthesis, which synthesises data from qualitative studies. The combination of data from a meta-analysis can sometimes be visualised. One method uses a a [[w:forest plot|forest plot]] (also called a [[w:blobbogram|blobbogram]]).<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> In an intervention effect review, the diamond in the 'forest plot' represents the combined results of all the data included.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard" /> An example of a 'forest plot' is the Cochrane Collaboration logo.<ref name="Cochrane storyboard">{{cite web|url=https://cccrg.cochrane.org/animated-storyboard-what-are-systematic-reviews|title=Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews?|website=cccrg.cochrane.org|publisher=Cochrane Consumers and Communication|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> The logo is a forest plot of one of the first reviews which showed that corticosteroids given to women who are about to give birth prematurely can save the life of the newborn child.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/about-us/difference-we-make|title=The difference we make|website=www.cochrane.org|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> Recent visualisation innovations include the albatross plot, which plots p-values against sample sizes, with approximate effect-size contours superimposed to facilitate analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higgins|first=Julian P. T.|last2=López-López|first2=José A.|last3=Becker|first3=Betsy J.|last4=Davies|first4=Sarah R.|last5=Dawson|first5=Sarah|last6=Grimshaw|first6=Jeremy M.|last7=McGuinness|first7=Luke A.|last8=Moore|first8=Theresa H. M.|last9=Rehfuess|first9=Eva A.|date=2019-01-01|title=Synthesising quantitative evidence in systematic reviews of complex health interventions|url=https://gh.bmj.com/content/4/Suppl_1/e000858|journal=BMJ Global Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=Suppl 1|pages=e000858|doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000858|issn=2059-7908}}</ref> The contours can be used to infer effect sizes from studies that have been analysed and reported in diverse ways. Such visualisations may have advantages over other types when reviewing complex interventions. Assessing the quality (or certainty) of evidence is an important part of some reviews. GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations) is a transparent framework for developing and presenting summaries of evidence and is used to grade the quality of evidence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org/|title=GRADE working group|website=www.gradeworkinggroup.org|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> The GRADE-CERQual (Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative research) is used to provide a transparent method for assessing the confidence of evidence from reviews or qualitative research.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cerqual.org/|title=GRADE CERQual|website=www.cerqual.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> Once these stages are complete, the review may be published, disseminated and translated into practice after being adopted as evidence. == Living systematic reviews == Living systematic reviews are a relatively new kind of high quality, semi-automated, up-to-date online summaries of research which are updated as new research becomes available.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsafnat G, Glasziou P, Choong MK, Dunn A, Galgani F, Coiera E | title = Systematic review automation technologies | journal = Systematic Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 74 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25005128 | pmc = 4100748 | doi = 10.1186/2046-4053-3-74 }}</ref> The essential difference between a living systematic review and a conventional systematic review is the publication format. Living systematic reviews are 'dynamic, persistent, online-only evidence summaries, which are updated rapidly and frequently'.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Elliott JH, Turner T, Clavisi O, Thomas J, Higgins JP, Mavergames C, Gruen RL | title = Living systematic reviews: an emerging opportunity to narrow the evidence-practice gap | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = e1001603 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24558353 | pmc = 3928029 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603 }}</ref> ==Research fields== ===Medicine and human health=== ==== History of systematic reviews in medicine==== A 1904 ''British Medical Journal'' paper by [[wikipedia:Karl Pearson|Karl Pearson]] collated data from several studies in the UK, India and South Africa of typhoid inoculation. He used a meta-analytic approach to aggregate the outcomes of multiple clinical studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Group|first=British Medical Journal Publishing|date=1904-11-05|title=Report on Certain Enteric Fever Inoculation Statistics|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/2/2288/1243|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=2|issue=2288|pages=1243–1246|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2288.1243|issn=0007-1447|via=}}</ref> In 1972 Archie Cochrane wrote: 'It is surely a great criticism of our profession that we have not organised a critical summary, by specialty or subspecialty, adapted periodically, of all relevant randomised controlled trials'.<ref name=":7" /> Critical appraisal and synthesis of research findings in a systematic way emerged in 1975 under the term 'meta analysis'.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/5363514|title=Meta-Analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class-Size and Achievement. The Class Size and Instruction Project|last=Glass|first=Gene V.|last2=Smith|first2=Mary Lee |date=1978|publisher=Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse| collaboration = Far West Lab. for Educational Research and Development, San Francisco, CA|location=Washington, D.C.]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Resources/EvidenceInformedPolicyandPractice/HistoryofSystematicReviews/tabid/68/Default.aspx |title=History of Systematic Reviews| work = Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) |access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> Early syntheses were conducted in broad areas of public policy and social interventions, with systematic research synthesis applied to medicine and health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lau|first=J.|last2=Antman|first2=E. M.|last3=Jimenez-Silva|first3=J.|last4=Kupelnick|first4=B.|last5=Mosteller|first5=F.|last6=Chalmers|first6=T. C.|date=1992-07-23|title=Cumulative meta-analysis of therapeutic trials for myocardial infarction|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1614465/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=327|issue=4|pages=248–254|doi=10.1056/NEJM199207233270406|issn=0028-4793|pmid=1614465}}</ref> Inspired by his own personal experiences as a senior medical officer in prisoner of war camps, [[wikipedia:Archie Cochrane|Archie Cochrane]] worked to improve how the scientific method was used in medical evidence, writing in 1971: 'the general scientific problem with which we are primarily concerned is that of testing a hypothesis that a certain treatment alters the natural history of a disease for the better'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/741462|title=Effectiveness and efficiency: random reflections on health services|last=Cochrane, A. L.|first=|date=1972|publisher=Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust|year=|isbn=0-900574-17-8|location=[London]|pages=|oclc=741462|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916053459/https://www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/files/2017-01/effectiveness-and-efficiency-web-final.pdf|archive-date=2020-09-16}}</ref> His call for the increased use of randomised controlled trials and systematic reviews led to the creation of The Cochrane Collaboration,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shah|first=Hriday M.|last2=Chung|first2=Kevin C.|date=2009-09|title=Archie Cochrane and his vision for evidence-based medicine|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2746659/|journal=Plastic and reconstructive surgery|language=en|volume=124|issue=3|pages=982|doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b03928|pmid=19730323}}</ref> which was founded in 1993 and named after him, building on the work by [[w:Iain Chalmers|Iain Chalmers]] and colleagues in the area of pregnancy and childbirth.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/778837501|title=Testing treatments : better research for better healthcare|last=Evans, Imogen.|date=2011|publisher=Pinter & Martin|others=Thornton, Hazel, 1935-, Chalmers, Iain., Glasziou, Paul, 1954-|isbn=978-1-905177-48-6|edition=Second|location=London|oclc=778837501}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/handbook-sri/chapter-1-introduction/11-cochrane/112-brief-history-cochrane|title=1.1.2 A brief history of Cochrane|last=|first=|date=|website=community.cochrane.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117070242/https://community.cochrane.org/handbook-sri/chapter-1-introduction/11-cochrane/112-brief-history-cochrane|archive-date=2019-01-17|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> ==== Current use of systematic reviews in medicine ==== Many organisations around the world use systematic reviews, with the methodology depending on the guidelines being followed. Organisations which use systematic reviews in medicine and human health include the [[wikipedia:National Institute for Health and Care Excellence|National Institute for Health and Care Excellence]] (NICE, UK), the [[wikipedia:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] (AHRQ, USA) and the [[wikipedia:World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]]. Most notable among international organisations is [[w:Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane]], a group of over 37,000 specialists in healthcare who systematically review randomised trials of the effects of prevention, treatments and rehabilitation as well as health systems interventions. When appropriate, they also include the results of other types of research. Cochrane Reviews are published in ''The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' section of the [[w:Cochrane Library|Cochrane Library]]. The 2015 [[w:impact factor|impact factor]] for ''The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' was 6.103, and it was ranked 12th in the Medicine, General & Internal category.<ref>The Cochrane Library. [http://www.cochrane.org/news/2015-impact-factor-released-cochrane-database-systematic-reviews 2015 impact factor. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR)] Retrieved 2016-07-20.</ref> There are several types of Cochrane Review, including:<ref>[http://tech.cochrane.org/revman <nowiki>Review Manager (RevMan) [Computer program]</nowiki>]. Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/|title=Main page|last=|first=|date=|website=Cochrane Library|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=|first=|date=|year=2015|title=Overview of systematic reviews - a new type of study. Part II|url=|journal=Revista Paulista de Medicina|volume=133|issue=3|pages=206–17|doi=10.1590/1516-3180.2013.8150015|pmid=25388685|via=|vauthors=Silva V, Grande AJ, Carvalho AP, Martimbianco AL, Riera R}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=|first=|date=|year=2012|title=Overview of systematic reviews - a new type of study: part I: why and for whom?|url=|journal=Revista Paulista de Medicina|volume=130|issue=6|pages=398–404|doi=10.1590/S1516-31802012000600007|pmid=23338737|via=|vauthors=Silva V, Grande AJ, Martimbianco AL, Riera R, Carvalho AP}}</ref> # '''Intervention reviews''' assess the benefits and harms of interventions used in healthcare and health policy. # '''Diagnostic test accuracy reviews''' assess how well a diagnostic test performs in diagnosing and detecting a particular disease. # '''Methodology reviews''' address issues relevant to how systematic reviews and clinical trials are conducted and reported. # '''Qualitative reviews''' synthesize qualitative evidence to address questions on aspects other than effectiveness. # '''Prognosis reviews''' address the probable course or future outcome(s) of people with a health problem. # '''Overviews of Systematic Reviews (OoRs)''' are a new type of study to compile multiple evidence from systematic reviews into a single document that is accessible and useful to serve as a friendly front end for the Cochrane Collaboration with regard to healthcare decision-making. These are sometimes referred to as 'umbrella reviews'. # ''' Living Systematic reviews''' are continually updated, incorporating relevant new evidence as it becomes available.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/review-production/production-resources/living-systematic-reviews|title=Living systematic reviews|website=community.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> They are a relatively new kind of review, with methods still being developed and evaluated. They can be high quality, semi-automated, up-to-date online summaries of research which are updated as new research becomes available.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsafnat|first=Guy|last2=Glasziou|first2=Paul|last3=Choong|first3=Miew Keen|last4=Dunn|first4=Adam|last5=Galgani|first5=Filippo|last6=Coiera|first6=Enrico|date=2014-12|title=Systematic review automation technologies|url=https://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-4053-3-74|journal=Systematic Reviews|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=74|doi=10.1186/2046-4053-3-74|issn=2046-4053|pmc=PMC4100748|pmid=25005128}}</ref> The essential difference between a 'living systematic review' and a conventional systematic review is the publication format. Living systematic reviews are 'dynamic, persistent, online-only evidence summaries, which are updated rapidly and frequently'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Turner|first2=Tari|last3=Clavisi|first3=Ornella|last4=Thomas|first4=James|last5=Higgins|first5=Julian P. T.|last6=Mavergames|first6=Chris|last7=Gruen|first7=Russell L.|date=2014-02-18|title=Living Systematic Reviews: An Emerging Opportunity to Narrow the Evidence-Practice Gap|url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603|journal=PLoS Medicine|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=e1001603|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603|issn=1549-1676|pmc=PMC3928029|pmid=24558353}}</ref> # '''Rapid reviews''' are a form of knowledge synthesis that ‘accelerates the process of conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting specific methods to produce evidence for stakeholders in a resource-efficient manner’.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/cochranes-work-rapid-reviews-response-covid-19|title=Cochrane&#039;s work on Rapid Reviews in response to COVID-19|website=www.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> # '''Reviews of complex health interventions in complex systems''' review interventions and interventions delivered in complex systems to improve evidence synthesis and guideline development at a global, national or health systems level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Norris|first=Susan L.|last2=Rehfuess|first2=Eva A.|last3=Smith|first3=Helen|last4=Tunçalp|first4=Özge|last5=Grimshaw|first5=Jeremy M.|last6=Ford|first6=Nathan P.|last7=Portela|first7=Anayda|date=2019-01-01|title=Complex health interventions in complex systems: improving the process and methods for evidence-informed health decisions|url=https://gh.bmj.com/content/4/Suppl_1/e000963|journal=BMJ Global Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=Suppl 1|pages=e000963|doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000963|issn=2059-7908}}</ref> The Cochrane Collaboration provides a handbook for systematic reviewers of interventions which 'provides guidance to authors for the preparation of Cochrane Intervention reviews.'<ref name="CochraneHandbook">{{cite web|url=http://handbook.cochrane.org|title=Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011)|publisher=The Cochrane Collaboration|access-date=2 June 2016|veditors=Higgins JP, Green S}}</ref> The ''Cochrane Handbook'' also outlines the key steps for preparing a systematic review<ref name=CochraneHandbook/> and forms the basis of two sets of standards for the conduct and reporting of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR - Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.editorial-unit.cochrane.org/mecir |title= Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR) |publisher=Cochrane |access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> It also contains guidance on how to undertake qualitative evidence synthesis, economic reviews and integrating patient-reported outcomes into reviews. The Cochrane Library is a collection of databases that contains different types of independent evidence to inform healthcare decision-making. It contains a database of systematic review and meta-analyses which summarize and interpret the results of multi-disciplinary research. The library contains the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), which is a journal and database for systematic reviews in health care. The Cochrane Library also contains the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) which is a database of reports of randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/central/about-central|title=Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL)|last=|first=|date=|website=Cochrane Library|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> The Cochrane Library is also available in Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/es/home|title=Revisiones Cochrane|website=Cochrane Library|language=es|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> The Cochrane Library is owned by Cochrane. It was originally published by Update Software and now published by the share-holder owned publisher [[w:John Wiley & Sons|John Wiley & Sons]], Ltd. as part of Wiley Online Library. Royalties from sales of the Cochrane Library are the major source of funds for Cochrane (over £6 million in 2017). There are 3.66 billion people around the world who have access to the Library through national licences (national licences cost £1.5 billion<ref name=":6" />) or free provision for populations in low- and middle-income countries eligible under the WHO’s HINARI initiative.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochranes-future-publishing-and-open-access-arrangements|title=Cochrane’s Future Publishing and Open Access Arrangements|last=|first=|date=2019-07-02|website=Cochrane.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702111124/https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochranes-future-publishing-and-open-access-arrangements|archive-date=2019-07-02|access-date=}}</ref> Authors must pay an additional fee for their review to be truly [[w:open access|open access]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/about/open-access|title=Open access options for the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |work = Cochrane |access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> Cochrane has an annual income of $10m USD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Newman M | title = Has Cochrane lost its way? | journal = BMJ | volume = 364 | pages = k5302 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30606713 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.k5302 }}</ref> ==== Public involvement and citizen science in systematic reviews ==== Cochrane has several tasks that the public or other 'stakeholders' can be involved in doing, associated with producing systematic reviews and other outputs. Tasks can be organised as 'entry level' or higher. Tasks include: * Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crowd.cochrane.org/index.html|title=Cochrane crowd|website=crowd.cochrane.org|access-date=2019-02-14}}</ref> * Data extraction and risk of bias assessment * Translation of reviews into other languages A recent systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pollock A, Campbell P, Struthers C, Synnot A, Nunn J, Hill S, Goodare H, Morris J, Watts C, Morley R | title = Stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews: a scoping review | journal = Systematic Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 208 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30474560 | pmc = 6260873 | doi = 10.1186/s13643-018-0852-0 }}</ref> Thirty percent involved patients and/or carers. The ACTIVE framework provides a way to consistently describe how people are involved in systematic review, and may be used as a way to support the decision-making of systematic review authors in planning how to involve people in future reviews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pollock|first=Alex|last2=Campbell|first2=Pauline|last3=Struthers|first3=Caroline|last4=Synnot|first4=Anneliese|last5=Nunn|first5=Jack|last6=Hill|first6=Sophie|last7=Goodare|first7=Heather|last8=Morris|first8=Jacqui|last9=Watts|first9=Chris|date=2019-04-18|title=Development of the ACTIVE framework to describe stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1355819619841647|journal=Journal of Health Services Research & Policy|language=en|pages=135581961984164|doi=10.1177/1355819619841647|issn=1355-8196}}</ref> Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) is another proposed way of reporting who has been involved in which tasks during research, including systematic reviews.<ref>[Pre-print] {{Cite web|title=Standardised Data on Initiatives - STARDIT: Alpha Version|url=https://osf.io/5q47h/|website=osf.io|doi=10.31219/osf.io/5q47h|access-date=2020-08-20}}</ref> While there has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises systematic reviews,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Newman|first=Melanie|date=2019-01-03|title=Has Cochrane lost its way?|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/364/bmj.k5302|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=364|pages=k5302|doi=10.1136/bmj.k5302|issn=0959-8138|pmid=30606713}}</ref> a recent project involved people in helping identify research priorities to inform future Cochrane Reviews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Synnot|first=Anneliese J.|last2=Tong|first2=Allison|last3=Bragge|first3=Peter|last4=Lowe|first4=Dianne|last5=Nunn|first5=Jack S.|last6=O’Sullivan|first6=Molly|last7=Horvat|first7=Lidia|last8=Kay|first8=Debra|last9=Ghersi|first9=Davina|date=2019-04-29|title=Selecting, refining and identifying priority Cochrane Reviews in health communication and participation in partnership with consumers and other stakeholders|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-019-0444-z|journal=Health Research Policy and Systems|volume=17|issue=1|pages=45|doi=10.1186/s12961-019-0444-z|issn=1478-4505|pmc=PMC6489310|pmid=31036016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Synnot A, Bragge P, Lowe D, Nunn JS, O'Sullivan M, Horvat L, Tong A, Kay D, Ghersi D, McDonald S, Poole N, Bourke N, Lannin N, Vadasz D, Oliver S, Carey K, Hill SJ | title = Research priorities in health communication and participation: international survey of consumers and other stakeholders | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = e019481 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 29739780 | pmc = 5942413 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019481 }}</ref> In 2014, the Cochrane-Wikipedia partnership was formalised. This supports the inclusion of relevant evidence within all Wikipedia medical articles, as well as other processes to help ensure that medical information included in Wikipedia is of the highest quality and accuracy.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochrane-wikipedia-partnership-2016-0 |title= The Cochrane-Wikipedia partnership in 2016| work = Cochrane |access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref> ==== Learning resources ==== Cochrane has produced many learning resources to help people understand what systematic reviews are, and how to do them. Most of the learning resources can be found at the 'Cochrane Training' webpage,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/|title=Welcome|website=training.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2019-06-25}}</ref> which also includes a link to the book ''Testing Treatments'', which has been translated into many languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/online-learning/knowledge-translation/testing-treatments|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625002135/https://training.cochrane.org/online-learning/knowledge-translation/testing-treatments|archive-date=2019-06-25|title=Testing Treatments|date=2019-06-25|website= Cochrane Training|access-date=2019-06-25}}</ref> In addition, Cochrane has created a short video ''What are Systematic Reviews'' which explains in plain English how they work and what they are used for.<ref>{{Citation|title=What are systematic reviews?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egJlW4vkb1Y&feature=youtu.be|date=2016-01-27|accessdate=2019-06-25|last=Cochrane}}</ref> The video has been translated into multiple languages,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-10-23|title=Successful multi-language free online animated learning resource|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD201602|journal=Abstracts of the 24th Cochrane Colloquium; 23–27 October 2016, Seoul, South Korea |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD201602}}</ref> and viewed over 192,282 times (as of August 2020). In addition, an animated storyboard version was produced and all the video resources were released in multiple versions under Creative Commons for others to use and adapt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/news/creating-successful-online-animation-resource-what-are-systematic-reviews-video|archive-date=2019-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625001803/https://community.cochrane.org/news/creating-successful-online-animation-resource-what-are-systematic-reviews-video|title=Creating a successful online animation resource: the ‘what are systematic reviews?’ video |date=2019-06-25|website=Cochrane Community|access-date=2019-06-25}}</ref><ref name="Cochrane storyboard">{{cite web|url=https://cccrg.cochrane.org/animated-storyboard-what-are-systematic-reviews|title=Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews?|website=cccrg.cochrane.org|publisher=Cochrane Consumers and Communication|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-01|last=Nunn|first=Jack|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Mcdonald|first3=Steve|last4=Allen|first4=Kelly|last5=Hill|first5=Sophie|date=2015|title=Building partnerships with the public by learning about Cochrane evidence|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/CochranePosterPrintV1717915|archive-date=2015-11-09|publisher=23rd Cochrane Colloquium 2015|language=en|url=https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2182.1922}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What are systematic reviews?|last1=Nunn |first1=Jack|last2=Hill|first2=Sophie|url=https://archive.org/details/WhatAreSystematicReviews|accessdate=2020-08-20|language=en}}</ref> The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) provides free learning resources to support people to appraise research critically, including a checklist which contains 10 questions to 'help you make sense of a systematic review'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://casp-uk.net/casp-tools-checklists/|title=CASP Checklists|website=Critical Appraisal Skills Programme|language=en|access-date=2020-08-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|archive-date=2020-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821063301/https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CASP-Systematic-Review-Checklist-2018_fillable-form.pdf|url=https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CASP-Systematic-Review-Checklist-2018_fillable-form.pdf|title=CASP Systematic Review Checklist|date=2020-08-21|website=casp-uk.net|access-date=2020-08-21}}</ref> === Social, behavioural and educational === Several organisations use systematic reviews in social, behavioural, and educational areas of evidence-based policy, including the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE, UK), [[wikipedia:Social Care Institute for Excellence|Social Care Institute for Excellence]] (SCIE, UK), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ, USA), the World Health Organisation, the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), the [[wikipedia:The Joanna Briggs Institute|Joanna Briggs Institute]] and the [[w:Campbell Collaboration|Campbell Collaboration]]. The quasi-standard for systematic review in the social sciences is based on the procedures proposed by the Campbell Collaboration, which is one of several groups promoting [[w:evidence-based policy|evidence-based policy]] in the [[w:social science|social science]]s. The Campbell Collaboration: 'helps people make well-informed decisions by preparing, maintaining and disseminating systematic reviews in education, crime and justice, social welfare and international development.'<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/about_us/index.php|title = About Us|publisher = The Campbell Collaboration|access-date = March 26, 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140203232624/http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/about_us/index.php|archive-date = February 3, 2014}}</ref> The Campbell Collaboration is a sibling initiative of Cochrane, and was created in 2000 at the inaugural meeting in Philadelphia, USA, attracting 85 participants from 13 countries.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/history/explore/background | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160924070231/http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/history/explore/background | archive-date = 24 September 2016 |title=History - Campbell |website=www.campbellcollaboration.org |access-date=2016-09-27}}</ref> === Business and economics === Due to the different nature of research fields outside of the natural sciences, the aforementioned methodological steps cannot easily be applied in all areas of business research. Some attempts to transfer the procedures from medicine to business research have been made,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tranfield D, Denyer D, Smart P | year = 2003 | title = Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review | journal = British Journal of Management | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 207–222 | doi=10.1111/1467-8551.00375| citeseerx = 10.1.1.622.895 }}</ref> including a step-by-step approach,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Durach CF, Kembro J, Wieland A | year = 2017 | title = A New Paradigm for Systematic Literature Reviews in Supply Chain Management | journal = Journal of Supply Chain Management | volume = 53 | issue = 4| pages = 67–85 | doi=10.1111/jscm.12145 }}</ref> and developing a standard procedure for conducting systematic literature reviews in business and economics. The Campbell & Cochrane Economics Methods Group (C-CEMG) works to improve the inclusion of economic evidence into Cochrane and Campbell systematic reviews of interventions, to enhance the usefulness of review findings as a component for decision-making.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://methods.cochrane.org/economics/about-us|title=About us|website=methods.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> Such economic evidence is crucial for health technology assessment processes. === International development research === Systematic reviews are increasingly prevalent in other fields, such as international development research.<ref name="Hagen-Zanker2012">{{cite web |first1=Jessica |last1=Hagen-Zanker |first2=Maren |last2=Duvendack |first3=Richard |last3=Mallett |first4=Rachel |last4=Slater |first5=Samuel |last5=Carpenter |first6=Mathieu |last6=Tromme |date=January 2012 |title=Making systematic reviews work for international development research |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=6260&title=systematic-review-slrc-international-development-research-methods |publisher=Overseas Development Institute}}</ref> Subsequently, several donors (including the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and [[w:AusAid|AusAid]]) are focusing more attention and resources on testing the appropriateness of systematic reviews in assessing the impacts of development and humanitarian interventions.<ref name="Hagen-Zanker2012" /> === Environment === The Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) works to achieve a sustainable global environment and the conservation of biodiversity. The CEE has a journal titled ''Environmental Evidence'' which publishes systematic reviews, review protocols and systematic maps on impacts of human activity and the effectiveness of management interventions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmentalevidence.org/|title=Environmental Evidence: Reliable evidence, informed decisions, better environment|website=www.environmentalevidence.org|access-date=2020-07-01}}</ref> == Review tools == A 2019 publication identified 15 systematic review tools and ranked them according to the number of 'critical features' as required to perform a systematic review, including:<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van der Mierden|first=Stevie|date=2019|title=Software tools for literature screening in systematic reviews in biomedical research|url=https://www.altex.org/index.php/altex/article/view/1257|journal=ALTEX|volume=|pages=|doi=10.14573/altex.1902131|pmid=31113000|via=}}</ref> * DistillerSR: a paid web application * Swift Active Screener: a paid web application * Covidence: a paid web application and Cochrane technology platform. * Rayyan: a free web application * Sysrev: a free web application ==Limitations== === Out-dated or risk of bias === While systematic reviews are regarded as the strongest form of evidence, a 2003 review of 300 studies found that not all systematic reviews were equally reliable, and that their reporting can be improved by a universally agreed upon set of standards and guidelines.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Moher D, Tetzlaff J, Tricco AC, Sampson M, Altman DG | title = Epidemiology and reporting characteristics of systematic reviews | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = e78 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17388659 | pmc = 1831728 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040078 }}</ref> A further study by the same group found that of 100 systematic reviews monitored, 7% needed updating at the time of publication, another 4% within a year, and another 11% within 2 years; this figure was higher in rapidly changing fields of medicine, especially cardiovascular medicine.<ref name="pmid17638714">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shojania KG, Sampson M, Ansari MT, Ji J, Doucette S, Moher D | title = How quickly do systematic reviews go out of date? A survival analysis | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 147 | issue = 4 | pages = 224–33 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17638714 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-147-4-200708210-00179 }}</ref> A 2003 study suggested that extending searches beyond major databases, perhaps into [[w:grey literature|grey literature]], would increase the effectiveness of reviews.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Savoie I, Helmer D, Green CJ, Kazanjian A | title = Beyond Medline: reducing bias through extended systematic review search | journal = International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 168–78 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12701949 | doi = 10.1017/S0266462303000163 }}</ref> Some authors have highlighted problems with systematic reviews, particularly those conducted by [[w:Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]], noting that published reviews are often biased, out of date and excessively long.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts I, Ker K, Edwards P, Beecher D, Manno D, Sydenham E | title = The knowledge system underpinning healthcare is not fit for purpose and must change | journal = BMJ | volume = 350 | pages = h2463 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26041754 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h2463 }}</ref> Cochrane reviews have been criticized as not being sufficiently critical in the selection of trials and including too many of low quality. They proposed several solutions, including limiting studies in meta-analyses and reviews to [[W:clinical trials registry|registered clinical trials]], requiring that original data be made available for statistical checking, paying greater attention to sample size estimates, and eliminating dependence on only published data. Some of these difficulties were noted as early as 1994: {{quote|much poor research arises because researchers feel compelled for career reasons to carry out research that they are ill equipped to perform, and nobody stops them.}} ''DG Altman, 1994''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Altman DG | title = The scandal of poor medical research | journal = BMJ | volume = 308 | issue = 6924 | pages = 283–4 | date = January 1994 | pmid = 8124111 | pmc = 2539276 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.308.6924.283 }}</ref> Methodological limitations of meta-analysis have also been noted.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Shapiro S | title = Meta-analysis/Shmeta-analysis | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 140 | issue = 9 | pages = 771–8 | date = November 1994 | pmid = 7977286 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117324 }}</ref> Another concern is that the methods used to conduct a systematic review are sometimes changed once researchers see the available trials they are going to include.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Kirkham J, Dwan K, Kramer S, Green S, Forbes A | title = Bias due to selective inclusion and reporting of outcomes and analyses in systematic reviews of randomised trials of healthcare interventions | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 10 | pages = MR000035 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25271098 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.MR000035.pub2 }}</ref> Some website have described retractions of systematic reviews and published reports of studies included in published systematic reviews.<ref>{{cite web | first = Ian | last = Roberts |title= Retraction Of Scientific Papers For Fraud Or Bias Is Just The Tip Of The Iceberg |url=http://www.iflscience.com/editors-blog/retraction-scientific-papers-fraud-or-bias-just-tip-iceberg|website=IFL Science!|access-date=29 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first = Cat | last = Ferguson |title=Retraction and republication for Lancet Resp Med tracheostomy paper |url= http://retractionwatch.com/2015/04/02/retraction-and-republication-for-lancet-resp-med-tracheostomy-paper/| work = Retraction Watch |access-date=29 June 2015 |date=2015-04-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first = Cat | last = Ferguson |title=BioMed Central retracting 43 papers for fake peer review |url= http://retractionwatch.com/2015/03/26/biomed-central-retracting-43-papers-for-fake-peer-review/ |work=Retraction Watch|date=2015-03-26 }}</ref> Eligibility criteria must be justifiable and not arbitrary (for example, the date range searched) as this may affect the perceived quality of the review.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://flinders.libguides.com/c.php?g=220637&p=1460288|title=Search Smart: Systematic Reviews: Methodology overview|last=Library|first=Flinders University|website=flinders.libguides.com|language=en|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1182880684|title=How to Perform a Systematic Literature Review: A guide for healthcare researchers, practitioners and students|last=Pursell|first=Edward|last2=McCrae|first2=Niall|date=2020|publisher=Springer Nature|year=|isbn=978-3-030-49672-2|location=|pages=|oclc=1182880684|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-49672-2}}</ref> === Limited reporting of clinical trials and data from human studies === The '[[w:AllTrials|AllTrials]]' campaign highlights that around half of clinical trials have never reported results and works to improve reporting.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alltrials.net/news/half-of-all-trials-unreported/|title=Half of all clinical trials have never reported results|last=|first=|date=2015-08-20|website=AllTrials|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-03-08}}</ref> This lack of reporting has extremely serious implications for research, including systematic reviews, as it is only possible to synthesize data of published studies. In addition, 'positive' trials were twice as likely to be published as those with 'negative' results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Song|first=F.|last2=Parekh|first2=S.|last3=Hooper|first3=L.|last4=Loke|first4=Y. K.|last5=Ryder|first5=J.|last6=Sutton|first6=A. J.|last7=Hing|first7=C.|last8=Kwok|first8=C. S.|last9=Pang|first9=C.|date=February 2010|title=Dissemination and publication of research findings: an updated review of related biases|journal=Health Technology Assessment (Winchester, England)|volume=14|issue=8|pages=iii, ix–xi, 1–193|doi=10.3310/hta14080|issn=2046-4924|pmid=20181324}}</ref> At present, it is legal for for-profit companies to conduct clinical trials and not publish the results.<ref name="Iacobucci i5955">{{Cite journal|last=Iacobucci|first=Gareth|date=2016-11-04|title=Nearly half of all trials run by major sponsors in past decade are unpublished|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/355/bmj.i5955|journal=BMJ|volume=355|pages=i5955|doi=10.1136/bmj.i5955|issn=1756-1833|pmid=27815253}}</ref> For example, in the past 10 years 8.7 million patients have taken part in trials that have not published results.<ref name="Iacobucci i5955"/> These factors mean that it is likely there is a significant publication bias, with only 'positive' or perceived favourable results being published. A recent systematic review of industry sponsorship and research outcomes concluded that 'sponsorship of drug and device studies by the manufacturing company leads to more favorable efficacy results and conclusions than sponsorship by other sources' and that the existence of an industry bias that cannot be explained by standard 'Risk of bias' assessments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lundh|first=Andreas|last2=Lexchin|first2=Joel|last3=Mintzes|first3=Barbara|last4=Schroll|first4=Jeppe B|last5=Bero|first5=Lisa|date=2017-02-16|editor-last=Cochrane Methodology Review Group|title=Industry sponsorship and research outcome|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2|pages=MR000033|doi=10.1002/14651858.MR000033.pub3|pmid=28207928}}</ref> Systematic reviews of such a bias may amplify the effect, although it is important to note that the flaw is in the reporting of research generally, not in the systematic review method. === Poor compliance with review reporting guidelines === The rapid growth of systematic reviews in recent years has been accompanied by the attendant issue of poor compliance with guidelines, particularly in areas such as declaration of registered study protocols, funding source declaration, risk of bias data, and description of clear study objectives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pidgeon|first=Thomas Edward|last2=Wellstead|first2=Georgina|last3=Sagoo|first3=Harkiran|last4=Jafree|first4=Daniyal J.|last5=Fowler|first5=Alexander J.|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz A.|date=2016-10|title=An assessment of the compliance of systematic review articles published in craniofacial surgery with the PRISMA statement guidelines: A systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1010518216301524|journal=Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery|language=en|volume=44|issue=10|pages=1522–1530|doi=10.1016/j.jcms.2016.07.018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Seon-Young|last2=Sagoo|first2=Harkiran|last3=Whitehurst|first3=Katharine|last4=Wellstead|first4=Georgina|last5=Fowler|first5=Alexander J.|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz A.|last7=Orgill|first7=Dennis|date=2016-03-01|title=Compliance of Systematic Reviews in Plastic Surgery With the PRISMA Statement|url=http://archfaci.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamafacial.2015.1726|journal=JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|pages=101|doi=10.1001/jamafacial.2015.1726|issn=2168-6076}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bulters|first=D.|last2=Zolnourian|first2=A.|last3=Akhigbe|first3=T.|date=2017-05-01|title=Compliance of systematic reviews articles in brain arteriovenous malformation with PRISMA statement guidelines: Review of literature|url=https://www.jocn-journal.com/article/S0967-5868(16)31237-1/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Neuroscience|language=en|volume=39|pages=45–48|doi=10.1016/j.jocn.2017.02.016|issn=0967-5868|pmid=28246008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Seon-Young|last2=Sagoo|first2=Harkiran|last3=Farwana|first3=Reem|last4=Whitehurst|first4=Katharine|last5=Fowler|first5=Alex|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz|date=2017-12|title=Compliance of systematic reviews in ophthalmology with the PRISMA statement|url=https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12874-017-0450-1|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s12874-017-0450-1|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC5745614|pmid=29281981}}</ref> A host of studies have identified weaknesses in the rigour and reproducibility of search strategies in systematic reviews.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koffel|first=Jonathan B.|last2=Rethlefsen|first2=Melissa L.|date=2016-09-26|editor-last=Thombs|editor-first=Brett D|title=Reproducibility of Search Strategies Is Poor in Systematic Reviews Published in High-Impact Pediatrics, Cardiology and Surgery Journals: A Cross-Sectional Study|url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163309|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=11|issue=9|pages=e0163309|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0163309|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC5036875|pmid=27669416}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yoshii|first=Adriana|last2=Plaut|first2=Daphne A.|last3=McGraw|first3=Kathleen A.|last4=Anderson|first4=Margaret J.|last5=Wellik|first5=Kay E.|date=2009-1|title=Analysis of the reporting of search strategies in Cochrane systematic reviews|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2605027/|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA|volume=97|issue=1|pages=21–29|doi=10.3163/1536-5050.97.1.004|issn=1536-5050|pmc=PMCPMC2605027|pmid=19158999}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Toews|first=Lorraine C.|date=2017-07-07|title=Compliance of systematic reviews in veterinary journals with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) literature search reporting guidelines|url=http://jmla.mlanet.org/ojs/jmla/article/view/246|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association|language=en|volume=105|issue=3|pages=233–239|doi=10.5195/jmla.2017.246|issn=1558-9439|pmc=PMC5490700|pmid=28670210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mullins|first=Mary M.|last2=DeLuca|first2=Julia B.|last3=Crepaz|first3=Nicole|last4=Lyles|first4=Cynthia M.|date=2014|title=Reporting quality of search methods in systematic reviews of HIV behavioral interventions (2000–2010): are the searches clearly explained, systematic and reproducible?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jrsm.1098|journal=Research Synthesis Methods|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=116–130|doi=10.1002/jrsm.1098|issn=1759-2887|pmc=PMC5861495|pmid=26052651}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Briscoe|first=Simon|date=2018|title=A review of the reporting of web searching to identify studies for Cochrane systematic reviews|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jrsm.1275|journal=Research Synthesis Methods|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1002/jrsm.1275|issn=1759-2887}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McIntosh|first=Heather M.|last2=Loke|first2=Yoon|last3=Golder|first3=Su|date=2008-05-01|title=Poor reporting and inadequate searches were apparent in systematic reviews of adverse effects|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(07)00217-X/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=61|issue=5|pages=440–448|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.06.005|issn=0895-4356|pmid=18394536}}</ref> To remedy this issue, a new PRISMA guideline extension called PRISMA-S is being developed to improve the quality, reporting, and reproducibility of systematic review search strategies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waffenschmidt|first=Siw|last2=Koffel|first2=Jonathan|last3=Kirtley|first3=Shona|last4=Ayala|first4=Ana Patricia|last5=Rethlefsen|first5=Melissa|date=2019-03-04|title=PRISMA-S PRISMA Search Reporting Extension|url=https://osf.io/ygn9w/|language=en|doi=10.17605/OSF.IO/YGN9W}}</ref><ref>[Pre-print] {{Cite web|url=https://osf.io/sfc38/|title=Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis Search Extension (PRISMA-S) 2019: Explanation and Elaboration|website=osf.io|doi=10.31219/osf.io/sfc38|access-date=2019-03-20}}</ref> Furthermore, tools and checklists for peer-reviewing search strategies have been created, such as the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guidelines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lefebvre|first=Carol|last2=Foerster|first2=Vicki|last3=Cogo|first3=Elise|last4=Salzwedel|first4=Douglas M.|last5=Sampson|first5=Margaret|last6=McGowan|first6=Jessie|date=2016-07-01|title=PRESS Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies: 2015 Guideline Statement|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(16)00058-5/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=75|pages=40–46|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.01.021|issn=0895-4356|pmid=27005575}}</ref> A key challenge for using systematic reviews in clinical practice and healthcare policy is assessing the quality of a given review. Consequently, a range of appraisal tools to evaluate systematic reviews have been designed. The two most popular measurement instruments and scoring tools for systematic review quality assessment are AMSTAR 2 (a measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shea|first=Beverley J.|last2=Reeves|first2=Barnaby C.|last3=Wells|first3=George|last4=Thuku|first4=Micere|last5=Hamel|first5=Candyce|last6=Moran|first6=Julian|last7=Moher|first7=David|last8=Tugwell|first8=Peter|last9=Welch|first9=Vivian|date=2017-09-21|title=AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/358/bmj.j4008|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=358|doi=10.1136/bmj.j4008|issn=0959-8138|pmid=28935701}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shea|first=Beverley J.|last2=Grimshaw|first2=Jeremy M.|last3=Wells|first3=George A.|last4=Boers|first4=Maarten|last5=Andersson|first5=Neil|last6=Hamel|first6=Candyce|last7=Porter|first7=Ashley C.|last8=Tugwell|first8=Peter|last9=Moher|first9=David|date=2007-02-15|title=Development of AMSTAR: a measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-7-10|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|volume=7|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.1186/1471-2288-7-10|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC1810543|pmid=17302989}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boers|first=Maarten|last2=Henry|first2=David A.|last3=Grimshaw|first3=Jeremy|last4=Kristjansson|first4=Elizabeth|last5=Bouter|first5=Lex M.|last6=Wells|first6=George A.|last7=Hamel|first7=Candyce|last8=Shea|first8=Beverley J.|date=2009-10-01|title=AMSTAR is a reliable and valid measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(08)00325-9/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=62|issue=10|pages=1013–1020|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.10.009|issn=0895-4356|pmid=19230606}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=David A.|last2=Kristjansson|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Welch|first3=Vivian|last4=Tugwell|first4=Peter|last5=Moher|first5=David|last6=Moran|first6=Julian|last7=Hamel|first7=Candyce|last8=Thuku|first8=Micere|last9=Wells|first9=George|date=2017-09-21|title=AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/358/bmj.j4008|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=358|pages=j4008|doi=10.1136/bmj.j4008|issn=0959-8138|pmc=PMC5833365|pmid=28935701}}</ref> and ROBIS (Risk Of Bias In Systematic reviews); however, these are not appropriate for all systematic review types.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Churchill|first=Rachel|last2=Kleijnen|first2=Jos|last3=Davies|first3=Philippa|last4=Shea|first4=Beverley|last5=Reeves|first5=Barnaby C.|last6=Caldwell|first6=Deborah M.|last7=Higgins|first7=Julian P. T.|last8=Savović|first8=Jelena|last9=Whiting|first9=Penny|date=2016-01-01|title=ROBIS: A new tool to assess risk of bias in systematic reviews was developed|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(15)00308-X/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=69|pages=225–234|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2015.06.005|issn=0895-4356|pmc=PMC4687950|pmid=26092286}}</ref> ==Additional information== ===Acknowledgements=== The authors wish the thank the reviewers who contributed valuable corrections and additional information. The authors wish to state this should be viewed as the first of many improved versions of this article, and invite experts from the world to help improve this article. ===Competing interests=== The authors have no competing interests. === Author contributions === Jack Nunn lead the writing of this article, including updating information from the existing Wikipedia entry. Steven Chang checked the information for accuracy and added additional information and edits. The peer-reviewers added helpful additional information. === Ethics === None required === Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) report === A [[wikidata:Q98550843|STARDIT]] report about this article can be found here: * Reviewed STARDIT report version at time of publishing: [https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q101116128&oldid=1303112868 STARDIT Report: What are systematic reviews? (Q101116128)] * 'Living' version: [[wikidata:Q101116128|STARDIT Report: What are systematic reviews? (Q101116128)]] == References == {{reflist}} rk25j6oc8wuiolwr6acjfmu9048lwru 0 249812 2417080 2416963 2022-08-21T15:36:34Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Atomics are usually neutral atoms and molecules of a few atoms. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the Lunar Prospector using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn loose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name=Williams/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name=Williams/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name=Williams>{{ cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Theoretical atomic radiation astronomy== [[Image:Rutherford gold foil experiment results.svg|thumb|right|250px|The '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms. In the '''bottom''' image are deflections. Credit: [[c:User:Fastfission|Fastfission]].{{tlx|free media}}]] For the determination of the elemental composition of liquid proteins microPIXE can quantify the metal content of protein molecules with a relative accuracy of between 10% and 20%.<ref name=Garman>{{ cite journal |pmid=15910917 |year=2005 |author=EF Garman, GW Grime |title=Elemental analysis of proteins by microPIXE |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=173–205 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610704001257 |doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.09.005 |journal=Progress in biophysics and molecular biology }}</ref> In part by the X-ray emission from sulfur and the phosphate groups but excessive amounts of chlorine overlap with the sulfur peak; whereas KBr and NaBr do not. In the image at right, the '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms undisturbed by penetrating protons. In the '''bottom''' image, some of the protons are deflected. {{clear}} ==Entities== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities}} [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: Sheldon.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Deuterated isotopomers of methanol have been detected both in hot cores and in the protostellar source IRAS 16293-2422. [...] In studying the post-evaporative gas-phase chemistry of these isotopomers, it is important to know if pairs of isotopomers with D atoms in different places (eg CH₃OD and CH₂DOH) can be interconverted or whether they can be viewed as separate entities with depletion mechanisms that are independent of each other. Here we show that it is difficult to exchange protons and deuterons on the two different parts of the methanol backbone."<ref name=Osamura>{{ cite journal |author=Y. Osamura |author2=H. Roberts |author3=E. Herbst |title=On the possible interconversion between pairs of deuterated isotopomers of methanol, its ion, and its protonated ion in star-forming regions |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2004 |volume=421 |issue=3 |pages=1101-11 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15915319 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-23 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Emissions== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions}} [[Image:Hydrogen spectrum.svg|thumb|right|250px|The spectral series of hydrogen is displayed on a [[w:logarithm|logarithm]]ic scale. Credit: [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Hydrogen transitions.svg|thumb|right|250px|Electron transitions and their resulting wavelengths for hydrogen. Energy levels are not to scale. Credit: [[c:user:User:Szdori|User:Szdori]] and [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of '''spectral series''', with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to electrons moving between energy levels in the atom. The spectral series are important in astronomy for detecting the presence of hydrogen and calculating red shifts. ... [T]he spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the electron between energy levels. The simplest model of the hydrogen atom is given by the Bohr model. When an electron jumps from a higher energy to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is emitted."<ref name=Hydrogenspectral>{{ cite book |title=Hydrogen spectral series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=May 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series |accessdate=2012-05-14 }}</ref> The spectral lines are grouped into series according to ''n'''. Lines are named sequentially starting from the longest wavelength/lowest frequency of the series, using Greek letters within each series. For example, the {{nowrap|2 &rarr; 1}} line is called "Lyman-alpha" (Ly-α), while the {{nowrap|7 &rarr; 3}} line is called "Paschen-delta" (Pa-δ). Some hydrogen spectral lines fall outside these series, such as the [[w:Hydrogen line|21 cm line]]; these correspond to much rarer atomic events such as [[w:hyperfine structure|hyperfine]] transitions.<ref name=Hyperphysics>{{ cite book |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/h21.html |title=The Hydrogen 21-cm Line, In: ''Hyperphysics'' |accessdate=2009-03-18 |publisher=Georgia State University |date=2004-10-30 }}</ref> The [[w:fine structure|fine structure]] also results in single spectral lines appearing as two or more closely grouped thinner lines, due to relativistic corrections.<ref name=Liboff>{{ cite book |author=Richard L. Liboff |title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics |publisher=Addison-Wesley |date=2002 |isbn=0-8053-8714-5 }}</ref> The energy differences between levels in the Bohr model, and hence the wavelengths of emitted/absorbed photons, is given by the Rydberg formula<ref name=Bohr>{{ citation |author=Niels Bohr |chapter=Rydberg's discovery of the spectral laws |editor=J. Kalckar |title=N. Bohr: Collected Works |publisher=North-Holland Publ. |location=Amsterdam |year=1985 |volume=10 |pages=373–9 }}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R \left( {1 \over (n^\prime)^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R = 1.097373 \times 10^7 \ \mathrm{m}^{-1} \right)</math> where ''n'' is the initial energy level, ''n&prime;'' is the final energy level, and ''R'' is the [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]]. Meaningful values are returned only when ''n'' is greater than ''n&prime;'' and the limit of one over infinity is taken to be zero. "The familiar red [[w:H-alpha|H-alpha]] [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of [[w:emission nebula|emission]] or ionization nebula, like the [[w:Orion Nebula|Orion Nebula]], which are often [[w:H II region|H II region]]s found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen-alpha filter is an [[w:optical filter|optical filter]] designed to transmit a narrow [[w:Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] of light generally centered on the H-alpha wavelength. They are characterized by a bandpass width that measures the width of the wavelength band that is transmitted.<ref name=Tom>{{ cite book | url = http://www.astro-tom.com/technical_data/filters.htm | title = Filters | publisher = Astro-Tom.com | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> These filters are manufactured by multiple (~50) layers of [[w:Vacuum deposition|vacuum-deposited]] layers. These layers are selected to produce [[w:interference (wave propagation)|interference]] effects that filter out any wavelengths except at the requisite band.<ref name=Murphy>{{ cite book | author = D. B. Murphy |author2=K. R. Spring |author3=M. J. Parry-Hill |author4=I. D. Johnson |author5=M. W. Davidson | url = http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/filters/interference/index.html | title = Interference Filters | publisher = Olympus | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> Alternatively, an [[w:etalon|etalon]] may be used as the narrow band filter (in conjunction with a "blocking filter" or energy rejection filter) to pass only a narrow (<0.1&nbsp;[[w:nanometer|nm]]) range of wavelengths of light centred around the H-alpha emission line. The physics of the etalon and the dichroic interference filters are essentially the same (relying on constructive/destructive interference of light reflecting between surfaces), but the implementation is different (an interference filter relies on the interference of internal reflections). Due to the high velocities sometimes associated with features visible in H-alpha light (such as fast moving prominences and ejections), solar H-alpha etalons can often be tuned (by tilting or changing the temperature) to cope with the associated [[w:Doppler effect|Doppler effect]]."<ref name=Halpha>{{ cite book |title=H-alpha |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=December 30, 2011 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-alpha |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> The [[w:Balmer series|Balmer series]] of emission lines from hydrogen occur in the visible spectrum of the Sun at: 397, 410, 434, 486, and 656 nm. Hydrogen has two emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas at 397.007 nm of the Balmer series (H_ε) and 434.05 nm H_γ.<ref name=McCarthy>{{ cite book |author=K. J. McCarthy |author2=A. Baciero |author3=B. Zurro |author4=TJ-II Team |title=Impurity Behaviour Studies in the TJ-II Stellarator, In: ''27th EPS Conference on Contr. Fusion and Plasma Phys.'' |publisher=ECA |location=Budapest |volume=24B |date=12 June 2000 |editor= |pages=1244-7 |url=http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "ionizing radiation that is naturally present in the environment"<ref name=BackgroundRadiationWikt>{{ cite book |title=background radiation |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=October 6, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/background_radiation |accessdate=2014-04-10 }}</ref> is called '''background radiation'''. '''Background radiation''' is the ubiquitous ionizing radiation that the general population is exposed to, including natural and artificial sources. Both natural and artificial background radiation varies by location. The worldwide average natural [effective radiation] dose to humans is about 2.4 millisievert (mSv) per year.<ref name="UNSCEAR2008">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Sources and effects of ionizing radiation |date=2008 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142274-0 |url=http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2008_1.html |accessdate=9 November 2012 |page=4 }}</ref> The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne radon, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its isotopes, parent radionuclides, and decay products all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26&nbsp;mSv/a. Radon is unevenly distributed and variable with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a significant health hazard. Concentrations over 500 times higher than the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic.<ref name="UNSCEAR2006E">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces, In: ''Effects of Ionizing Radiation'' |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142263-4 |volume=II |url=http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2006/09-81160_Report_Annex_E_2006_Web.pdf |accessdate=2 December 2012 }}</ref> '''Terrestrial radiation''' usually only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major radionuclides of concern are potassium, uranium and thorium and their decay products, some of which, like radium and radon are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. An average human contains about 30 milligrams of potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) and about 10 nanograms (10⁻⁸&nbsp;g) of carbon-14 (¹⁴C), which has a decay half-life of 5,730 years. Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, the largest component of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body is from potassium-40. The decay of about 4,000 nuclei of ⁴⁰K per second<ref name=Diroff>{{ cite book |author=S. C. Diroff |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~scdiroff/lds/QuantumRelativity/RadioactiveHumanBody/RadioactiveHumanBody.html |title=Radioactive human body&nbsp;— Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations |date=April 2011 }}</ref> makes potassium the largest source of radiation in terms of number of decaying atoms. The energy of beta particles produced by ⁴⁰K is also about 10 times more powerful than the beta particles from ¹⁴C decay. ¹⁴C is present in the human body at a level of 3700 Bq with a [[w:biological half-life|biological half-life]] of 40 days.<ref>http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/carbon14.pdf</ref> There are about 1,200 beta particles per second produced by the decay of ¹⁴C. However, a ¹⁴C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA. The decay of a ¹⁴C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.<ref name=Asimov>{{ cite book |author=Isaac Asimov |title=The Explosions Within Us, In: ''Only A Trillion'' |date=1957 |edition=Revised and updated |publisher=ACE books |location=New York |pages=37–9 |chapter= |isbn=1-157-09468-6 }}</ref> The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29&nbsp;mSv/a, of which 0.17&nbsp;mSv/a comes from ⁴⁰K, 0.12&nbsp;mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12&nbsp;μSv/a comes from ¹⁴C.<ref name=UNSCEAR2008 /> '''Background radiation''' may simply be any radiation that is pervasive, whether ionizing or not. A particular example of this is the cosmic microwave background radiation, a nearly uniform glow that fills the sky in the microwave part of the spectrum; stars, galaxies and other objects of interest in [[Radiation astronomy/Radios|radio astronomy]] stand out against this background. In a laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any sources that affect an instrument when a radiation source sample is not being measured. This background rate, which must be established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}} [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei or alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. In cosmic-ray astronomy, cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals}} [[Image:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Neutrals astronomy''' is the astronomy of observing neutral atoms or molecules, their sources and apparent entities or objects of origin. {{clear}} ==Subatomics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}} [[Image:Hydrogen atom.svg|thumb|right|250px|An idealized image of protium shows the relative sizes of the proton and the atom. Credit: [[c:User:Bensaccount|Bensaccount]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' the "lightest and most common isotope of hydrogen, having a single proton and no neutrons- {{chem|1|1|H}}"<ref name=ProtiumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=protium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=12 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/protium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''protium'''. '''Def.''' an "isotope of hydrogen formed of one proton and one neutron in each atom - {{chem|2|1|H}}"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt>{{ cite book |title=deuterium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deuterium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''deuterium'''. "''Heavy water is “heavy” because it contains '''deuterium'''.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> "''There were about 80 '''deuteriums''' for every million protiums, and virtually no tritium.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> '''Def.''' a "radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen, (symbol T or {{chem|3|1|H}}), having one proton and two neutrons"<ref name=TritiumWikt>{{ cite book |title=tritium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tritium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''tritium'''. '''Def.''' a "highly unstable, synthetic isotope of the element hydrogen, {{chem|4|1|H}}, having one proton and three neutrons"<ref name=QuadriumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=quadrium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=2 June 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadrium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''quadrium'''. {{chem|1|1|H}}(p,β⁺ν){{chem|2|1|H}} :<math>\mathrm{_1^1H} + \mathrm{_1^1H} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{1}^{2}D} + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma (0.42 MeV). </math> At 10-million-kelvin, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:<ref name=Wallerstein>{{ cite journal | author=G. Wallerstein |author2=I. Iben Jr. |author3=P. Parker |author4=A. M. Boesgaard |author5=G. M. Hale |author6=A. E. Champagne |author7=C. A. Barnes |author8=F. KM-dppeler |author9=V. V. Smith |author10=R. D. Hoffman |author11=F. X. Timmes |author12=C. Sneden |author13=R. N. Boyd |author14=B. S. Meyer |author15=D. L. Lambert | title=Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=1999 | volume=69 | issue=4 | pages=995–1084 | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf | accessdate=2006-08-04 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995 | bibcode=1997RvMP...69..995W }}</ref> :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → 2{{chem|2|1|H}} + 2e⁺ + 2ν_e (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV) :2{{chem|1|1|H}} + 2{{chem|2|1|H}} → 2{{chem|3|2|He}} + 2γ (5.5 MeV) :2{{chem|3|2|He}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2{{chem|1|1|H}} (12.9 MeV) These reactions result in the overall reaction: :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2e⁺ + 2γ + 2ν_e (26.7 MeV) where e⁺ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν_e is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. "The light elements deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron pose a special problem for any theory of the origin of the elements which proposes that all the elements are built up from hydrogen in the stars. ... The difficulty arises because the lifetimes of these elements against proton capture, at the temperatures and pressures at which most stellar matter exists, are short compared to the stable lifetimes of stars. These elements then cannot be produced in stellar interiors unless they are transported rapidly to the surface, and if they are produced at the surface, non-equilibrium processes must be involved. Further, they can exist in significant quantities at the surface only in the absence of rapid mixing to the interior."<ref name=Bonsack>{{ cite journal |author=Walter K. Bonsack |title=The Abundance of Lithium and Convective Mixing in Stars of Type K |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1959 |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=843-71 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1959ApJ...130..843B |doi=10.1086/146777 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-03-24 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:Distribution of GCR particles.png|right|thumb|300px|The distribution of galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) particles is shown in atomic number (charge) and energy. Credit: W. Schimmerling, J. W. Wilson, F. Cucinotta, and M-H Y. Kim.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Gammaspektrum Uranerz.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This gamma-ray spectrum contains the typical isotopes of the uranium-radium decay line. Credit: [[c:User:Wusel007|Wusel007]].{{tlx|free media}}]] In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], "when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV" [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background.<ref name=GammaRay>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Sbharris|Sbharris]] |title=Gamma ray |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 May 2011 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> "'''Nuclear reaction analysis''' (NRA) is a nuclear method in materials science to obtain concentration vs. depth distributions for certain target chemical elements in a solid thin film."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "If irradiated with select projectile nuclei [or protons] at kinetic energies ''E''_kin these target elements can undergo a nuclear reaction under resonance conditions for a sharply defined resonance energy. The reaction product is usually a nucleus in an excited state which immediately decays, emitting ionizing radiation such as protons or gamma rays."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "To obtain depth information the initial kinetic energy of the projectile nucleus (which has to exceed the resonance energy) and its stopping power (energy loss per distance traveled) in the sample has to be known. To contribute to the nuclear reaction the projectile nuclei have to slow down in the sample to reach the resonance energy. Thus each initial kinetic energy corresponds to a depth in the sample where the reaction occurs (the higher the energy, the deeper the reaction)."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "A commonly used reaction is :¹⁵[[w:Nitrogen|N]] + ¹[[w:Hydrogen|H]] &rarr; ¹²[[w:Carbon|C]] + [[w:alpha particle|&alpha;]] + [[w:gamma ray|&gamma;]] (4.965MeV) with a resonance at 6.385 MeV."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "The energetic emitted γ ray is characteristic of the reaction and the number that are detected at any incident energy is proportional to the concentration at the respective depth of [nitrogen] in the sample. The N concentration profile is then obtained by scanning the proton incident or transmitted beam energy."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "NRA can also be used non-resonantly. For example, deuterium can easily be profiled with a ³He beam [or ³He with a deuterium beam] without changing the incident energy by using the :³He + D = &alpha; + p⁺ + 18.353 MeV reaction. The energy of the fast proton detected depends on the depth of the deuterium [or ³He] atom in the sample."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Dschwen|Dschwen]] and [[w:User:CJeynes|CJeynes]] |title=Nuclear reaction analysis |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=27 July 2005 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reaction_analysis |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Comet Lulin Jan. 28-2009 Swift gamma.jpg|thumb|250px|Comet Lulin was passing through the constellation Libra when Swift imaged it on January 28, 2009. Credit: NASA/Swift/Univ. of Leicester/''Bodewits et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] NASA's Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite was monitoring Comet Lulin as it closed to 63 Gm of Earth. For the first time, astronomers can see simultaneous UV and X-ray images of a comet. The solar wind—a fast-moving stream of particles from the sun—interacts with the comet's broader cloud of atoms which causes the solar wind to light up with X-rays, and that's what Swift's XRT sees.<ref name=Immler>{{ cite book |author=Stefan Immler |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> This interaction, called charge exchange, results in X-rays from most comets when they pass within about three times Earth's distance from the Sun; because Lulin is so active, its atomic cloud is especially dense. As a result, the X-ray-emitting region extends far sunward of the comet.<ref name=Reddy>{{ cite book |author=F. Reddy |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} [[Image:Saturn's A Ring From the Inside Out.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of Saturn's A Ring, taken by the Cassini Orbiter using an Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph. Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Colorado.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he '''Lyman series''' is the series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from ''n'' ≥ 2 to ''n'' = 1 (where ''n'' is the [[w:principal quantum number|principal quantum number]] referring to the energy level of the electron)."<ref name=Lymanseries>{{ cite book |title=Lyman series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 19, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_series |accessdate=2012-06-26 }}</ref> "The version of the [[w:Rydberg formula|Rydberg formula]] that generated the Lyman series was<ref name="Brehm-Mullin p156">John Brehm and William Mullin, Introduction to the Structure of Matter, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989, p. 156 {{ISBN|0-471-60531-X}}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R_H = 1.0968 \times 10^7 \mbox{m}^{-1} = {13.6eV \over hc} \right)</math> Where ''n'' is a natural number greater than or equal to 2 (i.e. ''n'' = 2,3,4,...). Therefore, the lines seen in the image above are the wavelengths corresponding to <math>n=2\,</math> on the right, to <math>n= \infty </math> on the left (there are infinitely many spectral lines, but they become very dense as they approach to <math>n= \infty </math> ([[w:Lyman limit|Lyman limit]]), so only some of the first lines and the last one appear). The wavelengths (nm) in the Lyman series are all ultraviolet:"<ref name=Lymanseries/> {| class="wikitable" ! <math>n</math> |align="center"|2 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|4 |align="center"|5 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|8 |align="center"|9 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|11 |align="center"|<math>\infty</math> |- ! Wavelength (nm) |121.6 |102.6 |97.3 |95.0 |93.8 |93.1 |92.6 |92.3 |92.1 |91.9 |91.18 (Lyman limit) |} "In 1913, when [[w:Niels Bohr|Niels Bohr]] produced his [[w:Bohr model|Bohr model]] theory, the reason why hydrogen spectral lines fit Rydberg's formula was explained. Bohr found that the electron bound to the hydrogen atom must have quantized energy levels described by the following formula: :<math> E_n = - {{m e^4} \over {2 \left( 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \hbar \right)^2}} {1 \over n^2} = - {13.6 \over n^2} [\mbox{eV}]. </math> According to Bohr's third assumption, whenever an electron falls from an initial energy level(<math> E_i </math>) to a final energy level(<math> E_f </math>), the atom must emit radiation with a wavelength of: :<math> \lambda = {{h c} \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> There is also a more comfortable notation when dealing with energy in units of [[w:electronvolt|electronvolt]]s and wavelengths in units of [[w:angstrom|angstrom]]s: :<math> \lambda = {12430 \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> Replacing the energy in the above formula with the expression for the energy in the hydrogen atom where the initial energy corresponds to energy level ''n'' and the final energy corresponds to energy level ''m'': :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = {{E i-E f} \over 12430} = \left( {12430 \over 13.6} \right)^{-1} \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) = R \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> where ''R_H'' is the same [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]] for hydrogen of Rydberg's long known formula. For the connection between Bohr, Rydberg, and Lyman, one must replace ''m'' by 1 to obtain: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> which is Rydberg's formula for the Lyman series. Therefore, each wavelength of the emission lines corresponds to an electron dropping from a certain energy level (greater than 1) to the first energy level."<ref name=Lymanseries/> {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:Neon spectra.jpg|thumb|center|500px|This image shows the emission lines for atomic neon. Absorption lines occur at the same locations by subtraction of light from the continuum. Credit: [[w:Teravolt|Teravolt]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The light blue background is the dayglow emission (less than 1 kR) caused by the interaction between the photoelectrons generated by solar UV radiation and atmospheric molecules and atoms."<ref name=Meng>{{ cite journal |author=C.-I. MengR. E. Huffman |title=Ultraviolet imaging from space of the aurora under full sunlight |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month=April |year=1984 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=315-8 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/GL011i004p00315/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/GL011i004p00315 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> This background occurs when imaging an Earth aurora from space using [[ultraviolet astronomy]] at the VUV wavelengths (135.6 ± 1.5 nm and 149.3 ± 1.5 nm). {{clear}} ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}} [[Image:Snake Nebula SMA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Images from the Smithsonian's Submillimeter Array (SMA) telescope provide the most detailed view yet of stellar nurseries within the Snake nebula. Credit: Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight, CFHT; Spitzer/GLIMPSE/MIPS, Herschel/HiGal, Ke Wang (ESO).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H₂/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H₂ to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s^-1 at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H₂Cl⁺, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2₁₂ − 1₀₁ lines of ortho-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ and ortho-H₂³⁷Cl⁺ are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1₁₁ − 0₀₀ transition of para-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H₂Cl⁺) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H₂CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> {{clear}} ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy}} [[Image:Crab_Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Crab Nebula showing the diffuse blue region. Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University).{{tlx|free media}}]] CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar glycine,<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |author4=et al. |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |author4=et al. |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams | author=Mike Gruntman | work=Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 1951, prior to the Space Age, the existence of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms (as high as 70 keV in energy) in space plasma was discovered."<ref name=Hsieh>{{ cite journal |author=K. C. Hsieh |author2=C. C. Curtis |title=Imaging Space Plasma With Energetic Neutral Atoms Without Ionization, In: ''Measurement Techniques in Space Plasmas: Fields'' |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location= |date= 1998 |editor= |volume=Geophysical Monograph 103 |issue= |pages=235-49 |url=http://www.agu.org/books/gm/v103/GM103p0235/GM103p0235.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "Plasma is the fourth state of matter, consisting of electrons, ions and neutral atoms, usually at temperatures above 10⁴ degrees Kelvin."<ref name=Birdsall>{{ cite book |author=CK Birdsall, A. Bruce Langdon |title=Plasma Physics via Computer Simulation |publisher=CRC Press |location=New York |date=October 1, 2004 |editor= |pages=479 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=S2lqgDTm6a4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&ots=nOPXyqtDo8&sig=-kA8YfaX6nlfFnaW3CYkATh-QPg |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=9780750310253 |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "ENA imaging permits study of the ways in which our entire plasma environment -- including the magnetopause, ring current, plasmasphere, auroral zones, plasma sheet, and the ionosphere -- reacts to the changing conditions of the solar wind (Williams, 1990)."<ref name=Hsieh/> {{clear}} ==Diatomic gases== [[Image:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with hydrogen H₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Deuterium discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with deuterium D₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 energies.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The molar energies of ortho- and parahydrogen and two significant mixtures are graphed versus temperature. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 Cvs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The molar heat capacities for the same substances as above. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Molecular hydrogen gas is excited in the discharge tube shown on the right. When an electron returns to a lower energy orbital state the purple color is observed. "Molecular hydrogen (H₂) [is] a colourless, odourless and flammable gas at room temperature."<ref name=HydrogenWikt>{{ cite book |title=hydrogen |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=September 1, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hydrogen |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> "The familiar red H-alpha [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of emission or ionization nebula, like the Orion Nebula, which are often H II regions found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A "high-resolution spectrum of the Becklin-Neugebauer (BN) infrared point source located in [the region of the Orion Nebula] ... with the Steward Observatory 2.29 m (90 inch) telescope ... [confirmed] the reality of [the 2.12 μ] line ... on 1976 January 15 and 16. The line was then identified by R. Treffers as the ''S''(1) line of the 1-0 vibration-rotation quadrupole spectrum of H₂. Six other lines of the same band were also found. The presence of two of our lines has been confirmed by Grasdalen and Joyce (1976). Electronic transitions of interstellar H₂ have previously been observed in the ultraviolet (Carruthers 1970; Smith 1973; Spitzer ''et al.'' 1973)."<ref name=Gautier>{{ cite journal |author=T. N. Gautier II |author2=Uwe Fink |author3=Richard R. Treffers |author4=Harold P. Larson |title=Detection of Molecular Hydrogen Quadrupole Emission in the Orion Nebula |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July 15, |year=1976 |volume=207 |issue=07 |pages=L129-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976ApJ...207L.129G |arxiv= |bibcode=1976ApJ...207L.129G |doi=10.1086/182195 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> Diatomic hydrogen gas apparently exists in two distinct forms which can mix: orthohydrogen and parahydrogen. On the right is a graph of molar energies of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, plus an equilibrium mixture obtained when a catalyst is present to allow for ortho-para interconversion. The curve marked 3:1 is the ortho:para ratio at room temperature that will persist if no catalyst is present during cooling. Orthohydrogen has the spins of the two protons parallel while para hydrogen has them antiparallel. The second graph shows the molar heat capacities for the same gases versus temperature. {{clear}} ==Rocky objects== {{main|Rocks/Rocky objects}} [[Image:PanSTARRS C-2012 K1.png|thumb|right|250px|Sweeping slowly through northern skies, the comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1 posed for this telescopic portrait on June 2nd in the constellation Ursa Major. Credit: Alessandro Falesiedi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] There are many advantages to using a proton beam over an electron beam: # There is less crystal charging from Bremsstrahlung radiation, although there is some from the emission of Auger electrons, # there is significantly less than if the primary beam was itself an electron beam, and # because of the higher mass of protons relative to electrons, there is less lateral deflection of the beam. '''Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS)''' is an analytical technique sometimes referred to as high-energy ion scattering (HEIS) spectrometry. RBS is used to determine the structure and composition of materials by measuring the backscattering of a beam of high energy protons or ions impinging on a piece of material such as a dust grain. If the energy of the incident proton is increased sufficiently, the Coulomb barrier is exceeded and the wavefunctions of the incident and struck particles overlap. This may result in nuclear reactions in certain cases, but frequently the interaction remains elastic, although the scattering cross-sections may fluctuate wildly as a function of energy. This case is known as "Elastic (non-Rutherford) Backscattering Spectrometry" (EBS). We can describe Rutherford backscattering as an elastic (hard-sphere) collision between a high kinetic energy proton from the incident beam (the ''projectile'') and a stationary particle located in the dust grain (the ''target''). ''Elastic'' in this context means that no energy is either lost or gained during the collision. In some circumstances a collision may result in a nuclear reaction, with the release of considerable energy. Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) is very useful for detecting light elements. The energy E₁ of the scattered projectile is reduced from the initial energy E₀: ::<math>E_1 = k \cdot E_0, </math> where k is known as the ''kinematical factor'', and ::<math>k = \left(\frac{m_1 \cos{\theta_1} \pm \sqrt{m_2^2 - m_1^2(\sin{\theta_1})^2}}{m_1 + m_2}\right)^2,</math><ref name="Oura110">{{cite book |display-authors=4|author=Oura, K.|author2=Lifshits, V.G.|author3=Saranin, A.A.|author4=Zotov, A.V.|author5=Katayama, M. |date=2003 |title=Surface Science: An Introduction |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=3-540-00545-5 }}</ref> where particle 1 is the projectile, particle 2 is the target nucleus, and <math>\theta_1</math> is the scattering angle of the projectile in the laboratory frame of reference (that is, relative to the observer). The plus sign is taken when the mass of the projectile is less than that of the target, otherwise the minus sign is taken. To describe the probability of observing such an event. For that we need the ''differential cross-section'' of the backscattering event: ::<math>\frac{d\omega}{d\Omega} = \left(\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2}{4E_0}\right)^2 \frac{1}{\left(\sin{\theta/2}\right)^4},</math><ref name="Oura110"/> where <math>Z_1</math> and <math>Z_2</math> are the atomic numbers of the incident [proton] and target [nucleus]. [From] the centre of mass frame of reference and is therefore not a function of the mass of either the projectile or the target nucleus. The "scattering angle <math>\theta_1</math> is ''not'' the same as the scattering angle <math>\theta</math> (although for RBS experiments they are usually very similar). A scattering cross-section is zero implies that the projectile never comes close to the target, nor penetrates the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. The pure Coulomb formula for the scattering cross-section shown above must be corrected for this [[w:Shielding effect|screening effect]], which becomes more important as the energy of the projectile decreases. While large-angle scattering only occurs for protons which scatter off target nuclei, inelastic small-angle scattering can also occur off the sample electrons. This results in a gradual decrease in protons which penetrate more deeply into the sample, so that backscattering off interior nuclei occurs with a lower "effective" incident energy. The amount by which the ion energy is lowered after passing through a given distance is referred to as the stopping power of the material and is dependent on the electron distribution. This energy loss varies continuously with respect to distance traversed, so that stopping power is expressed as : <math>S(E) = -{dE \over dx}. </math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;136</ref> For high energy stopping power is usually proportional to <math>\frac{Z_2}{E}</math>. Stopping power or, ''stopping force'' has units of energy per unit length. It is generally given in thin film units, that is eV /(atom/cm²) since it is measured experimentally on thin films whose thickness is always measured absolutely as mass per unit area, avoiding the problem of determining the density of the material which may vary as a function of thickness. Stopping power is now known for all materials at around 2%, see http://www.srim.org. When a beam of protons with parallel trajectories is incident on a target atom, scattering off that atom prevents or blocks collisions in a cone-shaped region "behind" the target relative to the beam. This occurs because the repulsive potential of the target atom bends close ion trajectories away from their original path. The radius of this blocked region, at a distance L from the original atom, is given by ::<math>R = 2\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2L}{E_0}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;114</ref> When a proton is scattered from deep inside a sample, it can then re-scatter off a second atom, creating a second blocked cone in the direction of the scattered trajectory. This can be detected by carefully varying the detection angle relative to the incident angle. ''Channeling'' is observed when the incident beam is aligned with a major symmetry axis of the crystal. Incident protons which avoid collisions with surface atoms are excluded from collisions with all atoms deeper in the sample, due to blocking by the first layer of atoms. When the interatomic distance is large compared to the radius of the blocked cone, the incident protons can penetrate many times the interatomic distance without being backscattered. This can result in a drastic reduction of the observed backscattered signal when the incident beam is oriented along one of the symmetry directions, allowing determination of a sample's regular crystal structure. Channeling works best for very small blocking radii, i.e. for protons. The tolerance for the deviation of the [proton] beam angle of incidence relative to the symmetry direction depends on the blocking radius, making the allowable deviation angle proportional to ::<math>\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2}{E_0d}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;117</ref> While the intensity of an RBS peak is observed to decrease across most of its width when the beam is channeled, a narrow peak at the high-energy end of a larger peak will often be observed, representing surface scattering from the first layer of atoms. The presence of this peak opens the possibility of surface sensitivity for RBS measurements. {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}} [[Image:Hydrogen Lamp (24856071897).jpg|thumb|right|250px|After some excitation, purple light is emited, which corresponds to the visible spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom (Balmer series). Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/93636241@N07 UCL Mathematical & Physical Sciences from London, UK].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Phase diagram of hydrogen.png|thumb|left|250px|Diagram shows the phases of hydrogen. Credit: [[:ru:User:Tretyak|Tretyak]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because hydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum. The "efforts to study the 21 cm hydrogen line from the northern and southern hemispheres in 1954 and 1959 [...] were combined and provided the first full-galaxy radio map of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way".<ref name=Reeve>{{ cite book |author=Whitham D. Reeve |title=Book Review |publisher=Whitham D. Reeve |location=Anchorage, Alaska USA |date= 1973 |url=http://www.reeve.com/Documents/Book%20Reviews/Reeve_Book%20Review-Evolution%20of%20Radio%20Astronomy.pdf |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen atom is about 0.11 nm in diameter. The "relative motion in a hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields leads to peculiar quasi-ionized states with an electron localized very far from a proton."<ref name=Dzyaloshinskii>{{ cite journal |author=I. Dzyaloshinskii |title=Effects of the finite proton mass in a hydrogen atom in crossed magnetic and electric fields: a state with a giant electric dipole moment |journal=Physics Letters A |date=May 1992 |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=69-71 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019291056W |arxiv= |bibcode=1992PhLA..165...69D |doi=10.1016/0375-9601(92)91056-W |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-13 }}</ref> The Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN) aboard SOHO "is the only remote sensing instrument on SOHO that does not look at the Sun. It watches the rest of the sky, measuring hydrogen that is ‘blowing’ into the Solar System from interstellar space. By studying the interaction between the solar wind and this hydrogen gas, SWAN determines how the solar wind is distributed. As such, it can be qualified as SOHO’s solar wind ’mapper’."<ref name=Quemerais>{{ cite book |author=E. Quémerais |title=SOHO Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, MD, USA |date=30 June 2003 |url=http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf |accessdate=2016-03-27 }}</ref> ¹H, the most commonly used spin ½ nucleus in NMR investigation, has been studied using many forms of NMR. Hydrogen is highly abundant, especially in biological systems. It is the nucleus most sensitive to NMR signal (apart from ³H which is not commonly used due to its instability and radioactivity). Proton NMR produces narrow chemical shift with sharp signals. Fast acquisition of quantitative results (peak integrals in stoichiometric ratio) is possible due to short relaxation time. [NMR widely used in chemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and phosphorus-31 NMR. "'''Proton NMR''' ( '''Hydrogen-1 NMR''', or '''¹H NMR''') is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance in NMR spectroscopy with respect to hydrogen-1 nuclei within the molecules of a substance, in order to determine the structure of its molecules.<ref name=Silverstein>R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler and T. C. Morrill, ''Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds'', 5th Ed., Wiley, 1991.</ref> In samples where natural hydrogen (H) is used, practically all of the hydrogen consists of the isotope ¹H (hydrogen-1; i.e. having a proton for a nucleus). A full ¹H atom is called protium. {{clear}} ==Lithium nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Lithiums}} [[Image:Lithium Raies Spectrales.png|right|thumb|300px|This spectrum for lithium has been calculated using data from the Handbook of Chemistry & Physics. Credit: [[c:user:Epop|Epop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "evidence for the overwhelming majority of the Li-atoms in photospheres has its origin not only in nuclear synthesis near the stellar centers, but also by active processes in stellar atmospheres. [...] the lithium [resonance] line [is] near 478 keV."<ref name=Livshits>{{ cite journal |author=M. A. Livshits |title=The Amount of Lithium Produced during Impulsive Flares |journal=Solar Physics |month=July |year=1997 |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=377-81 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1004958522216#page-1 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1004958522216 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> "Approximately 90% of lithium atoms originate from α - α reactions for the typical spectra of an accelerated particles on the Sun [...] During impulsive flares, interaction between the accelerated particles and the ambient medium occurs mainly at low altitudes, i.e., close to the footprints of loops."<ref name=Livshits/> {{clear}} ==Nitrogen nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens}} [[Image:Violet aurora Ohio US Oct 2013.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This multicolored aurora has a strong violet band above the pink band. Credit: Black Swamp Storm Intercept Team.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "For cosmic rays the low abundance ”valleys” in the solar system composition around Z=4, 21, 46, and 70 are not present. This is usually believed to be the result of spallation of heavier nuclei during their propagation through the galaxy. Hydrogen, helium, and the CNO–group are suppressed in cosmic rays. This has been explained by the high first ionization potential of these atoms [63] or by the high volatility of these elements which do not condense on interstellar grains [64]. Which property is the right descriptor of cosmic–ray abundances has proved elusive, however, the volatility seems to become the more accepted solution [65]."<ref name=Hoerandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R. Hoerandel |title=On the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=May |year=2003 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=193-220 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0210453 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00198-6 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Metallicities== [[Image:A Swarm of Ancient Stars - GPN-2000-000930.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The globular cluster Messier 80 are mainly older metal-poor members of Population&nbsp;II. Credit: NASA, The Hubble Heritage Team, STScI, AURA.{{tlx|free media}}]] For stars, the metallicity is often expressed as "[Fe/H]", which represents the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun (iron is not the most abundant heavy element, but it is among the easiest to measure with spectral data in the visible spectrum). The formula for the logarithm is expressed thus: {{center top}}<math> [\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}] = \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{star}} - \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{sun}} </math>{{center bottom}} where <math>N_{\mathrm{Fe}}</math> and <math>N_{\mathrm{H}}</math> are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively. The unit often used for metallicity is the "dex" which is a (now-deprecated) contraction of decimal exponent.<ref name=Rowlett>[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictD.html A Dictionary of Units of Measurement]</ref> By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive logarithmic value, while those with a lower metallicity than the Sun have a negative value. The logarithm is based on powers of ten; stars with a value of +1 have ten times the metallicity of the Sun (10¹). Conversely, those with a value of -1 have one tenth (10 ⁻¹), while those with -2 have a hundredth (10⁻²), and so on.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite book | author=John C. Martin | title=New Analysis RR Lyrae Kinematics in the Solar Neighborhood, In: ''What we learn from a star's metal content'' | url=https://edocs.uis.edu/jmart5/www/rrlyrae/metals.htm |accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Young Population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older Population II stars. Primordial Population III stars are estimated to have a metallicity of less than −6.0, that is, less than a millionth of the abundance of iron which is found in the Sun. {{clear}} ==Astrophysics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astrophysics}} [[Image:ThermalFissionYield.svg|thumb|300px|right|Fission product yields by mass are for thermal neutron fission of uranium-235, plutonium-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and uranium-233 used in the thorium cycle. Credit: [[w:user:JWB|JWB]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. {{clear}} ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:Sun Atmosphere Temperature and Density SkyLab.jpg|thumb|200 px|This graph shows the temperature and density of the Sun's atmosphere from Skylab observations. Credit: John A. Eddy, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] As stars are defined as luminous balls of plasma, the Sun may not qualify as its photosphere has a plasma concentration of approximately 10^-4. The rest is composed of neutral atoms at about 5800 K. The visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H⁻ ions.<ref name="Gibson">{{ cite book |author=E.G. Gibson |title=The Quiet Sun |publisher=NASA |date=1973 |isbn= |asin=B0006C7RS0 }}</ref><ref name="Shu">{{ cite book |last=Shu |first=F.H. |title=The Physics of Astrophysics |publisher=University Science Books |volume=1 |date=1991 |isbn=0-935702-64-4 }}</ref> "The production and escape of hot ions (H⁺ and H⁺₂) and hot atomic hydrogen by stellar ultraviolet radiation is ... likely".<ref name=Guillot>{{ cite journal |author=T. Guillot |author2=A. Burrows |author3=W. B. Hubbard |author4=J. I. Lunine |author5=D. Saumon |title=Giant Planets at Small Orbital Distances |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=March |year=1996 |volume=459 |issue=3 |pages=L35-8 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/459/1/L35 |arxiv=astro-ph/9511109 |bibcode=1996ApJ...459L..35G |doi=10.1086/309935 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Heliognosy== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliognosy|Heliognosy}} [[Image:Figure3 sun aufbau.gif|thumb|right|250px|This image is a theory for the interior of the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In the 1920s, Payne [3] and Russell [4] reported that the Sun’s atmosphere consisted mostly of hydrogen (H) and helium (He), but Hoyle [5] notes that he and others "in the astronomical circles to which I was privy" (p. 153) continued until after the Second World War to believe that the Sun was made mostly of iron. Then Hoyle notes that "much to my surprise" (p. 154), the high-hydrogen, low-iron model was suddenly adopted without opposition."<ref name=Manuel>{{ cite journal |author=O. Manuel, C. Bolon, A. Katragada, and M. Insall |title=Attraction and Repulsion of Nucleons: Sources of Stellar Energy |journal=Journal of Fusion Energy |date= 2001 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=93-8 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1012290028638 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1012290028638 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-13 }}</ref> Depending primarily upon gas temperature, the presence of gas may be used to determine the composition of the gas object observed, at least the outer layer. Early spectroscopy<ref name=Russell>{{ cite journal |author=H. N. Russell |title= |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1929 |volume=70 |issue= |pages=11-82 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= }}</ref> of the '''Sun''' using estimates of "the line intensities of several lines by eye [to derive] the abundances of ... elements ... [concluded] that the Sun [is] largely made of hydrogen."<ref name=Basu>{{ cite journal |author=Sarbani Basu |author2=H. M. Antia |title=Helioseismology and Solar Abundances |journal=Physics Reports |month=March |year=2008 |volume=457 |issue=5-6 |pages=217-83 |url= |arxiv=0711.4590 |bibcode=2008PhR...457..217B |doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-06 }}</ref> As temperature increases in an astronomical object composed of H₂ gas, the molecules begin to dissociate. "At a temperature of 8000 K, hydrogen gas is 99.99 percent monatomic."<ref name=Tipler>{{ cite book |author=Paul A. Tipler, Gene Mosca |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Macmillan |location= |date=May 1, 2007 |editor= |pages=1172 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AttDBYgLeZkC&pg=PA614&lpg=PA614&source=bl&ots=mDyTt5SY03&sig=-IdefwfOk591NKKnKm2iPsorRxo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XkPGUs6UCdDqkAeeuYF4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwBA |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=142920124X |accessdate=2014-01-02 }}</ref> :<math> \rho_H = \rho_{H_0} e^{E_T/{kT}},</math> where <math>\rho_{H_0}</math> is an initial concentration [H] at low temperatures as partial particle density, <math>E_T</math> is the dissociation energy 4.52 eV, k is Boltzmann's contant (8.6173324(78)×10⁻⁵ eV K^-1), and T is temperature in K. Using :<math> [H] = 70400 e^{-4.52/(0.00008617T)}</math> # what is the concentration of H ([H]) at T = 8000 K? # what is [H] at T = 800 K? # at what temperature is [H] = 1? # what is [H] at T = 5778 K? At 5778 K [H] = 8 %. {{clear}} ==Venus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Venus}} [[Image:Venus xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This Chandra X-ray Observatory image is the first X-ray image ever made of Venus. Credit: NASA/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The first ever X-ray image of Venus is shown at right. The "half crescent is due to the relative orientation of the Sun, Earth and Venus. The X-rays from Venus are produced by fluorescent radiation from oxygen and other atoms in the atmosphere between 120 and 140 kilometers above the surface of the planet. In contrast, the optical light from Venus is caused by the reflection from clouds 50 to 70 kilometers above the surface. Solar X-rays bombard the atmosphere of Venus, knock electrons out of the inner parts of atoms, and excite the atoms to a higher energy level. The atoms almost immediately return to their lower energy state with the emission of a fluorescent X-ray. A similar process involving ultraviolet light produces the visible light from fluorescent lamps."<ref name=Dennerl >{{ cite book |author=K. Dennerl |title=Venus: Venus in a New Light |publisher=Harvard University, NASA |location=Boston, Massachusetts, USA |date=November 29, 2001 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2001/venus/ |accessdate=2012-11-26 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Earth== [[Image:Atmospheric Water Vapor Mean.2005.030.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a graph of the global mean atmospheric water vapor superimposed on an outline of the Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date= 1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C Roelof |author7=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date= 2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Airglows== [[Image:Love and Joy for the New Year - NASA Earth Observatory.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this International Space Station image, you can see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the International Space Station image at right, you can "see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Airglow is the emission of light by atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere after they are excited by ultraviolet radiation. ... Astronaut photograph ISS030-E-015491 was acquired on December 22, 2011, with a Nikon digital camera, and is provided by the ISS Crew Earth Observations experiment and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, Johnson Space Center."<ref name=Burbank>{{ cite book |author=Dan Burbank |title=Love and Joy for the New Year |publisher=NASA's Earth Observatory |location=International Space Station |date=December 21, 2011 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/nasaearthobservatory/6620255181/ |accessdate=2012-07-22 }}</ref> '''Airglow''' (also called '''nightglow''') is the very weak [[w:emission spectrum|emission]] of [[w:light|light]] by a planetary [[w:atmosphere|atmosphere]]. In the case of [[w:atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], this [[w:optical phenomenon|optical phenomenon]] causes the [[w:night sky|night sky]] to never be completely dark (even after the effects of [[w:starlight|starlight]] and [[w:diffusion|diffused]] [[w:sunlight|sunlight]] from the far side are removed). Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the sun during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. {{clear}} ==Auroras== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras}} [[Image:Multicolor aurora.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This is a multicolor aurora. Credit: tommy-eliassen and leonafaye.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Colorful-aurora-borealis-in-finland.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This shows a multicolored aurora over Finland. Credit: S. D. Simonson.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ColorTypes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Discrete auroras (the bright visible forms} are classified by Color Types. Credit: rgk.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39).jpg|thumb|left|300px|This view of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "When the charged particles from the Sun penetrate Earth's magnetic shield, they are channelled downwards along the magnetic field lines until they strike atoms of gas high in the atmosphere. Like a giant fluorescent neon lamp, the interaction with excited oxygen atoms generates a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while excited nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=ESAGauna>{{ cite book |author=European Space Agency |title=Aurora over Icelandic Lake |publisher=ESA |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55767-aurora-over-icelandic-lake/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> "Pulsating auroras are so-called because their features shift and brighten in distinct patches, rather than elongated arcs across the sky like active auroras. However, their appearance isn't the only difference. Though all auroras are caused by energetic particles--typically electrons--speeding down into Earth's atmosphere and colliding brilliantly with the atoms and molecules in the air, the source of these electrons is different for pulsating auroras and active auroras."<ref name=Samara>{{ cite book |author=Marilia Samara |title=Unexpected role of electrons in creating pulsating auroras |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 October 2015 |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/151007185043.htm |accessdate=2015-12-01 }}</ref> The "density of neutral atoms within the atmosphere can change throughout the day because of heating by sunlight, the original understanding was that the heating—and the extra-dense layers of neutral particles—was driven horizontally. However, some satellites have hit speed bumps as they have orbited through Earth’s magnetic cusp—their acceleration briefly slowed, which indicates a small vertical slice of higher-density neutral atoms that are harder to travel through."<ref name=Frazier>{{ cite book |author=Sarah Frazier |title=NASA Plans Twin Sounding Rocket Launches over Norway this Winter |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=30 November 2015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/assp-sounding-rocket-launches-successfully-from-alaska |accessdate=2015-11-30 }}</ref> "Auroras are produced by solar storms that eject clouds of energetic charged particles. These particles are deflected when they encounter the Earth’s magnetic field, but in the process large electric voltages are created. Electrons trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field are accelerated by these voltages and spiral along the magnetic field into the polar regions. There they collide with atoms high in the atmosphere and emit X-rays".<ref name=Bhardwaj>{{ cite book |author=A. Bhardwaj |author2=R. Elsner |title=Earth Aurora: Chandra Looks Back At Earth |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |date=February 20, 2009 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/earth/ |accessdate=2013-05-10 }}</ref> "Auroras are known to be generated by beams of electrons which are accelerated along Earth's magnetic field lines. The fast-moving electrons collide with atoms in the ionosphere at altitudes of between 100 to 600 km. This interaction with oxygen atoms results in a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=Wright>{{ cite book |author=Andrew Wright |title=Heart of the Black Auroras Revealed by Cluster |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55764-heart-of-the-black-auroras-revealed-by-cluster/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> * "Type A aurora (green with red tops): # colors due to emission by atomic oxygen * Type D aurora (red): # red color due to emission by atomic oxygen (as in Type A) * Proton aurora: # additional red and blue from atomic hydrogen emission"<ref name=rgk>{{ cite book |author=rgk |title=AURORA (POLARIS) |publisher=University of New York at Albany |location=Albany, New York USA |date=July 2012 |url=http://www.albany.edu/faculty/rgk/atm101/aurora.htm |accessdate=2015-12-02 }}</ref> "This view [on the left] of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Calculated to be at altitudes ranging from 80 - 120 km (approx. 50-80 miles), the auroral light shown is due to the "excitation" of atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere by charged particles (electrons) streaming down from the magnetosphere above."<ref name=Gutro>{{ cite book |author=Rob Gutro |title=Earth's Auroras Don't Mirror |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=4 April 2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/dueling_auroras.html#.VljKkMbvu3U |accessdate=2015-11-27 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Moon== [[Image:Moon Chandra Optical.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra X-ray Observatory image at right of the bright portion of the Moon is from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms. Credit: Optical: Robert Gendler; X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/J.Drake ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected X-rays from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms on the Moon.<ref name=Burnham>{{ cite book |author=Robert Burnham |title=Moon Prospecting |publisher=Kalmbach Publishing Co. |location= |date=2004 |editor= |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:Martian Methane Map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mars xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On July 4, 2001, this Chandra X-ray Observatory image became the first look at X-rays from Mars. Credit: NASA/CXC/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The major atmospheric gases on Earth, Venus, and Mars were probably CO₂, H₂O, and N₂. [The ions from the upper parts of an atmosphere] are often suprathermal, and their interactions can produce suprathermal neutral atoms as well [The] ionopause [...] separates the bound ionosphere from an outer region in which the solar wind is diverted and flows around and past the planet. This region still contains some neutral gas, and if such atoms are ionized by solar photons or electron impact, they are swept up in the flow."<ref name=Hunten>{{ cite journal |author=Donald M. Hunten |title=Atmospheric Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Science |date=February 12, 1993 |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=915-20 |url=http://www.csun.edu/~hmc60533/CSUN_311/article_references/Sc_Feb93_AtmosEvolTerrestPlanets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-21 }}</ref> "There are strong reasons to believe that Mars once had much more atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O than it now has ... (Impacts, which may have eroded even larger amounts, operated at an earlier period.) ... The visible polar caps are thought to contain relatively small quantities. [...] More recently it has been proposed (35) that Mars may have had several episodes of high atmospheric pressure, warm conditions, and substantial precipitation of rain and snow, with a north polar ocean and southern glaciers."<ref name=Hunten/> Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere, first image at right, by carefully observing the planet throughout several Mars years with NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility and the W.M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. At right is an X-ray image of [[Keynote lectures/Mars|Mars]]. X-radiation from the Sun excites oxygen atoms in the Martian upper atmosphere, about 120 km above its surface, to emit X-ray fluorescence. A faint X-ray halo that extends out to 7,000 km above the surface of Mars has also been found.<ref name=Dennerl2002>{{ cite journal |author=K. Dennerl |title=Discovery of X-rays from Mars with Chandra |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=1119-28 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2002A&A...394.1119D |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021116 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Europa== {{main|Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa}} [[Image:Europa-moon-with-margins.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Europa's trailing hemisphere in false colour (violet, green, and infrared as red, green and blue channel). The prominent crater in the lower right is Pwyll and the darker regions are areas where Europa's primarily water ice surface has a higher mineral content. Credit: NASA/JPL/DLR.{{tlx|free media}}]] Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen (O₂).<ref name="Hall1995">Hall, Doyle T.; ''et al.''; [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v373/n6516/abs/373677a0.html ''Detection of an oxygen atmosphere on Jupiter's moon Europa''], Nature, Vol. 373 (23 February 1995), pp. 677–679 (accessed 15 April 2006)</ref><ref name="EuropaOxygenJPL">{{ cite book |author=Donald Savage |author2=Tammy Jones |author3=Ray Villard |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/europa/hst.html |title=Hubble Finds Oxygen Atmosphere on Europa, In: ''Project Galileo'' |accessdate=2007-08-17 |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |date=1995-02-23 }}</ref> The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1&nbsp;μPa, or 10⁻¹² times that of the Earth.<ref name="McGrathChapter">{{ cite book |author=McGrath |editor=Pappalardo, Robert T. |editor2=McKinnon, William B. |editor3=Khurana, Krishan K. |title=Europa |date=2009 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=0-8165-2844-6 |chapter=Atmosphere of Europa }}</ref> In 1997, the ''Galileo'' spacecraft confirmed the presence of a tenuous ionosphere (an upper-atmospheric layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation and energetic particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere,<ref name="Kliore1997">{{ cite journal |author=Arvydas J. Kliore |author2=D. P. Hinson |author3=F. Michael Flasar |author4=Andrew F. Nagy |author5=Thomas E. Cravens |year=1997 |month=July |title=The Ionosphere of Europa from Galileo Radio Occultations |journal=Science |volume=277 |issue=5324 |pages=355–8 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5324.355 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/5324/355 |accessdate=2007-08-10 |pmid=9219689 |bibcode =1997Sci...277..355K }}</ref><ref name="NASA1997">{{ cite book |date=July 1997 |title=Galileo Spacecraft Finds Europa has Atmosphere, In: ''Project Galileo'' |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/status970718.html |accessdate=2007-08-10 }}</ref> providing evidence of an atmosphere. The molecular hydrogen that escapes Europa's gravity, along with atomic and molecular oxygen, forms a torus (ring) of gas in the vicinity of Europa's orbit around Jupiter. This "neutral cloud" has been detected by both the ''Cassini'' and ''Galileo'' spacecraft, and has a greater content (number of atoms and molecules) than the neutral cloud surrounding Jupiter's inner moon Io. Models predict that almost every atom or molecule in Europa's torus is eventually ionized, thus providing a source to Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma.<ref name="Smyth2006">{{ cite journal |author=William H. Smyth, Max L. Marconi |year=2006 |title=Europa's atmosphere, gas tori, and magnetospheric implications |journal=Icarus |bibcode=2006Icar..181..510S |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.019 |volume=181 |issue=2 |pages=510 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Comets}} [[Image:C2007N3Lulin2panel brimacombe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Recent changes in Comet Lulin's greenish coma and tails are shown in these two panels taken on January 31st (top) and February 4th (bottom) 2009. In both views the comet has an apparent antitail to the left of the coma of dust. Credit: Joseph Brimacombe, Cairns, Australia.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a 3D model of the Rosetta Spacecraft. The individual scientific payloads are highlighted in different colours. Credit: [[w:User:IanShazell|IanShazell]].{{tlx|free media}}]] One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen.<ref name=NYCTimes>{{ cite book |title=Yerkes Observatory Finds Cyanogen in Spectrum of Halley's Comet |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E4DF1430E233A2575BC0A9649C946196D6CF |date=8 February 1910 |accessdate=15 November 2009 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> Cyan blue is the color of several cyanide (CN) containing materials, including CN detected in comet haloes. "Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C₂). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight".<ref name=Phillips>{{ cite book |author=James A. Phillips |title=Green Comet Approaches Earth |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Science News |location= |date= 2009 |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/04feb_greencomet/ |accessdate=2012-05-05 }}</ref> For elongated dust particles in cometary comas an investigation is performed at 535.0 nm (green) and 627.4 nm (red) peak transmission wavelengths of the [[w:Rosetta (spacecraft)|Rosetta spacecraft]]'s OSIRIS Wide Angle Camera broadband green and red filters, respectively.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini/> "[U]nequivocal detections [occurred at McDonald Observatory on 10 nights from 25 June through 17 July 2000] of the O (¹S) and O (¹D) metastable lines in emission in the cometary [Comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)] spectrum. These lines are well separated from any telluric or cometary emission features."<ref name=Cochran>{{ cite journal |author=Anita L. Cochran, William D. Cochran |title=Observations of O (¹S) and O (¹D) in Spectra of C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) |journal=Icarus |month=December |year=2001 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=381-90 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0108065v1.pdf |arxiv=astro-ph/0108065 |bibcode=2001Icar..154..381C |doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6718 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-16 }}</ref> "[T]he presence of the [oxygen] green line can still be questioned, unless the 2972 Å trans-auroral line [¹''S'' - ³''P''] is detected (Herbig, 1976)."<ref name=Festou>{{ cite journal |author=M. C. Festou |author2=P. D. Feldman |title=The Forbidden Oxygen Lines in Comets |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=1981 |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=154-9 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1981A&A...103..154F |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-21 }}</ref> "The transitions involved (allowed and forbidden) in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" are 557.7 nm, 630.0 and 636.4 nm, 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), 799.0 nm, 844.7 nm, and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.<ref name=Festou/> "When the green line is overwhelming (in faint comets like Encke), this emission is mainly due to the airglow, the red airglow emission being quenched and consequently weaker than the green."<ref name=Festou/> "The measured intensity on 10 January 1980, when the comet was 0.71 a.u. from the Sun and 0.615 a.u. from the Earth, is 30±15 Rayleighs.<ref name=Festou/> {{clear}} ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} [[Image:PIA16483 ip trimmed.png|thumb|center|400px|This artist's concept shows plasma flows around NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft as it approaches interstellar space. Credit: Jon Nelson.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in space "blown" into the [[interstellar medium]] (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[Milky Way|galaxy]]) by the solar wind. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== [[Image:Red Giant Plunging Through Space.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Credit: IR: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Ueta (U. of Denver); Artist Concept: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle (SSC/Caltech).{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. {{clear}} ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ===H I regions=== An '''H I region''' is an interstellar cloud composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date= 1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=November 1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=July 1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> "When detection of neutral hydrogen (HI) absorption of the pulsar signal is possible, an estimate, or at least a limit on the distance may be obtained using a Galactic rotation model".<ref name=Toscano>{{ cite journal |author=M. Toscano |author2=M. C. Britton |author3=R. N. Manchester |author4=M. Bailes |author5=J. S. Sandhu |author6=S. R. Kulkarni |author7=S. B. Anderson |title=Parallax of PSR J1744–1134 and the local interstellar medium |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 1, 1999 |volume=523 |issue=2 |pages=L171 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/523/2/L171 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/312276 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-19 }}</ref> "There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the [local insterstellar medium] LISM. This cavity surrounds the Sun and extends several hundred parsecs into quadrant 3 (Lucke 1978). The cavity appears as a region of low reddening extending 500 pc between ℓ = 210° and 255° and 1.5 kpc toward ℓ = 240°. Running counter to this is very heavy obscuration beyond ~100 pc in the first quadrant. Similarly, HI column densities derived from ultraviolet observations show a marked paucity in HI along LOSs directed towards ℓ = 230° (Frisch & York 1983; Paresce 1984). A similar morphology for this cavity is gleaned from NaI absorption measurements".<ref name=Toscano/> "To further characterize the distribution of electrons in the LISM it is useful to relate their location to other interstellar features, such as bubbles, superbubbles, and clouds of neutral gas. There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the LISM. [...] There are several features of interest within this cavity. One of these is the local hot bubble (LHB): a volume encompassing the Sun distinguished by low neutral gas densities and a 10⁶ K, soft X-ray emitting gas"<ref name=Toscano/> The "neutral hydrogen column density [has] a level of ''N''(HI)= 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻²"<ref name=Toscano/> "Distance estimates now exist for a few hundreds of pulsars, resulting from three basic techniques: neutral hydrogen absorption (in combination with the Galactic rotation curve), trigonometric parallax and from associations with objects of known distance".<ref name=Stepanov>{{ cite journal |author=R. Stepanov |author2=P. Frick |author3=A. Shukurov |author4=D. Sokoloff |title=Wavelet tomography of the Galactic magnetic field I. The method |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=August 2002 |volume=391 |issue=08 |pages=361-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...391..361S |arxiv=astro-ph/0112507 |bibcode=2002A&A...391..361S |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020552 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> ===Cold neutral mediums=== [[Image:Reflection nebula IC 349 near Merope.jpg|thumb|right|250px|IC 349 may be an example of a cold neutral medium (CNM). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] IC 349 may be an example of a cold, dense, very small-scale condensation of the [[interstellar medium]].<ref name="Heiles1997">{{cite journal | last = Heiles | first = Carl | date = May 1997 | title = Tiny-Scale Atomic Structure and the Cold Neutral Medium | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 481 | issue = 1 | pages = 193–204 | doi = 10.1086/304033 | bibcode = 1997ApJ...481..193H }}</ref><ref name="Herbig1996">{{cite journal | last = Herbig | first = George | date = March 1996 | title = IC 349: Barnard's Merope Nebula | journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 111 | issue = 3 | pages = 1241–1251 | doi = 10.1086/117869 | bibcode = 1996AJ....111.1241H }}</ref> H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. {{clear}} ===Warm neutral mediums=== The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The "peak emissivity is enhanced by about 23% for the WIM [and only 11 % for the warm neutral medium (WNM)], although the peak frequency remains unchanged."<ref name=Ali>{{ cite journal |author=Yacine Ali-Haïmoud |title=Spinning dust radiation: a review of the theory |journal=Advances in Astronomy |date= 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=462697 |pages= |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1211.2748v1.pdf |arxiv=1211.2748 |bibcode=2013AdAst2013E...2A |doi=10.1155/2013/462697 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> ==Molecular clouds== [[Image:Barnard 68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a colour composite of visible and near-infrared images of the dark cloud Barnard 68. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] G0.253+0.016 was probed "with another network of telescopes, the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy [CARMA] in California."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff>{{ cite book |author=SPACE.com Staff |title=Baffling Star Birth Mystery Finally Solved |publisher=Yahoo! Inc. |location= |date=January 14, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/baffling-star-birth-mystery-finally-solved-194046433.html |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> "G0.253+0.016, which is about 30 light-years long, defies the conventional wisdom that dense gas glouds should produce lots of stars. ... The cloud is 25 times more dense than the famous Orion Nebula, which is birthing stars at a furious rate. But only a few stars are being born in G0.253+0.016, and they're pretty much all runts."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> "It's a very dense cloud and it doesn't form any massive stars, which is very weird"<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/>. "CARMA data showed that gas within G0.253+0.016 is zipping around 10 times faster than gas in similar clouds. G0.253+0.016 is on the verge of flying apart, with its gas churning too violently to coalesce into stars. Further, the ... cloud is full of silicon monoxide, a compound typically produced when fast-moving gas smashes into dust particles. The abnormally large amounts of silicon monoxide suggest that G0.253+0.016 may actually consist of two colliding clouds, whose impact is generating powerful shockwaves."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> When surveyed at 1.1 mm as part of the Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey, "[t]he only currently known starless [massive proto-cluster] MPC is G0.253+0.016, which lies within the dense central molecular zone and is subject to greater environmental stresses than similar objects in the Galactic plane (Longmore et al. 2012)."<ref name=Ginsburg>{{ cite journal |author=A. Ginsburg |author2=E. Bressert |author3=J. Bally |author4=C. Battersby |title=There are No Starless Massive Proto-Clusters in the First Quadrant of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=October 20, |year=2012 |volume=758 |issue=2 |pages=L29-33 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.4097.pdf |arxiv=1208.4097 |bibcode=2012ApJ...758L..29G |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/758/2/L29 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> '''Def.''' a "large and relatively dense cloud of cold gas and dust in interstellar space from which new stars are formed"<ref name=MolecularCloudWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=molecular cloud |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molecular_cloud |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> is called a '''molecular cloud'''. The image on the right is a composite of visible (B 440 nm and V 557 nm) and near-infrared (768 nm) of the dark cloud (absorption cloud) Barnard 68.<ref name=ESO0102/> Barnard 68 is around 500 lyrs away in the constellation Ophiuchus.<ref name=ESO0102/> "At these wavelengths, the small cloud is completely opaque because of the obscuring effect of dust particles in its interior."<ref name=ESO0102>{{ cite book |author=eso0102 |title=How to Become a Star |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location= |date=10 January 2001 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0102a/ |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> "It was obtained with the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope and the multimode FORS1 instrument in March 1999."<ref name=ESO0102/> In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Wolf-Rayet stars== {{main|Stars/Wolf-Rayets}} [[Image:A cosmic couple.jpg|right|thumb|250px|WR 124 is surrounded by the nebula M1-67. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA and Judy Schmidt.{{tlx|free media}}]] "At the low density given by the spherically symmetric wind model (see Table 1), the dominant species in the gas are atomic ions while as the gas number density increases, the recombination of ions takes place and the gas composition is governed by neutral-phase chemistry, that is, the dominant species are neutral atoms and molecules although electrons and some ions are still present in relatively large amounts (for example, C⁺, O⁺ and He⁺)."<ref name= Cherchneff >{{ cite journal |author=I. Cherchneff |author2=Y.H. Le Teuff |author3=P.M. Williams |author4=A.G.G.M. Tielens |title=Dust formation in carbon-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. I. Chemistry of small carbon clusters and silicon species |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=May 2000 |volume=357 |issue=5 |pages=572-80 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2000A%26A...357..572C&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=2000A&A...357..572C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-05 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Intergalactic medium== {{main|Sources/Intergalactic medium}} [[Image:Stephan's Quintet with annotation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This composite image shows Stephan's Quintet and the IGM around the galaxies. Credit: Martin Harwit, George Helou, Lee Armus, C. Matt Bradford, Paul F. Goldsmith, Michael Hauser, David Leisawitz, Daniel F. Lester, George Rieke, and Stephen A. Rinehart/NASA GSFC.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Stephan's Quintet (SQ) is a system consisting of at least four interacting galaxies which is well known for its complex dynamical and star formation history. It possesses a rich intergalactic medium (IGM), where hydrogen clouds, both atomic and molecular, associated with two starbursts (refered to as SQ A and B) have been found."<ref name=Lisenfeld>{{ cite journal |author=Ute Lisenfeld |author2=Jonathan Braine |author3=Pierre-Alain Duc |author4=Stéphane Leon |author5=Vassilis Charmandaris |author6=Elias Brinks |title=Abundant molecular gas in the intergalactic medium of Stephan's Quintet |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=823-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...394..823L |arxiv=astro-ph/0208494 |bibcode=2002A&A...394..823L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021232 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-11 }}</ref> The composite image at right shows "Stephan’s Quintet [with] a diffuse arc of atomic hydrogen emission, indicated in green, roughly coincident with a shock front observed in the X-ray domain. Spitzer observations reveal powerful H₂ emission originating from the center of this 10³ km s^-1 shock."<ref name=Harwit>{{ cite journal |author=Martin Harwit |author2=George Helou |author3=Lee Armus |author4=C. Matt Bradford |author5=Paul F. Goldsmith |author6=Michael Hauser |author7=David Leisawitz |author8=Daniel F. Lester |author9=George Rieke |author10=Stephen A. Rinehart |title=Far-Infrared/Submillimeter Astronomy from Space Tracking an Evolving Universe and the Emergence of Life |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |month= |year=2010 |pages=39 |url=http://astrophysics.gsfc.nasa.gov/cosmology/spirit/FIR-SIM_Crosscutting_White_Paper.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-10 }}</ref> "One of [SQs] most striking properties is that the major part of the gas is in the intragroup medium, most likely the result of interactions in the past and present. [...] a few times 10⁸ yr ago the group experienced a collision with NGC 7320c, a galaxy ∼4 arcmin to the east of NGC 7319 but with a very similar recession velocity (6583 kms⁻¹ [...] to the other galaxies in SQ. This collision removed most of the gas of NGC 7319 towards the west and east, and produced the eastern tidal tail which connects to NGC 7319. Presently, the group is experiencing another collision with the “intruder” galaxy NGC 7318b which strongly affects the interstellar medium (ISM) removed during the first collision."<ref name=Lisenfeld/> {{clear}} ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} [[Image:Saturation free doppler spectroscopy.png|thumb|right|300px|The relative absorption of an infrared laser. In the red line's profile you can see the hyperfine-structure of the first excited level of rubidium. Credit: Clemens Adolphs.{{tlx|free media}}]] By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and temperatures of stars and interstellar clouds. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. Interstellar formaldehyde was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. {{clear}} ==Technology== [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).{{tlx|free media}}]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> “The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: water (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic carbon monoxide (¹³CO), molecular oxygen (O₂), and neutral carbon (C I).”<ref name=Submillimetreastronomy>{{ cite book |title=Submillimetre astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=June 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy |accessdate=2012-06-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Chemistry|Astrochemistry]] * [[Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras|Auroras]] * [[Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa]] * [[Sources/Intergalactic medium|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Sources/Interstellar medium|Interstellar medium]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutral astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Atomic radiation astronomy}} <!-- footer categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] 3pem424hsfhp5zyj88z19ieagnm04xp 2417119 2417080 2022-08-21T23:04:00Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Warm neutral mediums */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Atomics are usually neutral atoms and molecules of a few atoms. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the Lunar Prospector using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn loose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name=Williams/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name=Williams/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name=Williams>{{ cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Theoretical atomic radiation astronomy== [[Image:Rutherford gold foil experiment results.svg|thumb|right|250px|The '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms. In the '''bottom''' image are deflections. Credit: [[c:User:Fastfission|Fastfission]].{{tlx|free media}}]] For the determination of the elemental composition of liquid proteins microPIXE can quantify the metal content of protein molecules with a relative accuracy of between 10% and 20%.<ref name=Garman>{{ cite journal |pmid=15910917 |year=2005 |author=EF Garman, GW Grime |title=Elemental analysis of proteins by microPIXE |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=173–205 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610704001257 |doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.09.005 |journal=Progress in biophysics and molecular biology }}</ref> In part by the X-ray emission from sulfur and the phosphate groups but excessive amounts of chlorine overlap with the sulfur peak; whereas KBr and NaBr do not. In the image at right, the '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms undisturbed by penetrating protons. In the '''bottom''' image, some of the protons are deflected. {{clear}} ==Entities== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities}} [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: Sheldon.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Deuterated isotopomers of methanol have been detected both in hot cores and in the protostellar source IRAS 16293-2422. [...] In studying the post-evaporative gas-phase chemistry of these isotopomers, it is important to know if pairs of isotopomers with D atoms in different places (eg CH₃OD and CH₂DOH) can be interconverted or whether they can be viewed as separate entities with depletion mechanisms that are independent of each other. Here we show that it is difficult to exchange protons and deuterons on the two different parts of the methanol backbone."<ref name=Osamura>{{ cite journal |author=Y. Osamura |author2=H. Roberts |author3=E. Herbst |title=On the possible interconversion between pairs of deuterated isotopomers of methanol, its ion, and its protonated ion in star-forming regions |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2004 |volume=421 |issue=3 |pages=1101-11 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15915319 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-23 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Emissions== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions}} [[Image:Hydrogen spectrum.svg|thumb|right|250px|The spectral series of hydrogen is displayed on a [[w:logarithm|logarithm]]ic scale. Credit: [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Hydrogen transitions.svg|thumb|right|250px|Electron transitions and their resulting wavelengths for hydrogen. Energy levels are not to scale. Credit: [[c:user:User:Szdori|User:Szdori]] and [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of '''spectral series''', with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to electrons moving between energy levels in the atom. The spectral series are important in astronomy for detecting the presence of hydrogen and calculating red shifts. ... [T]he spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the electron between energy levels. The simplest model of the hydrogen atom is given by the Bohr model. When an electron jumps from a higher energy to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is emitted."<ref name=Hydrogenspectral>{{ cite book |title=Hydrogen spectral series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=May 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series |accessdate=2012-05-14 }}</ref> The spectral lines are grouped into series according to ''n'''. Lines are named sequentially starting from the longest wavelength/lowest frequency of the series, using Greek letters within each series. For example, the {{nowrap|2 &rarr; 1}} line is called "Lyman-alpha" (Ly-α), while the {{nowrap|7 &rarr; 3}} line is called "Paschen-delta" (Pa-δ). Some hydrogen spectral lines fall outside these series, such as the [[w:Hydrogen line|21 cm line]]; these correspond to much rarer atomic events such as [[w:hyperfine structure|hyperfine]] transitions.<ref name=Hyperphysics>{{ cite book |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/h21.html |title=The Hydrogen 21-cm Line, In: ''Hyperphysics'' |accessdate=2009-03-18 |publisher=Georgia State University |date=2004-10-30 }}</ref> The [[w:fine structure|fine structure]] also results in single spectral lines appearing as two or more closely grouped thinner lines, due to relativistic corrections.<ref name=Liboff>{{ cite book |author=Richard L. Liboff |title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics |publisher=Addison-Wesley |date=2002 |isbn=0-8053-8714-5 }}</ref> The energy differences between levels in the Bohr model, and hence the wavelengths of emitted/absorbed photons, is given by the Rydberg formula<ref name=Bohr>{{ citation |author=Niels Bohr |chapter=Rydberg's discovery of the spectral laws |editor=J. Kalckar |title=N. Bohr: Collected Works |publisher=North-Holland Publ. |location=Amsterdam |year=1985 |volume=10 |pages=373–9 }}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R \left( {1 \over (n^\prime)^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R = 1.097373 \times 10^7 \ \mathrm{m}^{-1} \right)</math> where ''n'' is the initial energy level, ''n&prime;'' is the final energy level, and ''R'' is the [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]]. Meaningful values are returned only when ''n'' is greater than ''n&prime;'' and the limit of one over infinity is taken to be zero. "The familiar red [[w:H-alpha|H-alpha]] [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of [[w:emission nebula|emission]] or ionization nebula, like the [[w:Orion Nebula|Orion Nebula]], which are often [[w:H II region|H II region]]s found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen-alpha filter is an [[w:optical filter|optical filter]] designed to transmit a narrow [[w:Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] of light generally centered on the H-alpha wavelength. They are characterized by a bandpass width that measures the width of the wavelength band that is transmitted.<ref name=Tom>{{ cite book | url = http://www.astro-tom.com/technical_data/filters.htm | title = Filters | publisher = Astro-Tom.com | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> These filters are manufactured by multiple (~50) layers of [[w:Vacuum deposition|vacuum-deposited]] layers. These layers are selected to produce [[w:interference (wave propagation)|interference]] effects that filter out any wavelengths except at the requisite band.<ref name=Murphy>{{ cite book | author = D. B. Murphy |author2=K. R. Spring |author3=M. J. Parry-Hill |author4=I. D. Johnson |author5=M. W. Davidson | url = http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/filters/interference/index.html | title = Interference Filters | publisher = Olympus | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> Alternatively, an [[w:etalon|etalon]] may be used as the narrow band filter (in conjunction with a "blocking filter" or energy rejection filter) to pass only a narrow (<0.1&nbsp;[[w:nanometer|nm]]) range of wavelengths of light centred around the H-alpha emission line. The physics of the etalon and the dichroic interference filters are essentially the same (relying on constructive/destructive interference of light reflecting between surfaces), but the implementation is different (an interference filter relies on the interference of internal reflections). Due to the high velocities sometimes associated with features visible in H-alpha light (such as fast moving prominences and ejections), solar H-alpha etalons can often be tuned (by tilting or changing the temperature) to cope with the associated [[w:Doppler effect|Doppler effect]]."<ref name=Halpha>{{ cite book |title=H-alpha |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=December 30, 2011 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-alpha |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> The [[w:Balmer series|Balmer series]] of emission lines from hydrogen occur in the visible spectrum of the Sun at: 397, 410, 434, 486, and 656 nm. Hydrogen has two emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas at 397.007 nm of the Balmer series (H_ε) and 434.05 nm H_γ.<ref name=McCarthy>{{ cite book |author=K. J. McCarthy |author2=A. Baciero |author3=B. Zurro |author4=TJ-II Team |title=Impurity Behaviour Studies in the TJ-II Stellarator, In: ''27th EPS Conference on Contr. Fusion and Plasma Phys.'' |publisher=ECA |location=Budapest |volume=24B |date=12 June 2000 |editor= |pages=1244-7 |url=http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "ionizing radiation that is naturally present in the environment"<ref name=BackgroundRadiationWikt>{{ cite book |title=background radiation |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=October 6, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/background_radiation |accessdate=2014-04-10 }}</ref> is called '''background radiation'''. '''Background radiation''' is the ubiquitous ionizing radiation that the general population is exposed to, including natural and artificial sources. Both natural and artificial background radiation varies by location. The worldwide average natural [effective radiation] dose to humans is about 2.4 millisievert (mSv) per year.<ref name="UNSCEAR2008">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Sources and effects of ionizing radiation |date=2008 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142274-0 |url=http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2008_1.html |accessdate=9 November 2012 |page=4 }}</ref> The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne radon, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its isotopes, parent radionuclides, and decay products all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26&nbsp;mSv/a. Radon is unevenly distributed and variable with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a significant health hazard. Concentrations over 500 times higher than the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic.<ref name="UNSCEAR2006E">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces, In: ''Effects of Ionizing Radiation'' |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142263-4 |volume=II |url=http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2006/09-81160_Report_Annex_E_2006_Web.pdf |accessdate=2 December 2012 }}</ref> '''Terrestrial radiation''' usually only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major radionuclides of concern are potassium, uranium and thorium and their decay products, some of which, like radium and radon are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. An average human contains about 30 milligrams of potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) and about 10 nanograms (10⁻⁸&nbsp;g) of carbon-14 (¹⁴C), which has a decay half-life of 5,730 years. Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, the largest component of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body is from potassium-40. The decay of about 4,000 nuclei of ⁴⁰K per second<ref name=Diroff>{{ cite book |author=S. C. Diroff |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~scdiroff/lds/QuantumRelativity/RadioactiveHumanBody/RadioactiveHumanBody.html |title=Radioactive human body&nbsp;— Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations |date=April 2011 }}</ref> makes potassium the largest source of radiation in terms of number of decaying atoms. The energy of beta particles produced by ⁴⁰K is also about 10 times more powerful than the beta particles from ¹⁴C decay. ¹⁴C is present in the human body at a level of 3700 Bq with a [[w:biological half-life|biological half-life]] of 40 days.<ref>http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/carbon14.pdf</ref> There are about 1,200 beta particles per second produced by the decay of ¹⁴C. However, a ¹⁴C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA. The decay of a ¹⁴C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.<ref name=Asimov>{{ cite book |author=Isaac Asimov |title=The Explosions Within Us, In: ''Only A Trillion'' |date=1957 |edition=Revised and updated |publisher=ACE books |location=New York |pages=37–9 |chapter= |isbn=1-157-09468-6 }}</ref> The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29&nbsp;mSv/a, of which 0.17&nbsp;mSv/a comes from ⁴⁰K, 0.12&nbsp;mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12&nbsp;μSv/a comes from ¹⁴C.<ref name=UNSCEAR2008 /> '''Background radiation''' may simply be any radiation that is pervasive, whether ionizing or not. A particular example of this is the cosmic microwave background radiation, a nearly uniform glow that fills the sky in the microwave part of the spectrum; stars, galaxies and other objects of interest in [[Radiation astronomy/Radios|radio astronomy]] stand out against this background. In a laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any sources that affect an instrument when a radiation source sample is not being measured. This background rate, which must be established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}} [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei or alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. In cosmic-ray astronomy, cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals}} [[Image:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Neutrals astronomy''' is the astronomy of observing neutral atoms or molecules, their sources and apparent entities or objects of origin. {{clear}} ==Subatomics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}} [[Image:Hydrogen atom.svg|thumb|right|250px|An idealized image of protium shows the relative sizes of the proton and the atom. Credit: [[c:User:Bensaccount|Bensaccount]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' the "lightest and most common isotope of hydrogen, having a single proton and no neutrons- {{chem|1|1|H}}"<ref name=ProtiumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=protium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=12 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/protium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''protium'''. '''Def.''' an "isotope of hydrogen formed of one proton and one neutron in each atom - {{chem|2|1|H}}"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt>{{ cite book |title=deuterium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deuterium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''deuterium'''. "''Heavy water is “heavy” because it contains '''deuterium'''.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> "''There were about 80 '''deuteriums''' for every million protiums, and virtually no tritium.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> '''Def.''' a "radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen, (symbol T or {{chem|3|1|H}}), having one proton and two neutrons"<ref name=TritiumWikt>{{ cite book |title=tritium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tritium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''tritium'''. '''Def.''' a "highly unstable, synthetic isotope of the element hydrogen, {{chem|4|1|H}}, having one proton and three neutrons"<ref name=QuadriumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=quadrium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=2 June 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadrium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''quadrium'''. {{chem|1|1|H}}(p,β⁺ν){{chem|2|1|H}} :<math>\mathrm{_1^1H} + \mathrm{_1^1H} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{1}^{2}D} + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma (0.42 MeV). </math> At 10-million-kelvin, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:<ref name=Wallerstein>{{ cite journal | author=G. Wallerstein |author2=I. Iben Jr. |author3=P. Parker |author4=A. M. Boesgaard |author5=G. M. Hale |author6=A. E. Champagne |author7=C. A. Barnes |author8=F. KM-dppeler |author9=V. V. Smith |author10=R. D. Hoffman |author11=F. X. Timmes |author12=C. Sneden |author13=R. N. Boyd |author14=B. S. Meyer |author15=D. L. Lambert | title=Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=1999 | volume=69 | issue=4 | pages=995–1084 | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf | accessdate=2006-08-04 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995 | bibcode=1997RvMP...69..995W }}</ref> :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → 2{{chem|2|1|H}} + 2e⁺ + 2ν_e (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV) :2{{chem|1|1|H}} + 2{{chem|2|1|H}} → 2{{chem|3|2|He}} + 2γ (5.5 MeV) :2{{chem|3|2|He}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2{{chem|1|1|H}} (12.9 MeV) These reactions result in the overall reaction: :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2e⁺ + 2γ + 2ν_e (26.7 MeV) where e⁺ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν_e is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. "The light elements deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron pose a special problem for any theory of the origin of the elements which proposes that all the elements are built up from hydrogen in the stars. ... The difficulty arises because the lifetimes of these elements against proton capture, at the temperatures and pressures at which most stellar matter exists, are short compared to the stable lifetimes of stars. These elements then cannot be produced in stellar interiors unless they are transported rapidly to the surface, and if they are produced at the surface, non-equilibrium processes must be involved. Further, they can exist in significant quantities at the surface only in the absence of rapid mixing to the interior."<ref name=Bonsack>{{ cite journal |author=Walter K. Bonsack |title=The Abundance of Lithium and Convective Mixing in Stars of Type K |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1959 |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=843-71 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1959ApJ...130..843B |doi=10.1086/146777 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-03-24 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:Distribution of GCR particles.png|right|thumb|300px|The distribution of galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) particles is shown in atomic number (charge) and energy. Credit: W. Schimmerling, J. W. Wilson, F. Cucinotta, and M-H Y. Kim.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Gammaspektrum Uranerz.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This gamma-ray spectrum contains the typical isotopes of the uranium-radium decay line. Credit: [[c:User:Wusel007|Wusel007]].{{tlx|free media}}]] In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], "when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV" [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background.<ref name=GammaRay>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Sbharris|Sbharris]] |title=Gamma ray |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 May 2011 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> "'''Nuclear reaction analysis''' (NRA) is a nuclear method in materials science to obtain concentration vs. depth distributions for certain target chemical elements in a solid thin film."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "If irradiated with select projectile nuclei [or protons] at kinetic energies ''E''_kin these target elements can undergo a nuclear reaction under resonance conditions for a sharply defined resonance energy. The reaction product is usually a nucleus in an excited state which immediately decays, emitting ionizing radiation such as protons or gamma rays."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "To obtain depth information the initial kinetic energy of the projectile nucleus (which has to exceed the resonance energy) and its stopping power (energy loss per distance traveled) in the sample has to be known. To contribute to the nuclear reaction the projectile nuclei have to slow down in the sample to reach the resonance energy. Thus each initial kinetic energy corresponds to a depth in the sample where the reaction occurs (the higher the energy, the deeper the reaction)."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "A commonly used reaction is :¹⁵[[w:Nitrogen|N]] + ¹[[w:Hydrogen|H]] &rarr; ¹²[[w:Carbon|C]] + [[w:alpha particle|&alpha;]] + [[w:gamma ray|&gamma;]] (4.965MeV) with a resonance at 6.385 MeV."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "The energetic emitted γ ray is characteristic of the reaction and the number that are detected at any incident energy is proportional to the concentration at the respective depth of [nitrogen] in the sample. The N concentration profile is then obtained by scanning the proton incident or transmitted beam energy."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "NRA can also be used non-resonantly. For example, deuterium can easily be profiled with a ³He beam [or ³He with a deuterium beam] without changing the incident energy by using the :³He + D = &alpha; + p⁺ + 18.353 MeV reaction. The energy of the fast proton detected depends on the depth of the deuterium [or ³He] atom in the sample."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Dschwen|Dschwen]] and [[w:User:CJeynes|CJeynes]] |title=Nuclear reaction analysis |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=27 July 2005 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reaction_analysis |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Comet Lulin Jan. 28-2009 Swift gamma.jpg|thumb|250px|Comet Lulin was passing through the constellation Libra when Swift imaged it on January 28, 2009. Credit: NASA/Swift/Univ. of Leicester/''Bodewits et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] NASA's Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite was monitoring Comet Lulin as it closed to 63 Gm of Earth. For the first time, astronomers can see simultaneous UV and X-ray images of a comet. The solar wind—a fast-moving stream of particles from the sun—interacts with the comet's broader cloud of atoms which causes the solar wind to light up with X-rays, and that's what Swift's XRT sees.<ref name=Immler>{{ cite book |author=Stefan Immler |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> This interaction, called charge exchange, results in X-rays from most comets when they pass within about three times Earth's distance from the Sun; because Lulin is so active, its atomic cloud is especially dense. As a result, the X-ray-emitting region extends far sunward of the comet.<ref name=Reddy>{{ cite book |author=F. Reddy |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} [[Image:Saturn's A Ring From the Inside Out.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of Saturn's A Ring, taken by the Cassini Orbiter using an Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph. Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Colorado.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he '''Lyman series''' is the series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from ''n'' ≥ 2 to ''n'' = 1 (where ''n'' is the [[w:principal quantum number|principal quantum number]] referring to the energy level of the electron)."<ref name=Lymanseries>{{ cite book |title=Lyman series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 19, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_series |accessdate=2012-06-26 }}</ref> "The version of the [[w:Rydberg formula|Rydberg formula]] that generated the Lyman series was<ref name="Brehm-Mullin p156">John Brehm and William Mullin, Introduction to the Structure of Matter, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989, p. 156 {{ISBN|0-471-60531-X}}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R_H = 1.0968 \times 10^7 \mbox{m}^{-1} = {13.6eV \over hc} \right)</math> Where ''n'' is a natural number greater than or equal to 2 (i.e. ''n'' = 2,3,4,...). Therefore, the lines seen in the image above are the wavelengths corresponding to <math>n=2\,</math> on the right, to <math>n= \infty </math> on the left (there are infinitely many spectral lines, but they become very dense as they approach to <math>n= \infty </math> ([[w:Lyman limit|Lyman limit]]), so only some of the first lines and the last one appear). The wavelengths (nm) in the Lyman series are all ultraviolet:"<ref name=Lymanseries/> {| class="wikitable" ! <math>n</math> |align="center"|2 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|4 |align="center"|5 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|8 |align="center"|9 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|11 |align="center"|<math>\infty</math> |- ! Wavelength (nm) |121.6 |102.6 |97.3 |95.0 |93.8 |93.1 |92.6 |92.3 |92.1 |91.9 |91.18 (Lyman limit) |} "In 1913, when [[w:Niels Bohr|Niels Bohr]] produced his [[w:Bohr model|Bohr model]] theory, the reason why hydrogen spectral lines fit Rydberg's formula was explained. Bohr found that the electron bound to the hydrogen atom must have quantized energy levels described by the following formula: :<math> E_n = - {{m e^4} \over {2 \left( 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \hbar \right)^2}} {1 \over n^2} = - {13.6 \over n^2} [\mbox{eV}]. </math> According to Bohr's third assumption, whenever an electron falls from an initial energy level(<math> E_i </math>) to a final energy level(<math> E_f </math>), the atom must emit radiation with a wavelength of: :<math> \lambda = {{h c} \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> There is also a more comfortable notation when dealing with energy in units of [[w:electronvolt|electronvolt]]s and wavelengths in units of [[w:angstrom|angstrom]]s: :<math> \lambda = {12430 \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> Replacing the energy in the above formula with the expression for the energy in the hydrogen atom where the initial energy corresponds to energy level ''n'' and the final energy corresponds to energy level ''m'': :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = {{E i-E f} \over 12430} = \left( {12430 \over 13.6} \right)^{-1} \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) = R \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> where ''R_H'' is the same [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]] for hydrogen of Rydberg's long known formula. For the connection between Bohr, Rydberg, and Lyman, one must replace ''m'' by 1 to obtain: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> which is Rydberg's formula for the Lyman series. Therefore, each wavelength of the emission lines corresponds to an electron dropping from a certain energy level (greater than 1) to the first energy level."<ref name=Lymanseries/> {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:Neon spectra.jpg|thumb|center|500px|This image shows the emission lines for atomic neon. Absorption lines occur at the same locations by subtraction of light from the continuum. Credit: [[w:Teravolt|Teravolt]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The light blue background is the dayglow emission (less than 1 kR) caused by the interaction between the photoelectrons generated by solar UV radiation and atmospheric molecules and atoms."<ref name=Meng>{{ cite journal |author=C.-I. MengR. E. Huffman |title=Ultraviolet imaging from space of the aurora under full sunlight |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month=April |year=1984 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=315-8 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/GL011i004p00315/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/GL011i004p00315 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> This background occurs when imaging an Earth aurora from space using [[ultraviolet astronomy]] at the VUV wavelengths (135.6 ± 1.5 nm and 149.3 ± 1.5 nm). {{clear}} ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}} [[Image:Snake Nebula SMA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Images from the Smithsonian's Submillimeter Array (SMA) telescope provide the most detailed view yet of stellar nurseries within the Snake nebula. Credit: Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight, CFHT; Spitzer/GLIMPSE/MIPS, Herschel/HiGal, Ke Wang (ESO).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H₂/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H₂ to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s^-1 at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H₂Cl⁺, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2₁₂ − 1₀₁ lines of ortho-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ and ortho-H₂³⁷Cl⁺ are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1₁₁ − 0₀₀ transition of para-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H₂Cl⁺) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H₂CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> {{clear}} ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy}} [[Image:Crab_Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Crab Nebula showing the diffuse blue region. Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University).{{tlx|free media}}]] CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar glycine,<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |author4=et al. |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |author4=et al. |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams | author=Mike Gruntman | work=Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 1951, prior to the Space Age, the existence of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms (as high as 70 keV in energy) in space plasma was discovered."<ref name=Hsieh>{{ cite journal |author=K. C. Hsieh |author2=C. C. Curtis |title=Imaging Space Plasma With Energetic Neutral Atoms Without Ionization, In: ''Measurement Techniques in Space Plasmas: Fields'' |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location= |date= 1998 |editor= |volume=Geophysical Monograph 103 |issue= |pages=235-49 |url=http://www.agu.org/books/gm/v103/GM103p0235/GM103p0235.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "Plasma is the fourth state of matter, consisting of electrons, ions and neutral atoms, usually at temperatures above 10⁴ degrees Kelvin."<ref name=Birdsall>{{ cite book |author=CK Birdsall, A. Bruce Langdon |title=Plasma Physics via Computer Simulation |publisher=CRC Press |location=New York |date=October 1, 2004 |editor= |pages=479 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=S2lqgDTm6a4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&ots=nOPXyqtDo8&sig=-kA8YfaX6nlfFnaW3CYkATh-QPg |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=9780750310253 |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "ENA imaging permits study of the ways in which our entire plasma environment -- including the magnetopause, ring current, plasmasphere, auroral zones, plasma sheet, and the ionosphere -- reacts to the changing conditions of the solar wind (Williams, 1990)."<ref name=Hsieh/> {{clear}} ==Diatomic gases== [[Image:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with hydrogen H₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Deuterium discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with deuterium D₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 energies.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The molar energies of ortho- and parahydrogen and two significant mixtures are graphed versus temperature. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 Cvs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The molar heat capacities for the same substances as above. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Molecular hydrogen gas is excited in the discharge tube shown on the right. When an electron returns to a lower energy orbital state the purple color is observed. "Molecular hydrogen (H₂) [is] a colourless, odourless and flammable gas at room temperature."<ref name=HydrogenWikt>{{ cite book |title=hydrogen |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=September 1, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hydrogen |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> "The familiar red H-alpha [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of emission or ionization nebula, like the Orion Nebula, which are often H II regions found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A "high-resolution spectrum of the Becklin-Neugebauer (BN) infrared point source located in [the region of the Orion Nebula] ... with the Steward Observatory 2.29 m (90 inch) telescope ... [confirmed] the reality of [the 2.12 μ] line ... on 1976 January 15 and 16. The line was then identified by R. Treffers as the ''S''(1) line of the 1-0 vibration-rotation quadrupole spectrum of H₂. Six other lines of the same band were also found. The presence of two of our lines has been confirmed by Grasdalen and Joyce (1976). Electronic transitions of interstellar H₂ have previously been observed in the ultraviolet (Carruthers 1970; Smith 1973; Spitzer ''et al.'' 1973)."<ref name=Gautier>{{ cite journal |author=T. N. Gautier II |author2=Uwe Fink |author3=Richard R. Treffers |author4=Harold P. Larson |title=Detection of Molecular Hydrogen Quadrupole Emission in the Orion Nebula |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July 15, |year=1976 |volume=207 |issue=07 |pages=L129-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976ApJ...207L.129G |arxiv= |bibcode=1976ApJ...207L.129G |doi=10.1086/182195 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> Diatomic hydrogen gas apparently exists in two distinct forms which can mix: orthohydrogen and parahydrogen. On the right is a graph of molar energies of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, plus an equilibrium mixture obtained when a catalyst is present to allow for ortho-para interconversion. The curve marked 3:1 is the ortho:para ratio at room temperature that will persist if no catalyst is present during cooling. Orthohydrogen has the spins of the two protons parallel while para hydrogen has them antiparallel. The second graph shows the molar heat capacities for the same gases versus temperature. {{clear}} ==Rocky objects== {{main|Rocks/Rocky objects}} [[Image:PanSTARRS C-2012 K1.png|thumb|right|250px|Sweeping slowly through northern skies, the comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1 posed for this telescopic portrait on June 2nd in the constellation Ursa Major. Credit: Alessandro Falesiedi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] There are many advantages to using a proton beam over an electron beam: # There is less crystal charging from Bremsstrahlung radiation, although there is some from the emission of Auger electrons, # there is significantly less than if the primary beam was itself an electron beam, and # because of the higher mass of protons relative to electrons, there is less lateral deflection of the beam. '''Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS)''' is an analytical technique sometimes referred to as high-energy ion scattering (HEIS) spectrometry. RBS is used to determine the structure and composition of materials by measuring the backscattering of a beam of high energy protons or ions impinging on a piece of material such as a dust grain. If the energy of the incident proton is increased sufficiently, the Coulomb barrier is exceeded and the wavefunctions of the incident and struck particles overlap. This may result in nuclear reactions in certain cases, but frequently the interaction remains elastic, although the scattering cross-sections may fluctuate wildly as a function of energy. This case is known as "Elastic (non-Rutherford) Backscattering Spectrometry" (EBS). We can describe Rutherford backscattering as an elastic (hard-sphere) collision between a high kinetic energy proton from the incident beam (the ''projectile'') and a stationary particle located in the dust grain (the ''target''). ''Elastic'' in this context means that no energy is either lost or gained during the collision. In some circumstances a collision may result in a nuclear reaction, with the release of considerable energy. Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) is very useful for detecting light elements. The energy E₁ of the scattered projectile is reduced from the initial energy E₀: ::<math>E_1 = k \cdot E_0, </math> where k is known as the ''kinematical factor'', and ::<math>k = \left(\frac{m_1 \cos{\theta_1} \pm \sqrt{m_2^2 - m_1^2(\sin{\theta_1})^2}}{m_1 + m_2}\right)^2,</math><ref name="Oura110">{{cite book |display-authors=4|author=Oura, K.|author2=Lifshits, V.G.|author3=Saranin, A.A.|author4=Zotov, A.V.|author5=Katayama, M. |date=2003 |title=Surface Science: An Introduction |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=3-540-00545-5 }}</ref> where particle 1 is the projectile, particle 2 is the target nucleus, and <math>\theta_1</math> is the scattering angle of the projectile in the laboratory frame of reference (that is, relative to the observer). The plus sign is taken when the mass of the projectile is less than that of the target, otherwise the minus sign is taken. To describe the probability of observing such an event. For that we need the ''differential cross-section'' of the backscattering event: ::<math>\frac{d\omega}{d\Omega} = \left(\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2}{4E_0}\right)^2 \frac{1}{\left(\sin{\theta/2}\right)^4},</math><ref name="Oura110"/> where <math>Z_1</math> and <math>Z_2</math> are the atomic numbers of the incident [proton] and target [nucleus]. [From] the centre of mass frame of reference and is therefore not a function of the mass of either the projectile or the target nucleus. The "scattering angle <math>\theta_1</math> is ''not'' the same as the scattering angle <math>\theta</math> (although for RBS experiments they are usually very similar). A scattering cross-section is zero implies that the projectile never comes close to the target, nor penetrates the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. The pure Coulomb formula for the scattering cross-section shown above must be corrected for this [[w:Shielding effect|screening effect]], which becomes more important as the energy of the projectile decreases. While large-angle scattering only occurs for protons which scatter off target nuclei, inelastic small-angle scattering can also occur off the sample electrons. This results in a gradual decrease in protons which penetrate more deeply into the sample, so that backscattering off interior nuclei occurs with a lower "effective" incident energy. The amount by which the ion energy is lowered after passing through a given distance is referred to as the stopping power of the material and is dependent on the electron distribution. This energy loss varies continuously with respect to distance traversed, so that stopping power is expressed as : <math>S(E) = -{dE \over dx}. </math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;136</ref> For high energy stopping power is usually proportional to <math>\frac{Z_2}{E}</math>. Stopping power or, ''stopping force'' has units of energy per unit length. It is generally given in thin film units, that is eV /(atom/cm²) since it is measured experimentally on thin films whose thickness is always measured absolutely as mass per unit area, avoiding the problem of determining the density of the material which may vary as a function of thickness. Stopping power is now known for all materials at around 2%, see http://www.srim.org. When a beam of protons with parallel trajectories is incident on a target atom, scattering off that atom prevents or blocks collisions in a cone-shaped region "behind" the target relative to the beam. This occurs because the repulsive potential of the target atom bends close ion trajectories away from their original path. The radius of this blocked region, at a distance L from the original atom, is given by ::<math>R = 2\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2L}{E_0}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;114</ref> When a proton is scattered from deep inside a sample, it can then re-scatter off a second atom, creating a second blocked cone in the direction of the scattered trajectory. This can be detected by carefully varying the detection angle relative to the incident angle. ''Channeling'' is observed when the incident beam is aligned with a major symmetry axis of the crystal. Incident protons which avoid collisions with surface atoms are excluded from collisions with all atoms deeper in the sample, due to blocking by the first layer of atoms. When the interatomic distance is large compared to the radius of the blocked cone, the incident protons can penetrate many times the interatomic distance without being backscattered. This can result in a drastic reduction of the observed backscattered signal when the incident beam is oriented along one of the symmetry directions, allowing determination of a sample's regular crystal structure. Channeling works best for very small blocking radii, i.e. for protons. The tolerance for the deviation of the [proton] beam angle of incidence relative to the symmetry direction depends on the blocking radius, making the allowable deviation angle proportional to ::<math>\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2}{E_0d}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;117</ref> While the intensity of an RBS peak is observed to decrease across most of its width when the beam is channeled, a narrow peak at the high-energy end of a larger peak will often be observed, representing surface scattering from the first layer of atoms. The presence of this peak opens the possibility of surface sensitivity for RBS measurements. {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}} [[Image:Hydrogen Lamp (24856071897).jpg|thumb|right|250px|After some excitation, purple light is emited, which corresponds to the visible spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom (Balmer series). Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/93636241@N07 UCL Mathematical & Physical Sciences from London, UK].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Phase diagram of hydrogen.png|thumb|left|250px|Diagram shows the phases of hydrogen. Credit: [[:ru:User:Tretyak|Tretyak]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because hydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum. The "efforts to study the 21 cm hydrogen line from the northern and southern hemispheres in 1954 and 1959 [...] were combined and provided the first full-galaxy radio map of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way".<ref name=Reeve>{{ cite book |author=Whitham D. Reeve |title=Book Review |publisher=Whitham D. Reeve |location=Anchorage, Alaska USA |date= 1973 |url=http://www.reeve.com/Documents/Book%20Reviews/Reeve_Book%20Review-Evolution%20of%20Radio%20Astronomy.pdf |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen atom is about 0.11 nm in diameter. The "relative motion in a hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields leads to peculiar quasi-ionized states with an electron localized very far from a proton."<ref name=Dzyaloshinskii>{{ cite journal |author=I. Dzyaloshinskii |title=Effects of the finite proton mass in a hydrogen atom in crossed magnetic and electric fields: a state with a giant electric dipole moment |journal=Physics Letters A |date=May 1992 |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=69-71 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019291056W |arxiv= |bibcode=1992PhLA..165...69D |doi=10.1016/0375-9601(92)91056-W |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-13 }}</ref> The Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN) aboard SOHO "is the only remote sensing instrument on SOHO that does not look at the Sun. It watches the rest of the sky, measuring hydrogen that is ‘blowing’ into the Solar System from interstellar space. By studying the interaction between the solar wind and this hydrogen gas, SWAN determines how the solar wind is distributed. As such, it can be qualified as SOHO’s solar wind ’mapper’."<ref name=Quemerais>{{ cite book |author=E. Quémerais |title=SOHO Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, MD, USA |date=30 June 2003 |url=http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf |accessdate=2016-03-27 }}</ref> ¹H, the most commonly used spin ½ nucleus in NMR investigation, has been studied using many forms of NMR. Hydrogen is highly abundant, especially in biological systems. It is the nucleus most sensitive to NMR signal (apart from ³H which is not commonly used due to its instability and radioactivity). Proton NMR produces narrow chemical shift with sharp signals. Fast acquisition of quantitative results (peak integrals in stoichiometric ratio) is possible due to short relaxation time. [NMR widely used in chemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and phosphorus-31 NMR. "'''Proton NMR''' ( '''Hydrogen-1 NMR''', or '''¹H NMR''') is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance in NMR spectroscopy with respect to hydrogen-1 nuclei within the molecules of a substance, in order to determine the structure of its molecules.<ref name=Silverstein>R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler and T. C. Morrill, ''Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds'', 5th Ed., Wiley, 1991.</ref> In samples where natural hydrogen (H) is used, practically all of the hydrogen consists of the isotope ¹H (hydrogen-1; i.e. having a proton for a nucleus). A full ¹H atom is called protium. {{clear}} ==Lithium nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Lithiums}} [[Image:Lithium Raies Spectrales.png|right|thumb|300px|This spectrum for lithium has been calculated using data from the Handbook of Chemistry & Physics. Credit: [[c:user:Epop|Epop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "evidence for the overwhelming majority of the Li-atoms in photospheres has its origin not only in nuclear synthesis near the stellar centers, but also by active processes in stellar atmospheres. [...] the lithium [resonance] line [is] near 478 keV."<ref name=Livshits>{{ cite journal |author=M. A. Livshits |title=The Amount of Lithium Produced during Impulsive Flares |journal=Solar Physics |month=July |year=1997 |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=377-81 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1004958522216#page-1 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1004958522216 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> "Approximately 90% of lithium atoms originate from α - α reactions for the typical spectra of an accelerated particles on the Sun [...] During impulsive flares, interaction between the accelerated particles and the ambient medium occurs mainly at low altitudes, i.e., close to the footprints of loops."<ref name=Livshits/> {{clear}} ==Nitrogen nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens}} [[Image:Violet aurora Ohio US Oct 2013.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This multicolored aurora has a strong violet band above the pink band. Credit: Black Swamp Storm Intercept Team.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "For cosmic rays the low abundance ”valleys” in the solar system composition around Z=4, 21, 46, and 70 are not present. This is usually believed to be the result of spallation of heavier nuclei during their propagation through the galaxy. Hydrogen, helium, and the CNO–group are suppressed in cosmic rays. This has been explained by the high first ionization potential of these atoms [63] or by the high volatility of these elements which do not condense on interstellar grains [64]. Which property is the right descriptor of cosmic–ray abundances has proved elusive, however, the volatility seems to become the more accepted solution [65]."<ref name=Hoerandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R. Hoerandel |title=On the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=May |year=2003 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=193-220 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0210453 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00198-6 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Metallicities== [[Image:A Swarm of Ancient Stars - GPN-2000-000930.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The globular cluster Messier 80 are mainly older metal-poor members of Population&nbsp;II. Credit: NASA, The Hubble Heritage Team, STScI, AURA.{{tlx|free media}}]] For stars, the metallicity is often expressed as "[Fe/H]", which represents the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun (iron is not the most abundant heavy element, but it is among the easiest to measure with spectral data in the visible spectrum). The formula for the logarithm is expressed thus: {{center top}}<math> [\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}] = \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{star}} - \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{sun}} </math>{{center bottom}} where <math>N_{\mathrm{Fe}}</math> and <math>N_{\mathrm{H}}</math> are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively. The unit often used for metallicity is the "dex" which is a (now-deprecated) contraction of decimal exponent.<ref name=Rowlett>[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictD.html A Dictionary of Units of Measurement]</ref> By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive logarithmic value, while those with a lower metallicity than the Sun have a negative value. The logarithm is based on powers of ten; stars with a value of +1 have ten times the metallicity of the Sun (10¹). Conversely, those with a value of -1 have one tenth (10 ⁻¹), while those with -2 have a hundredth (10⁻²), and so on.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite book | author=John C. Martin | title=New Analysis RR Lyrae Kinematics in the Solar Neighborhood, In: ''What we learn from a star's metal content'' | url=https://edocs.uis.edu/jmart5/www/rrlyrae/metals.htm |accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Young Population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older Population II stars. Primordial Population III stars are estimated to have a metallicity of less than −6.0, that is, less than a millionth of the abundance of iron which is found in the Sun. {{clear}} ==Astrophysics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astrophysics}} [[Image:ThermalFissionYield.svg|thumb|300px|right|Fission product yields by mass are for thermal neutron fission of uranium-235, plutonium-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and uranium-233 used in the thorium cycle. Credit: [[w:user:JWB|JWB]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. {{clear}} ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:Sun Atmosphere Temperature and Density SkyLab.jpg|thumb|200 px|This graph shows the temperature and density of the Sun's atmosphere from Skylab observations. Credit: John A. Eddy, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] As stars are defined as luminous balls of plasma, the Sun may not qualify as its photosphere has a plasma concentration of approximately 10^-4. The rest is composed of neutral atoms at about 5800 K. The visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H⁻ ions.<ref name="Gibson">{{ cite book |author=E.G. Gibson |title=The Quiet Sun |publisher=NASA |date=1973 |isbn= |asin=B0006C7RS0 }}</ref><ref name="Shu">{{ cite book |last=Shu |first=F.H. |title=The Physics of Astrophysics |publisher=University Science Books |volume=1 |date=1991 |isbn=0-935702-64-4 }}</ref> "The production and escape of hot ions (H⁺ and H⁺₂) and hot atomic hydrogen by stellar ultraviolet radiation is ... likely".<ref name=Guillot>{{ cite journal |author=T. Guillot |author2=A. Burrows |author3=W. B. Hubbard |author4=J. I. Lunine |author5=D. Saumon |title=Giant Planets at Small Orbital Distances |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=March |year=1996 |volume=459 |issue=3 |pages=L35-8 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/459/1/L35 |arxiv=astro-ph/9511109 |bibcode=1996ApJ...459L..35G |doi=10.1086/309935 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Heliognosy== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliognosy|Heliognosy}} [[Image:Figure3 sun aufbau.gif|thumb|right|250px|This image is a theory for the interior of the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In the 1920s, Payne [3] and Russell [4] reported that the Sun’s atmosphere consisted mostly of hydrogen (H) and helium (He), but Hoyle [5] notes that he and others "in the astronomical circles to which I was privy" (p. 153) continued until after the Second World War to believe that the Sun was made mostly of iron. Then Hoyle notes that "much to my surprise" (p. 154), the high-hydrogen, low-iron model was suddenly adopted without opposition."<ref name=Manuel>{{ cite journal |author=O. Manuel, C. Bolon, A. Katragada, and M. Insall |title=Attraction and Repulsion of Nucleons: Sources of Stellar Energy |journal=Journal of Fusion Energy |date= 2001 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=93-8 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1012290028638 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1012290028638 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-13 }}</ref> Depending primarily upon gas temperature, the presence of gas may be used to determine the composition of the gas object observed, at least the outer layer. Early spectroscopy<ref name=Russell>{{ cite journal |author=H. N. Russell |title= |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1929 |volume=70 |issue= |pages=11-82 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= }}</ref> of the '''Sun''' using estimates of "the line intensities of several lines by eye [to derive] the abundances of ... elements ... [concluded] that the Sun [is] largely made of hydrogen."<ref name=Basu>{{ cite journal |author=Sarbani Basu |author2=H. M. Antia |title=Helioseismology and Solar Abundances |journal=Physics Reports |month=March |year=2008 |volume=457 |issue=5-6 |pages=217-83 |url= |arxiv=0711.4590 |bibcode=2008PhR...457..217B |doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-06 }}</ref> As temperature increases in an astronomical object composed of H₂ gas, the molecules begin to dissociate. "At a temperature of 8000 K, hydrogen gas is 99.99 percent monatomic."<ref name=Tipler>{{ cite book |author=Paul A. Tipler, Gene Mosca |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Macmillan |location= |date=May 1, 2007 |editor= |pages=1172 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AttDBYgLeZkC&pg=PA614&lpg=PA614&source=bl&ots=mDyTt5SY03&sig=-IdefwfOk591NKKnKm2iPsorRxo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XkPGUs6UCdDqkAeeuYF4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwBA |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=142920124X |accessdate=2014-01-02 }}</ref> :<math> \rho_H = \rho_{H_0} e^{E_T/{kT}},</math> where <math>\rho_{H_0}</math> is an initial concentration [H] at low temperatures as partial particle density, <math>E_T</math> is the dissociation energy 4.52 eV, k is Boltzmann's contant (8.6173324(78)×10⁻⁵ eV K^-1), and T is temperature in K. Using :<math> [H] = 70400 e^{-4.52/(0.00008617T)}</math> # what is the concentration of H ([H]) at T = 8000 K? # what is [H] at T = 800 K? # at what temperature is [H] = 1? # what is [H] at T = 5778 K? At 5778 K [H] = 8 %. {{clear}} ==Venus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Venus}} [[Image:Venus xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This Chandra X-ray Observatory image is the first X-ray image ever made of Venus. Credit: NASA/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The first ever X-ray image of Venus is shown at right. The "half crescent is due to the relative orientation of the Sun, Earth and Venus. The X-rays from Venus are produced by fluorescent radiation from oxygen and other atoms in the atmosphere between 120 and 140 kilometers above the surface of the planet. In contrast, the optical light from Venus is caused by the reflection from clouds 50 to 70 kilometers above the surface. Solar X-rays bombard the atmosphere of Venus, knock electrons out of the inner parts of atoms, and excite the atoms to a higher energy level. The atoms almost immediately return to their lower energy state with the emission of a fluorescent X-ray. A similar process involving ultraviolet light produces the visible light from fluorescent lamps."<ref name=Dennerl >{{ cite book |author=K. Dennerl |title=Venus: Venus in a New Light |publisher=Harvard University, NASA |location=Boston, Massachusetts, USA |date=November 29, 2001 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2001/venus/ |accessdate=2012-11-26 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Earth== [[Image:Atmospheric Water Vapor Mean.2005.030.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a graph of the global mean atmospheric water vapor superimposed on an outline of the Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date= 1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C Roelof |author7=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date= 2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Airglows== [[Image:Love and Joy for the New Year - NASA Earth Observatory.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this International Space Station image, you can see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the International Space Station image at right, you can "see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Airglow is the emission of light by atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere after they are excited by ultraviolet radiation. ... Astronaut photograph ISS030-E-015491 was acquired on December 22, 2011, with a Nikon digital camera, and is provided by the ISS Crew Earth Observations experiment and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, Johnson Space Center."<ref name=Burbank>{{ cite book |author=Dan Burbank |title=Love and Joy for the New Year |publisher=NASA's Earth Observatory |location=International Space Station |date=December 21, 2011 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/nasaearthobservatory/6620255181/ |accessdate=2012-07-22 }}</ref> '''Airglow''' (also called '''nightglow''') is the very weak [[w:emission spectrum|emission]] of [[w:light|light]] by a planetary [[w:atmosphere|atmosphere]]. In the case of [[w:atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], this [[w:optical phenomenon|optical phenomenon]] causes the [[w:night sky|night sky]] to never be completely dark (even after the effects of [[w:starlight|starlight]] and [[w:diffusion|diffused]] [[w:sunlight|sunlight]] from the far side are removed). Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the sun during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. {{clear}} ==Auroras== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras}} [[Image:Multicolor aurora.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This is a multicolor aurora. Credit: tommy-eliassen and leonafaye.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Colorful-aurora-borealis-in-finland.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This shows a multicolored aurora over Finland. Credit: S. D. Simonson.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ColorTypes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Discrete auroras (the bright visible forms} are classified by Color Types. Credit: rgk.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39).jpg|thumb|left|300px|This view of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "When the charged particles from the Sun penetrate Earth's magnetic shield, they are channelled downwards along the magnetic field lines until they strike atoms of gas high in the atmosphere. Like a giant fluorescent neon lamp, the interaction with excited oxygen atoms generates a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while excited nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=ESAGauna>{{ cite book |author=European Space Agency |title=Aurora over Icelandic Lake |publisher=ESA |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55767-aurora-over-icelandic-lake/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> "Pulsating auroras are so-called because their features shift and brighten in distinct patches, rather than elongated arcs across the sky like active auroras. However, their appearance isn't the only difference. Though all auroras are caused by energetic particles--typically electrons--speeding down into Earth's atmosphere and colliding brilliantly with the atoms and molecules in the air, the source of these electrons is different for pulsating auroras and active auroras."<ref name=Samara>{{ cite book |author=Marilia Samara |title=Unexpected role of electrons in creating pulsating auroras |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 October 2015 |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/151007185043.htm |accessdate=2015-12-01 }}</ref> The "density of neutral atoms within the atmosphere can change throughout the day because of heating by sunlight, the original understanding was that the heating—and the extra-dense layers of neutral particles—was driven horizontally. However, some satellites have hit speed bumps as they have orbited through Earth’s magnetic cusp—their acceleration briefly slowed, which indicates a small vertical slice of higher-density neutral atoms that are harder to travel through."<ref name=Frazier>{{ cite book |author=Sarah Frazier |title=NASA Plans Twin Sounding Rocket Launches over Norway this Winter |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=30 November 2015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/assp-sounding-rocket-launches-successfully-from-alaska |accessdate=2015-11-30 }}</ref> "Auroras are produced by solar storms that eject clouds of energetic charged particles. These particles are deflected when they encounter the Earth’s magnetic field, but in the process large electric voltages are created. Electrons trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field are accelerated by these voltages and spiral along the magnetic field into the polar regions. There they collide with atoms high in the atmosphere and emit X-rays".<ref name=Bhardwaj>{{ cite book |author=A. Bhardwaj |author2=R. Elsner |title=Earth Aurora: Chandra Looks Back At Earth |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |date=February 20, 2009 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/earth/ |accessdate=2013-05-10 }}</ref> "Auroras are known to be generated by beams of electrons which are accelerated along Earth's magnetic field lines. The fast-moving electrons collide with atoms in the ionosphere at altitudes of between 100 to 600 km. This interaction with oxygen atoms results in a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=Wright>{{ cite book |author=Andrew Wright |title=Heart of the Black Auroras Revealed by Cluster |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55764-heart-of-the-black-auroras-revealed-by-cluster/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> * "Type A aurora (green with red tops): # colors due to emission by atomic oxygen * Type D aurora (red): # red color due to emission by atomic oxygen (as in Type A) * Proton aurora: # additional red and blue from atomic hydrogen emission"<ref name=rgk>{{ cite book |author=rgk |title=AURORA (POLARIS) |publisher=University of New York at Albany |location=Albany, New York USA |date=July 2012 |url=http://www.albany.edu/faculty/rgk/atm101/aurora.htm |accessdate=2015-12-02 }}</ref> "This view [on the left] of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Calculated to be at altitudes ranging from 80 - 120 km (approx. 50-80 miles), the auroral light shown is due to the "excitation" of atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere by charged particles (electrons) streaming down from the magnetosphere above."<ref name=Gutro>{{ cite book |author=Rob Gutro |title=Earth's Auroras Don't Mirror |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=4 April 2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/dueling_auroras.html#.VljKkMbvu3U |accessdate=2015-11-27 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Moon== [[Image:Moon Chandra Optical.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra X-ray Observatory image at right of the bright portion of the Moon is from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms. Credit: Optical: Robert Gendler; X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/J.Drake ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected X-rays from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms on the Moon.<ref name=Burnham>{{ cite book |author=Robert Burnham |title=Moon Prospecting |publisher=Kalmbach Publishing Co. |location= |date=2004 |editor= |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:Martian Methane Map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mars xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On July 4, 2001, this Chandra X-ray Observatory image became the first look at X-rays from Mars. Credit: NASA/CXC/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The major atmospheric gases on Earth, Venus, and Mars were probably CO₂, H₂O, and N₂. [The ions from the upper parts of an atmosphere] are often suprathermal, and their interactions can produce suprathermal neutral atoms as well [The] ionopause [...] separates the bound ionosphere from an outer region in which the solar wind is diverted and flows around and past the planet. This region still contains some neutral gas, and if such atoms are ionized by solar photons or electron impact, they are swept up in the flow."<ref name=Hunten>{{ cite journal |author=Donald M. Hunten |title=Atmospheric Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Science |date=February 12, 1993 |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=915-20 |url=http://www.csun.edu/~hmc60533/CSUN_311/article_references/Sc_Feb93_AtmosEvolTerrestPlanets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-21 }}</ref> "There are strong reasons to believe that Mars once had much more atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O than it now has ... (Impacts, which may have eroded even larger amounts, operated at an earlier period.) ... The visible polar caps are thought to contain relatively small quantities. [...] More recently it has been proposed (35) that Mars may have had several episodes of high atmospheric pressure, warm conditions, and substantial precipitation of rain and snow, with a north polar ocean and southern glaciers."<ref name=Hunten/> Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere, first image at right, by carefully observing the planet throughout several Mars years with NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility and the W.M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. At right is an X-ray image of [[Keynote lectures/Mars|Mars]]. X-radiation from the Sun excites oxygen atoms in the Martian upper atmosphere, about 120 km above its surface, to emit X-ray fluorescence. A faint X-ray halo that extends out to 7,000 km above the surface of Mars has also been found.<ref name=Dennerl2002>{{ cite journal |author=K. Dennerl |title=Discovery of X-rays from Mars with Chandra |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=1119-28 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2002A&A...394.1119D |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021116 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Europa== {{main|Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa}} [[Image:Europa-moon-with-margins.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Europa's trailing hemisphere in false colour (violet, green, and infrared as red, green and blue channel). The prominent crater in the lower right is Pwyll and the darker regions are areas where Europa's primarily water ice surface has a higher mineral content. Credit: NASA/JPL/DLR.{{tlx|free media}}]] Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen (O₂).<ref name="Hall1995">Hall, Doyle T.; ''et al.''; [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v373/n6516/abs/373677a0.html ''Detection of an oxygen atmosphere on Jupiter's moon Europa''], Nature, Vol. 373 (23 February 1995), pp. 677–679 (accessed 15 April 2006)</ref><ref name="EuropaOxygenJPL">{{ cite book |author=Donald Savage |author2=Tammy Jones |author3=Ray Villard |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/europa/hst.html |title=Hubble Finds Oxygen Atmosphere on Europa, In: ''Project Galileo'' |accessdate=2007-08-17 |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |date=1995-02-23 }}</ref> The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1&nbsp;μPa, or 10⁻¹² times that of the Earth.<ref name="McGrathChapter">{{ cite book |author=McGrath |editor=Pappalardo, Robert T. |editor2=McKinnon, William B. |editor3=Khurana, Krishan K. |title=Europa |date=2009 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=0-8165-2844-6 |chapter=Atmosphere of Europa }}</ref> In 1997, the ''Galileo'' spacecraft confirmed the presence of a tenuous ionosphere (an upper-atmospheric layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation and energetic particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere,<ref name="Kliore1997">{{ cite journal |author=Arvydas J. Kliore |author2=D. P. Hinson |author3=F. Michael Flasar |author4=Andrew F. Nagy |author5=Thomas E. Cravens |year=1997 |month=July |title=The Ionosphere of Europa from Galileo Radio Occultations |journal=Science |volume=277 |issue=5324 |pages=355–8 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5324.355 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/5324/355 |accessdate=2007-08-10 |pmid=9219689 |bibcode =1997Sci...277..355K }}</ref><ref name="NASA1997">{{ cite book |date=July 1997 |title=Galileo Spacecraft Finds Europa has Atmosphere, In: ''Project Galileo'' |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/status970718.html |accessdate=2007-08-10 }}</ref> providing evidence of an atmosphere. The molecular hydrogen that escapes Europa's gravity, along with atomic and molecular oxygen, forms a torus (ring) of gas in the vicinity of Europa's orbit around Jupiter. This "neutral cloud" has been detected by both the ''Cassini'' and ''Galileo'' spacecraft, and has a greater content (number of atoms and molecules) than the neutral cloud surrounding Jupiter's inner moon Io. Models predict that almost every atom or molecule in Europa's torus is eventually ionized, thus providing a source to Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma.<ref name="Smyth2006">{{ cite journal |author=William H. Smyth, Max L. Marconi |year=2006 |title=Europa's atmosphere, gas tori, and magnetospheric implications |journal=Icarus |bibcode=2006Icar..181..510S |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.019 |volume=181 |issue=2 |pages=510 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Comets}} [[Image:C2007N3Lulin2panel brimacombe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Recent changes in Comet Lulin's greenish coma and tails are shown in these two panels taken on January 31st (top) and February 4th (bottom) 2009. In both views the comet has an apparent antitail to the left of the coma of dust. Credit: Joseph Brimacombe, Cairns, Australia.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a 3D model of the Rosetta Spacecraft. The individual scientific payloads are highlighted in different colours. Credit: [[w:User:IanShazell|IanShazell]].{{tlx|free media}}]] One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen.<ref name=NYCTimes>{{ cite book |title=Yerkes Observatory Finds Cyanogen in Spectrum of Halley's Comet |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E4DF1430E233A2575BC0A9649C946196D6CF |date=8 February 1910 |accessdate=15 November 2009 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> Cyan blue is the color of several cyanide (CN) containing materials, including CN detected in comet haloes. "Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C₂). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight".<ref name=Phillips>{{ cite book |author=James A. Phillips |title=Green Comet Approaches Earth |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Science News |location= |date= 2009 |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/04feb_greencomet/ |accessdate=2012-05-05 }}</ref> For elongated dust particles in cometary comas an investigation is performed at 535.0 nm (green) and 627.4 nm (red) peak transmission wavelengths of the [[w:Rosetta (spacecraft)|Rosetta spacecraft]]'s OSIRIS Wide Angle Camera broadband green and red filters, respectively.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini/> "[U]nequivocal detections [occurred at McDonald Observatory on 10 nights from 25 June through 17 July 2000] of the O (¹S) and O (¹D) metastable lines in emission in the cometary [Comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)] spectrum. These lines are well separated from any telluric or cometary emission features."<ref name=Cochran>{{ cite journal |author=Anita L. Cochran, William D. Cochran |title=Observations of O (¹S) and O (¹D) in Spectra of C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) |journal=Icarus |month=December |year=2001 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=381-90 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0108065v1.pdf |arxiv=astro-ph/0108065 |bibcode=2001Icar..154..381C |doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6718 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-16 }}</ref> "[T]he presence of the [oxygen] green line can still be questioned, unless the 2972 Å trans-auroral line [¹''S'' - ³''P''] is detected (Herbig, 1976)."<ref name=Festou>{{ cite journal |author=M. C. Festou |author2=P. D. Feldman |title=The Forbidden Oxygen Lines in Comets |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=1981 |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=154-9 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1981A&A...103..154F |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-21 }}</ref> "The transitions involved (allowed and forbidden) in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" are 557.7 nm, 630.0 and 636.4 nm, 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), 799.0 nm, 844.7 nm, and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.<ref name=Festou/> "When the green line is overwhelming (in faint comets like Encke), this emission is mainly due to the airglow, the red airglow emission being quenched and consequently weaker than the green."<ref name=Festou/> "The measured intensity on 10 January 1980, when the comet was 0.71 a.u. from the Sun and 0.615 a.u. from the Earth, is 30±15 Rayleighs.<ref name=Festou/> {{clear}} ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} [[Image:PIA16483 ip trimmed.png|thumb|center|400px|This artist's concept shows plasma flows around NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft as it approaches interstellar space. Credit: Jon Nelson.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in space "blown" into the [[interstellar medium]] (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[Milky Way|galaxy]]) by the solar wind. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== [[Image:Red Giant Plunging Through Space.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Credit: IR: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Ueta (U. of Denver); Artist Concept: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle (SSC/Caltech).{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. {{clear}} ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ===H I regions=== An '''H I region''' is an interstellar cloud composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date= 1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=November 1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=July 1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> "When detection of neutral hydrogen (HI) absorption of the pulsar signal is possible, an estimate, or at least a limit on the distance may be obtained using a Galactic rotation model".<ref name=Toscano>{{ cite journal |author=M. Toscano |author2=M. C. Britton |author3=R. N. Manchester |author4=M. Bailes |author5=J. S. Sandhu |author6=S. R. Kulkarni |author7=S. B. Anderson |title=Parallax of PSR J1744–1134 and the local interstellar medium |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 1, 1999 |volume=523 |issue=2 |pages=L171 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/523/2/L171 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/312276 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-19 }}</ref> "There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the [local insterstellar medium] LISM. This cavity surrounds the Sun and extends several hundred parsecs into quadrant 3 (Lucke 1978). The cavity appears as a region of low reddening extending 500 pc between ℓ = 210° and 255° and 1.5 kpc toward ℓ = 240°. Running counter to this is very heavy obscuration beyond ~100 pc in the first quadrant. Similarly, HI column densities derived from ultraviolet observations show a marked paucity in HI along LOSs directed towards ℓ = 230° (Frisch & York 1983; Paresce 1984). A similar morphology for this cavity is gleaned from NaI absorption measurements".<ref name=Toscano/> "To further characterize the distribution of electrons in the LISM it is useful to relate their location to other interstellar features, such as bubbles, superbubbles, and clouds of neutral gas. There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the LISM. [...] There are several features of interest within this cavity. One of these is the local hot bubble (LHB): a volume encompassing the Sun distinguished by low neutral gas densities and a 10⁶ K, soft X-ray emitting gas"<ref name=Toscano/> The "neutral hydrogen column density [has] a level of ''N''(HI)= 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻²"<ref name=Toscano/> "Distance estimates now exist for a few hundreds of pulsars, resulting from three basic techniques: neutral hydrogen absorption (in combination with the Galactic rotation curve), trigonometric parallax and from associations with objects of known distance".<ref name=Stepanov>{{ cite journal |author=R. Stepanov |author2=P. Frick |author3=A. Shukurov |author4=D. Sokoloff |title=Wavelet tomography of the Galactic magnetic field I. The method |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=August 2002 |volume=391 |issue=08 |pages=361-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...391..361S |arxiv=astro-ph/0112507 |bibcode=2002A&A...391..361S |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020552 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> ===Cold neutral mediums=== [[Image:Reflection nebula IC 349 near Merope.jpg|thumb|right|250px|IC 349 may be an example of a cold neutral medium (CNM). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] IC 349 may be an example of a cold, dense, very small-scale condensation of the [[interstellar medium]].<ref name="Heiles1997">{{cite journal | last = Heiles | first = Carl | date = May 1997 | title = Tiny-Scale Atomic Structure and the Cold Neutral Medium | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 481 | issue = 1 | pages = 193–204 | doi = 10.1086/304033 | bibcode = 1997ApJ...481..193H }}</ref><ref name="Herbig1996">{{cite journal | last = Herbig | first = George | date = March 1996 | title = IC 349: Barnard's Merope Nebula | journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 111 | issue = 3 | pages = 1241–1251 | doi = 10.1086/117869 | bibcode = 1996AJ....111.1241H }}</ref> H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. {{clear}} ===Warm neutral mediums=== The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The "peak emissivity is enhanced by about 23% for the WIM [and only 11 % for the warm neutral medium (WNM)], although the peak frequency remains unchanged."<ref name=Ali>{{ cite journal |author=Yacine Ali-Haïmoud |title=Spinning dust radiation: a review of the theory |journal=Advances in Astronomy |date= 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=462697 |pages= |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1211.2748v1.pdf |arxiv=1211.2748 |bibcode=2013AdAst2013E...2A |doi=10.1155/2013/462697 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> ===Warm ionized mediums=== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ===Hot ionized mediums=== "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10⁶-10⁷ K which emits X-rays. The ISM is turbulent and full of structure on all spatial scales. Stars are born deep inside large complexes of molecular clouds, typically a few parsecs in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. Stellar winds from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant HII regions surrounding them) and shock waves created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are stellar wind bubbles and superbubbles of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, a denser region in the low-density Local Bubble."<ref name=Marshallsumter1/> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ==Molecular clouds== [[Image:Barnard 68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a colour composite of visible and near-infrared images of the dark cloud Barnard 68. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] G0.253+0.016 was probed "with another network of telescopes, the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy [CARMA] in California."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff>{{ cite book |author=SPACE.com Staff |title=Baffling Star Birth Mystery Finally Solved |publisher=Yahoo! Inc. |location= |date=January 14, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/baffling-star-birth-mystery-finally-solved-194046433.html |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> "G0.253+0.016, which is about 30 light-years long, defies the conventional wisdom that dense gas glouds should produce lots of stars. ... The cloud is 25 times more dense than the famous Orion Nebula, which is birthing stars at a furious rate. But only a few stars are being born in G0.253+0.016, and they're pretty much all runts."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> "It's a very dense cloud and it doesn't form any massive stars, which is very weird"<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/>. "CARMA data showed that gas within G0.253+0.016 is zipping around 10 times faster than gas in similar clouds. G0.253+0.016 is on the verge of flying apart, with its gas churning too violently to coalesce into stars. Further, the ... cloud is full of silicon monoxide, a compound typically produced when fast-moving gas smashes into dust particles. The abnormally large amounts of silicon monoxide suggest that G0.253+0.016 may actually consist of two colliding clouds, whose impact is generating powerful shockwaves."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> When surveyed at 1.1 mm as part of the Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey, "[t]he only currently known starless [massive proto-cluster] MPC is G0.253+0.016, which lies within the dense central molecular zone and is subject to greater environmental stresses than similar objects in the Galactic plane (Longmore et al. 2012)."<ref name=Ginsburg>{{ cite journal |author=A. Ginsburg |author2=E. Bressert |author3=J. Bally |author4=C. Battersby |title=There are No Starless Massive Proto-Clusters in the First Quadrant of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=October 20, |year=2012 |volume=758 |issue=2 |pages=L29-33 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.4097.pdf |arxiv=1208.4097 |bibcode=2012ApJ...758L..29G |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/758/2/L29 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> '''Def.''' a "large and relatively dense cloud of cold gas and dust in interstellar space from which new stars are formed"<ref name=MolecularCloudWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=molecular cloud |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molecular_cloud |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> is called a '''molecular cloud'''. The image on the right is a composite of visible (B 440 nm and V 557 nm) and near-infrared (768 nm) of the dark cloud (absorption cloud) Barnard 68.<ref name=ESO0102/> Barnard 68 is around 500 lyrs away in the constellation Ophiuchus.<ref name=ESO0102/> "At these wavelengths, the small cloud is completely opaque because of the obscuring effect of dust particles in its interior."<ref name=ESO0102>{{ cite book |author=eso0102 |title=How to Become a Star |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location= |date=10 January 2001 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0102a/ |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> "It was obtained with the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope and the multimode FORS1 instrument in March 1999."<ref name=ESO0102/> In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Wolf-Rayet stars== {{main|Stars/Wolf-Rayets}} [[Image:A cosmic couple.jpg|right|thumb|250px|WR 124 is surrounded by the nebula M1-67. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA and Judy Schmidt.{{tlx|free media}}]] "At the low density given by the spherically symmetric wind model (see Table 1), the dominant species in the gas are atomic ions while as the gas number density increases, the recombination of ions takes place and the gas composition is governed by neutral-phase chemistry, that is, the dominant species are neutral atoms and molecules although electrons and some ions are still present in relatively large amounts (for example, C⁺, O⁺ and He⁺)."<ref name= Cherchneff >{{ cite journal |author=I. Cherchneff |author2=Y.H. Le Teuff |author3=P.M. Williams |author4=A.G.G.M. Tielens |title=Dust formation in carbon-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. I. Chemistry of small carbon clusters and silicon species |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=May 2000 |volume=357 |issue=5 |pages=572-80 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2000A%26A...357..572C&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=2000A&A...357..572C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-05 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Intergalactic medium== {{main|Sources/Intergalactic medium}} [[Image:Stephan's Quintet with annotation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This composite image shows Stephan's Quintet and the IGM around the galaxies. Credit: Martin Harwit, George Helou, Lee Armus, C. Matt Bradford, Paul F. Goldsmith, Michael Hauser, David Leisawitz, Daniel F. Lester, George Rieke, and Stephen A. Rinehart/NASA GSFC.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Stephan's Quintet (SQ) is a system consisting of at least four interacting galaxies which is well known for its complex dynamical and star formation history. It possesses a rich intergalactic medium (IGM), where hydrogen clouds, both atomic and molecular, associated with two starbursts (refered to as SQ A and B) have been found."<ref name=Lisenfeld>{{ cite journal |author=Ute Lisenfeld |author2=Jonathan Braine |author3=Pierre-Alain Duc |author4=Stéphane Leon |author5=Vassilis Charmandaris |author6=Elias Brinks |title=Abundant molecular gas in the intergalactic medium of Stephan's Quintet |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=823-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...394..823L |arxiv=astro-ph/0208494 |bibcode=2002A&A...394..823L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021232 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-11 }}</ref> The composite image at right shows "Stephan’s Quintet [with] a diffuse arc of atomic hydrogen emission, indicated in green, roughly coincident with a shock front observed in the X-ray domain. Spitzer observations reveal powerful H₂ emission originating from the center of this 10³ km s^-1 shock."<ref name=Harwit>{{ cite journal |author=Martin Harwit |author2=George Helou |author3=Lee Armus |author4=C. Matt Bradford |author5=Paul F. Goldsmith |author6=Michael Hauser |author7=David Leisawitz |author8=Daniel F. Lester |author9=George Rieke |author10=Stephen A. Rinehart |title=Far-Infrared/Submillimeter Astronomy from Space Tracking an Evolving Universe and the Emergence of Life |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |month= |year=2010 |pages=39 |url=http://astrophysics.gsfc.nasa.gov/cosmology/spirit/FIR-SIM_Crosscutting_White_Paper.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-10 }}</ref> "One of [SQs] most striking properties is that the major part of the gas is in the intragroup medium, most likely the result of interactions in the past and present. [...] a few times 10⁸ yr ago the group experienced a collision with NGC 7320c, a galaxy ∼4 arcmin to the east of NGC 7319 but with a very similar recession velocity (6583 kms⁻¹ [...] to the other galaxies in SQ. This collision removed most of the gas of NGC 7319 towards the west and east, and produced the eastern tidal tail which connects to NGC 7319. Presently, the group is experiencing another collision with the “intruder” galaxy NGC 7318b which strongly affects the interstellar medium (ISM) removed during the first collision."<ref name=Lisenfeld/> {{clear}} ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} [[Image:Saturation free doppler spectroscopy.png|thumb|right|300px|The relative absorption of an infrared laser. In the red line's profile you can see the hyperfine-structure of the first excited level of rubidium. Credit: Clemens Adolphs.{{tlx|free media}}]] By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and temperatures of stars and interstellar clouds. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. Interstellar formaldehyde was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. {{clear}} ==Technology== [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).{{tlx|free media}}]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> “The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: water (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic carbon monoxide (¹³CO), molecular oxygen (O₂), and neutral carbon (C I).”<ref name=Submillimetreastronomy>{{ cite book |title=Submillimetre astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=June 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy |accessdate=2012-06-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Chemistry|Astrochemistry]] * [[Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras|Auroras]] * [[Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa]] * [[Sources/Intergalactic medium|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Sources/Interstellar medium|Interstellar medium]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutral astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Atomic radiation astronomy}} <!-- footer categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] 7od5qbgh7qi2xlphncx688l8y1oz3as 2417124 2417119 2022-08-21T23:09:05Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Hot ionized mediums */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Atomics are usually neutral atoms and molecules of a few atoms. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the Lunar Prospector using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn loose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name=Williams/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name=Williams/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name=Williams>{{ cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Theoretical atomic radiation astronomy== [[Image:Rutherford gold foil experiment results.svg|thumb|right|250px|The '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms. In the '''bottom''' image are deflections. Credit: [[c:User:Fastfission|Fastfission]].{{tlx|free media}}]] For the determination of the elemental composition of liquid proteins microPIXE can quantify the metal content of protein molecules with a relative accuracy of between 10% and 20%.<ref name=Garman>{{ cite journal |pmid=15910917 |year=2005 |author=EF Garman, GW Grime |title=Elemental analysis of proteins by microPIXE |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=173–205 |url=www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610704001257 |doi=10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.09.005 |journal=Progress in biophysics and molecular biology }}</ref> In part by the X-ray emission from sulfur and the phosphate groups but excessive amounts of chlorine overlap with the sulfur peak; whereas KBr and NaBr do not. In the image at right, the '''top''' image is the plum pudding model of atoms undisturbed by penetrating protons. In the '''bottom''' image, some of the protons are deflected. {{clear}} ==Entities== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities}} [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: Sheldon.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Deuterated isotopomers of methanol have been detected both in hot cores and in the protostellar source IRAS 16293-2422. [...] In studying the post-evaporative gas-phase chemistry of these isotopomers, it is important to know if pairs of isotopomers with D atoms in different places (eg CH₃OD and CH₂DOH) can be interconverted or whether they can be viewed as separate entities with depletion mechanisms that are independent of each other. Here we show that it is difficult to exchange protons and deuterons on the two different parts of the methanol backbone."<ref name=Osamura>{{ cite journal |author=Y. Osamura |author2=H. Roberts |author3=E. Herbst |title=On the possible interconversion between pairs of deuterated isotopomers of methanol, its ion, and its protonated ion in star-forming regions |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2004 |volume=421 |issue=3 |pages=1101-11 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15915319 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-23 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Emissions== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions}} [[Image:Hydrogen spectrum.svg|thumb|right|250px|The spectral series of hydrogen is displayed on a [[w:logarithm|logarithm]]ic scale. Credit: [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Hydrogen transitions.svg|thumb|right|250px|Electron transitions and their resulting wavelengths for hydrogen. Energy levels are not to scale. Credit: [[c:user:User:Szdori|User:Szdori]] and [[c:user:OrangeDog|OrangeDog]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of '''spectral series''', with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to electrons moving between energy levels in the atom. The spectral series are important in astronomy for detecting the presence of hydrogen and calculating red shifts. ... [T]he spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the electron between energy levels. The simplest model of the hydrogen atom is given by the Bohr model. When an electron jumps from a higher energy to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is emitted."<ref name=Hydrogenspectral>{{ cite book |title=Hydrogen spectral series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=May 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series |accessdate=2012-05-14 }}</ref> The spectral lines are grouped into series according to ''n'''. Lines are named sequentially starting from the longest wavelength/lowest frequency of the series, using Greek letters within each series. For example, the {{nowrap|2 &rarr; 1}} line is called "Lyman-alpha" (Ly-α), while the {{nowrap|7 &rarr; 3}} line is called "Paschen-delta" (Pa-δ). Some hydrogen spectral lines fall outside these series, such as the [[w:Hydrogen line|21 cm line]]; these correspond to much rarer atomic events such as [[w:hyperfine structure|hyperfine]] transitions.<ref name=Hyperphysics>{{ cite book |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/h21.html |title=The Hydrogen 21-cm Line, In: ''Hyperphysics'' |accessdate=2009-03-18 |publisher=Georgia State University |date=2004-10-30 }}</ref> The [[w:fine structure|fine structure]] also results in single spectral lines appearing as two or more closely grouped thinner lines, due to relativistic corrections.<ref name=Liboff>{{ cite book |author=Richard L. Liboff |title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics |publisher=Addison-Wesley |date=2002 |isbn=0-8053-8714-5 }}</ref> The energy differences between levels in the Bohr model, and hence the wavelengths of emitted/absorbed photons, is given by the Rydberg formula<ref name=Bohr>{{ citation |author=Niels Bohr |chapter=Rydberg's discovery of the spectral laws |editor=J. Kalckar |title=N. Bohr: Collected Works |publisher=North-Holland Publ. |location=Amsterdam |year=1985 |volume=10 |pages=373–9 }}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R \left( {1 \over (n^\prime)^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R = 1.097373 \times 10^7 \ \mathrm{m}^{-1} \right)</math> where ''n'' is the initial energy level, ''n&prime;'' is the final energy level, and ''R'' is the [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]]. Meaningful values are returned only when ''n'' is greater than ''n&prime;'' and the limit of one over infinity is taken to be zero. "The familiar red [[w:H-alpha|H-alpha]] [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of [[w:emission nebula|emission]] or ionization nebula, like the [[w:Orion Nebula|Orion Nebula]], which are often [[w:H II region|H II region]]s found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen-alpha filter is an [[w:optical filter|optical filter]] designed to transmit a narrow [[w:Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] of light generally centered on the H-alpha wavelength. They are characterized by a bandpass width that measures the width of the wavelength band that is transmitted.<ref name=Tom>{{ cite book | url = http://www.astro-tom.com/technical_data/filters.htm | title = Filters | publisher = Astro-Tom.com | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> These filters are manufactured by multiple (~50) layers of [[w:Vacuum deposition|vacuum-deposited]] layers. These layers are selected to produce [[w:interference (wave propagation)|interference]] effects that filter out any wavelengths except at the requisite band.<ref name=Murphy>{{ cite book | author = D. B. Murphy |author2=K. R. Spring |author3=M. J. Parry-Hill |author4=I. D. Johnson |author5=M. W. Davidson | url = http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/java/filters/interference/index.html | title = Interference Filters | publisher = Olympus | accessdate = 2006-12-09 }}</ref> Alternatively, an [[w:etalon|etalon]] may be used as the narrow band filter (in conjunction with a "blocking filter" or energy rejection filter) to pass only a narrow (<0.1&nbsp;[[w:nanometer|nm]]) range of wavelengths of light centred around the H-alpha emission line. The physics of the etalon and the dichroic interference filters are essentially the same (relying on constructive/destructive interference of light reflecting between surfaces), but the implementation is different (an interference filter relies on the interference of internal reflections). Due to the high velocities sometimes associated with features visible in H-alpha light (such as fast moving prominences and ejections), solar H-alpha etalons can often be tuned (by tilting or changing the temperature) to cope with the associated [[w:Doppler effect|Doppler effect]]."<ref name=Halpha>{{ cite book |title=H-alpha |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=December 30, 2011 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-alpha |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> The [[w:Balmer series|Balmer series]] of emission lines from hydrogen occur in the visible spectrum of the Sun at: 397, 410, 434, 486, and 656 nm. Hydrogen has two emission lines that occur in an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) heated plasmas at 397.007 nm of the Balmer series (H_ε) and 434.05 nm H_γ.<ref name=McCarthy>{{ cite book |author=K. J. McCarthy |author2=A. Baciero |author3=B. Zurro |author4=TJ-II Team |title=Impurity Behaviour Studies in the TJ-II Stellarator, In: ''27th EPS Conference on Contr. Fusion and Plasma Phys.'' |publisher=ECA |location=Budapest |volume=24B |date=12 June 2000 |editor= |pages=1244-7 |url=http://crpppc42.epfl.ch/Buda/pdf/p3_116.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-01-20 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "ionizing radiation that is naturally present in the environment"<ref name=BackgroundRadiationWikt>{{ cite book |title=background radiation |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=October 6, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/background_radiation |accessdate=2014-04-10 }}</ref> is called '''background radiation'''. '''Background radiation''' is the ubiquitous ionizing radiation that the general population is exposed to, including natural and artificial sources. Both natural and artificial background radiation varies by location. The worldwide average natural [effective radiation] dose to humans is about 2.4 millisievert (mSv) per year.<ref name="UNSCEAR2008">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Sources and effects of ionizing radiation |date=2008 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142274-0 |url=http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2008_1.html |accessdate=9 November 2012 |page=4 }}</ref> The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne radon, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its isotopes, parent radionuclides, and decay products all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26&nbsp;mSv/a. Radon is unevenly distributed and variable with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a significant health hazard. Concentrations over 500 times higher than the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic.<ref name="UNSCEAR2006E">{{ cite book |author=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces, In: ''Effects of Ionizing Radiation'' |date=2006 |publisher=United Nations |location=New York |isbn=978-92-1-142263-4 |volume=II |url=http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2006/09-81160_Report_Annex_E_2006_Web.pdf |accessdate=2 December 2012 }}</ref> '''Terrestrial radiation''' usually only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major radionuclides of concern are potassium, uranium and thorium and their decay products, some of which, like radium and radon are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. An average human contains about 30 milligrams of potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) and about 10 nanograms (10⁻⁸&nbsp;g) of carbon-14 (¹⁴C), which has a decay half-life of 5,730 years. Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, the largest component of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body is from potassium-40. The decay of about 4,000 nuclei of ⁴⁰K per second<ref name=Diroff>{{ cite book |author=S. C. Diroff |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~scdiroff/lds/QuantumRelativity/RadioactiveHumanBody/RadioactiveHumanBody.html |title=Radioactive human body&nbsp;— Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations |date=April 2011 }}</ref> makes potassium the largest source of radiation in terms of number of decaying atoms. The energy of beta particles produced by ⁴⁰K is also about 10 times more powerful than the beta particles from ¹⁴C decay. ¹⁴C is present in the human body at a level of 3700 Bq with a [[w:biological half-life|biological half-life]] of 40 days.<ref>http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/carbon14.pdf</ref> There are about 1,200 beta particles per second produced by the decay of ¹⁴C. However, a ¹⁴C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA. The decay of a ¹⁴C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.<ref name=Asimov>{{ cite book |author=Isaac Asimov |title=The Explosions Within Us, In: ''Only A Trillion'' |date=1957 |edition=Revised and updated |publisher=ACE books |location=New York |pages=37–9 |chapter= |isbn=1-157-09468-6 }}</ref> The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29&nbsp;mSv/a, of which 0.17&nbsp;mSv/a comes from ⁴⁰K, 0.12&nbsp;mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12&nbsp;μSv/a comes from ¹⁴C.<ref name=UNSCEAR2008 /> '''Background radiation''' may simply be any radiation that is pervasive, whether ionizing or not. A particular example of this is the cosmic microwave background radiation, a nearly uniform glow that fills the sky in the microwave part of the spectrum; stars, galaxies and other objects of interest in [[Radiation astronomy/Radios|radio astronomy]] stand out against this background. In a laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any sources that affect an instrument when a radiation source sample is not being measured. This background rate, which must be established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured. {{clear}} ==Cosmic rays== {{main|Radiation/Cosmic rays}} [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei or alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. In cosmic-ray astronomy, cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Neutrals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrals}} [[Image:IBEX spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an artist's rendering of the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Neutrals astronomy''' is the astronomy of observing neutral atoms or molecules, their sources and apparent entities or objects of origin. {{clear}} ==Subatomics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomic astronomy}} [[Image:Hydrogen atom.svg|thumb|right|250px|An idealized image of protium shows the relative sizes of the proton and the atom. Credit: [[c:User:Bensaccount|Bensaccount]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' the "lightest and most common isotope of hydrogen, having a single proton and no neutrons- {{chem|1|1|H}}"<ref name=ProtiumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=protium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=12 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/protium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''protium'''. '''Def.''' an "isotope of hydrogen formed of one proton and one neutron in each atom - {{chem|2|1|H}}"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt>{{ cite book |title=deuterium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deuterium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''deuterium'''. "''Heavy water is “heavy” because it contains '''deuterium'''.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> "''There were about 80 '''deuteriums''' for every million protiums, and virtually no tritium.''"<ref name=DeuteriumWikt/> '''Def.''' a "radioactive isotope of the element hydrogen, (symbol T or {{chem|3|1|H}}), having one proton and two neutrons"<ref name=TritiumWikt>{{ cite book |title=tritium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 July 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tritium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''tritium'''. '''Def.''' a "highly unstable, synthetic isotope of the element hydrogen, {{chem|4|1|H}}, having one proton and three neutrons"<ref name=QuadriumWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=quadrium |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=2 June 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quadrium |accessdate=2015-07-20 }}</ref> is called '''quadrium'''. {{chem|1|1|H}}(p,β⁺ν){{chem|2|1|H}} :<math>\mathrm{_1^1H} + \mathrm{_1^1H} \rightarrow \mathrm{_{1}^{2}D} + e^+ + \nu_e + \gamma (0.42 MeV). </math> At 10-million-kelvin, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:<ref name=Wallerstein>{{ cite journal | author=G. Wallerstein |author2=I. Iben Jr. |author3=P. Parker |author4=A. M. Boesgaard |author5=G. M. Hale |author6=A. E. Champagne |author7=C. A. Barnes |author8=F. KM-dppeler |author9=V. V. Smith |author10=R. D. Hoffman |author11=F. X. Timmes |author12=C. Sneden |author13=R. N. Boyd |author14=B. S. Meyer |author15=D. L. Lambert | title=Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=1999 | volume=69 | issue=4 | pages=995–1084 | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/10255/1/WALrmp97.pdf | accessdate=2006-08-04 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995 | bibcode=1997RvMP...69..995W }}</ref> :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → 2{{chem|2|1|H}} + 2e⁺ + 2ν_e (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV) :2{{chem|1|1|H}} + 2{{chem|2|1|H}} → 2{{chem|3|2|He}} + 2γ (5.5 MeV) :2{{chem|3|2|He}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2{{chem|1|1|H}} (12.9 MeV) These reactions result in the overall reaction: :4{{chem|1|1|H}} → {{chem|4|2|He}} + 2e⁺ + 2γ + 2ν_e (26.7 MeV) where e⁺ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, ν_e is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny amount of energy. "The light elements deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron pose a special problem for any theory of the origin of the elements which proposes that all the elements are built up from hydrogen in the stars. ... The difficulty arises because the lifetimes of these elements against proton capture, at the temperatures and pressures at which most stellar matter exists, are short compared to the stable lifetimes of stars. These elements then cannot be produced in stellar interiors unless they are transported rapidly to the surface, and if they are produced at the surface, non-equilibrium processes must be involved. Further, they can exist in significant quantities at the surface only in the absence of rapid mixing to the interior."<ref name=Bonsack>{{ cite journal |author=Walter K. Bonsack |title=The Abundance of Lithium and Convective Mixing in Stars of Type K |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=November |year=1959 |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=843-71 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1959ApJ...130..843B |doi=10.1086/146777 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-03-24 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:Distribution of GCR particles.png|right|thumb|300px|The distribution of galactic cosmic-ray (GCR) particles is shown in atomic number (charge) and energy. Credit: W. Schimmerling, J. W. Wilson, F. Cucinotta, and M-H Y. Kim.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The positrons can annihilate in flight before being slowed to thermal energies, annihilate directly with electrons when both are at thermal energies, or form positronium at thermal energies (or at greater than thermal energies if positronium formation occurs via charge exchange with neutrals)."<ref name=Leising/> "Positrons entering a gaseous medium at [0.6 to 4.5 MeV] are quickly slowed by ionizing collisions with neutral atoms and by long-range Coulomb interactions with any ionized component."<ref name=Leising>{{ cite journal |author=M. D. Leising |author2=D. D. Clayton |title=Positron annihilation gamma rays from novae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=December 1, 1987 |volume=323 |issue=1 |pages=159-69 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987ApJ...323..159L |arxiv= |bibcode=1987ApJ...323..159L |doi=10.1086/165816 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Gammaspektrum Uranerz.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This gamma-ray spectrum contains the typical isotopes of the uranium-radium decay line. Credit: [[c:User:Wusel007|Wusel007]].{{tlx|free media}}]] In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], "when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV" [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background.<ref name=GammaRay>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Sbharris|Sbharris]] |title=Gamma ray |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 May 2011 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> "'''Nuclear reaction analysis''' (NRA) is a nuclear method in materials science to obtain concentration vs. depth distributions for certain target chemical elements in a solid thin film."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "If irradiated with select projectile nuclei [or protons] at kinetic energies ''E''_kin these target elements can undergo a nuclear reaction under resonance conditions for a sharply defined resonance energy. The reaction product is usually a nucleus in an excited state which immediately decays, emitting ionizing radiation such as protons or gamma rays."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "To obtain depth information the initial kinetic energy of the projectile nucleus (which has to exceed the resonance energy) and its stopping power (energy loss per distance traveled) in the sample has to be known. To contribute to the nuclear reaction the projectile nuclei have to slow down in the sample to reach the resonance energy. Thus each initial kinetic energy corresponds to a depth in the sample where the reaction occurs (the higher the energy, the deeper the reaction)."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "A commonly used reaction is :¹⁵[[w:Nitrogen|N]] + ¹[[w:Hydrogen|H]] &rarr; ¹²[[w:Carbon|C]] + [[w:alpha particle|&alpha;]] + [[w:gamma ray|&gamma;]] (4.965MeV) with a resonance at 6.385 MeV."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "The energetic emitted γ ray is characteristic of the reaction and the number that are detected at any incident energy is proportional to the concentration at the respective depth of [nitrogen] in the sample. The N concentration profile is then obtained by scanning the proton incident or transmitted beam energy."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis/> "NRA can also be used non-resonantly. For example, deuterium can easily be profiled with a ³He beam [or ³He with a deuterium beam] without changing the incident energy by using the :³He + D = &alpha; + p⁺ + 18.353 MeV reaction. The energy of the fast proton detected depends on the depth of the deuterium [or ³He] atom in the sample."<ref name=NuclearReactionAnalysis>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Dschwen|Dschwen]] and [[w:User:CJeynes|CJeynes]] |title=Nuclear reaction analysis |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=27 July 2005 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reaction_analysis |accessdate=6 July 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Comet Lulin Jan. 28-2009 Swift gamma.jpg|thumb|250px|Comet Lulin was passing through the constellation Libra when Swift imaged it on January 28, 2009. Credit: NASA/Swift/Univ. of Leicester/''Bodewits et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] NASA's Swift Gamma-ray Explorer satellite was monitoring Comet Lulin as it closed to 63 Gm of Earth. For the first time, astronomers can see simultaneous UV and X-ray images of a comet. The solar wind—a fast-moving stream of particles from the sun—interacts with the comet's broader cloud of atoms which causes the solar wind to light up with X-rays, and that's what Swift's XRT sees.<ref name=Immler>{{ cite book |author=Stefan Immler |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> This interaction, called charge exchange, results in X-rays from most comets when they pass within about three times Earth's distance from the Sun; because Lulin is so active, its atomic cloud is especially dense. As a result, the X-ray-emitting region extends far sunward of the comet.<ref name=Reddy>{{ cite book |author=F. Reddy |title=NASA's Swift Spies Comet Lulin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/lulin.html }}</ref> "In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name=Smith>{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> X-rays remove electrons from atoms and ions, and those photoelectrons can provoke secondary ionizations. As the intensity is often low, this [X-ray] heating is only efficient in warm, less dense atomic medium (as the column density is small). For example in molecular clouds only hard x-rays can penetrate and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} [[Image:Saturn's A Ring From the Inside Out.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of Saturn's A Ring, taken by the Cassini Orbiter using an Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph. Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Colorado.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he '''Lyman series''' is the series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the hydrogen atom as an electron goes from ''n'' ≥ 2 to ''n'' = 1 (where ''n'' is the [[w:principal quantum number|principal quantum number]] referring to the energy level of the electron)."<ref name=Lymanseries>{{ cite book |title=Lyman series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 19, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman_series |accessdate=2012-06-26 }}</ref> "The version of the [[w:Rydberg formula|Rydberg formula]] that generated the Lyman series was<ref name="Brehm-Mullin p156">John Brehm and William Mullin, Introduction to the Structure of Matter, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989, p. 156 {{ISBN|0-471-60531-X}}</ref>: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) \qquad \left( R_H = 1.0968 \times 10^7 \mbox{m}^{-1} = {13.6eV \over hc} \right)</math> Where ''n'' is a natural number greater than or equal to 2 (i.e. ''n'' = 2,3,4,...). Therefore, the lines seen in the image above are the wavelengths corresponding to <math>n=2\,</math> on the right, to <math>n= \infty </math> on the left (there are infinitely many spectral lines, but they become very dense as they approach to <math>n= \infty </math> ([[w:Lyman limit|Lyman limit]]), so only some of the first lines and the last one appear). The wavelengths (nm) in the Lyman series are all ultraviolet:"<ref name=Lymanseries/> {| class="wikitable" ! <math>n</math> |align="center"|2 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|4 |align="center"|5 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|8 |align="center"|9 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|11 |align="center"|<math>\infty</math> |- ! Wavelength (nm) |121.6 |102.6 |97.3 |95.0 |93.8 |93.1 |92.6 |92.3 |92.1 |91.9 |91.18 (Lyman limit) |} "In 1913, when [[w:Niels Bohr|Niels Bohr]] produced his [[w:Bohr model|Bohr model]] theory, the reason why hydrogen spectral lines fit Rydberg's formula was explained. Bohr found that the electron bound to the hydrogen atom must have quantized energy levels described by the following formula: :<math> E_n = - {{m e^4} \over {2 \left( 4 \pi \varepsilon_0 \hbar \right)^2}} {1 \over n^2} = - {13.6 \over n^2} [\mbox{eV}]. </math> According to Bohr's third assumption, whenever an electron falls from an initial energy level(<math> E_i </math>) to a final energy level(<math> E_f </math>), the atom must emit radiation with a wavelength of: :<math> \lambda = {{h c} \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> There is also a more comfortable notation when dealing with energy in units of [[w:electronvolt|electronvolt]]s and wavelengths in units of [[w:angstrom|angstrom]]s: :<math> \lambda = {12430 \over {E_i - E_f}}. </math> Replacing the energy in the above formula with the expression for the energy in the hydrogen atom where the initial energy corresponds to energy level ''n'' and the final energy corresponds to energy level ''m'': :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = {{E i-E f} \over 12430} = \left( {12430 \over 13.6} \right)^{-1} \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) = R \left({1 \over m^2} - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> where ''R_H'' is the same [[w:Rydberg constant|Rydberg constant]] for hydrogen of Rydberg's long known formula. For the connection between Bohr, Rydberg, and Lyman, one must replace ''m'' by 1 to obtain: :<math> {1 \over \lambda} = R_H \left( 1 - {1 \over n^2} \right) </math> which is Rydberg's formula for the Lyman series. Therefore, each wavelength of the emission lines corresponds to an electron dropping from a certain energy level (greater than 1) to the first energy level."<ref name=Lymanseries/> {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:Neon spectra.jpg|thumb|center|500px|This image shows the emission lines for atomic neon. Absorption lines occur at the same locations by subtraction of light from the continuum. Credit: [[w:Teravolt|Teravolt]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The light blue background is the dayglow emission (less than 1 kR) caused by the interaction between the photoelectrons generated by solar UV radiation and atmospheric molecules and atoms."<ref name=Meng>{{ cite journal |author=C.-I. MengR. E. Huffman |title=Ultraviolet imaging from space of the aurora under full sunlight |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |month=April |year=1984 |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=315-8 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/GL011i004p00315/full |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/GL011i004p00315 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> This background occurs when imaging an Earth aurora from space using [[ultraviolet astronomy]] at the VUV wavelengths (135.6 ± 1.5 nm and 149.3 ± 1.5 nm). {{clear}} ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}} [[Image:Snake Nebula SMA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Images from the Smithsonian's Submillimeter Array (SMA) telescope provide the most detailed view yet of stellar nurseries within the Snake nebula. Credit: Jean-Charles Cuillandre (CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight, CFHT; Spitzer/GLIMPSE/MIPS, Herschel/HiGal, Ke Wang (ESO).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "[T]he detection of absorption by interstellar hydrogen fluoride (HF) [in the submillimeter band occurs] along the sight line to the submillimeter continuum sources W49N and W51."<ref name=Sonnentrucker>{{ cite journal |author=P. Sonnentrucker |author2=D. A. Neufeld |author3=T. G. Phillips |author4=M. Gerin |author5=D. C. Lis |author6=M. De Luca |author7=J. R. Goicoechea |author8=J. H. Black |author9=T. A. Bell |author10=F. Boulanger |author11=J. Cernicharo |author12=A. Coutens |author13=E. Dartois |author14=M . Kaźmierczak |author15=P. Encrenaz |author16=E. Falgarone |author17=T. R. Geballe |author18=T. Giesen |author19=B. Godard |author20=P. F. Goldsmith |author21=C. Gry |author22=H. Gupta |author23=P. Hennebelle |author24=E. Herbst |author25=P. Hily-Blant |author26=C. Joblin |author27=R. Kołos |author28=J. Krełowski |author29=J. Martín-Pintado |author30=K. M. Menten |author31=R. Monje |author32=B. Mookerjea |author33=J. Pearson |author34=M. Perault |author35=C. M. Persson |author36=R. Plume |author37=M. Salez |author38=S. Schlemmer |author39=M. Schmidt |author40=J. Stutzki |author41=D.Teyssier |author42=C. Vastel |author43=S. Yu |author44=E. Caux |author45=R. Güsten |author46=W. A. Hatch |author47=T. Klein |author48=I. Mehdi |author49=P. Morris |author50=J. S. Ward |title=Detection of hydrogen fluoride absorption in diffuse molecular clouds with ''Herschel''/HIFI: a ubiquitous tracer of molecular gas |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.2148.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015082 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-17 }}</ref> "HF is the dominant reservoir of fluorine wherever the interstellar H₂/atomic H ratio exceeds ~ 1; the unusual behavior of fluorine is explained by its unique thermochemistry, F being the only atom in the periodic table that can react exothermically with H₂ to form a hydride."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> The observations "toward W49N and W51 [occurred] on 2010 March 22 ... The observations were carried out at three different local oscillator (LO) tunings in order to securely identify the HF line toward both sight lines. The dual beam switch mode (DBS) was used with a reference position located 3' on either side of the source position along an East-West axis. We centered the telescope beam at α =19h10m13.2s, ''δ'' = 09°06'12.0" for W49N and α = 19h23m43.9s, ''δ'' = 14°30'30.5" for W51 (J2000.0). The total on-source integration time amounts to 222s on each source using the Wide Band Spectrometer (WBS) that offers a spectral resolution of 1.1 MHz (~0.3 km s^-1 at 1232 GHz)."<ref name=Sonnentrucker/> "[T]he first detection of chloronium, H₂Cl⁺, in the interstellar medium, [occurred on March 1 and March 23, 2010,] using the HIFI instrument aboard the ''Herschel'' Space Observatory. The 2₁₂ − 1₀₁ lines of ortho-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ and ortho-H₂³⁷Cl⁺ are detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I, and the 1₁₁ − 0₀₀ transition of para-H₂³⁵Cl⁺ is detected in absorption towards NGC 6334I and Sgr B2(S)."<ref name=Lis>{{ cite journal |author= D. C. Lis |author2=J. C. Pearson |author3=D. A. Neufeld |author4=P. Schilke |author5=H. S. P. Müller |author6=H. Gupta |author7=T. A. Bell |author8=C. Comito |author9=T. G. Phillips |author10=E. A. Bergin |author11=C. Ceccarelli |author12=P. F. Goldsmith |author13=G. A. Blake |author14=A. Bacmann |author15=A. Baudry |author16=M. Benedettini |author17=A. Benz |author18=J. Black |author19=A. Boogert |author20=S. Bottinelli |author21=S. Cabrit |author22=P. Caselli |author23=A. Castets |author24=E. Caux |author25=J. Cernicharo |author26=C. Codella |author27=A. Coutens |author28=N. Crimier |author29=N. R. Crockett |author30=F. Daniel |author31=K. Demyk |author32=C. Dominic |author33=M.-L. Dubernet |author34=M. Emprechtinger |author35=P. Encrenaz |author36=E. Falgarone |author37=A. Fuente |author38=M. Gerin |author39=T. F. Giesen |author40=J. R. Goicoechea |author41=F. Helmich |author42=P. Hennebelle |author43=Th. Henning |author44=E. Herbst |author45=P. Hily-Blant |author46=Å. Hjalmarson |author47=D. Hollenbach |author48=T. Jack |author49=C. Joblin |author50=D. Johnstone |author51=C. Kahane |author52=M. Kama |author53=M. Kaufman |author54=A. Klotz |author55=W. D. Langer |author56=B. Larsson |author57=J. Le Bourlot |author58=B. Lefloch |author59=F. Le Petit |author60=D. Li |author61=R. Liseau |author62=S. D. Lord |author63=A. Lorenzani |author64=S. Maret |author65=P. G. Martin |author66=G. J. Melnick |author67=K. M. Menten |author68=P. Morris |author69=J. A. Murphy |author70=Z. Nagy |author71=B. Nisini |author72=V. Ossenkopf |author73=S. Pacheco |author74=L. Pagani |author75=B. Parise |author76=M. Pérault |author77=R. Plume |author78=S.-L. Qin |author79=E. Roueff |author80=M. Salez |author81=A. Sandqvist |author82=P. Saraceno |author83=S. Schlemmer |author84=K. Schuster |author85=R. Snell |author86=J. Stutzki |author87=A. Tielens |author88=N. Trappe |author89=F. F. S. van der Tak |author90=M. H. D. van der Wiel |author91=E. van Dishoeck |author92=C. Vastel |author93=S. Viti |author94=V. Wakelam |author95=A. Walters |author96=S. Wang |author97=F. Wyrowski |author98=H. W. Yorke |author99=S. Yu |author100=J. Zmuidzinas |author101=Y. Delorme |author102=J.-P. Desbat |author103=R. Güsten |author104=J.-M. Krieg |author105=B. Delforge |title=''Herschel''/HIFI discovery of interstellar chloronium (H₂Cl⁺) |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=October 1, |year=2010 |volume=521 |issue= |pages=5 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1007.1461.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014959 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-18 }}</ref> "The [microwave] detection of interstellar formaldehyde provides important information about the chemical physics of our galaxy. We now know that polyatomic molecules containing at least two atoms other than hydrogen can form in the interstellar medium."<ref name=Snyder>{{ cite journal |author=Lewis E. Snyder |author2=David Buhl |author3=B. Zuckerman |author4=Patrick Palmer |title=Microwave detection of interstellar formaldehyde |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=March |year=1969 |volume=22 |issue=13 |pages=679-81 |url=http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.22.679 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "H₂CO is the first organic polyatomic molecule ever detected in the interstellar medium".<ref name=Snyder/> {{clear}} ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy}} [[Image:Crab_Nebula.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Hubble Space Telescope image of the Crab Nebula showing the diffuse blue region. Credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University).{{tlx|free media}}]] CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions.<ref name=Harvard> http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mmw/CO_survey_aitoff.jpg.</ref> The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar glycine,<ref name=Kuan>{{ cite journal | author=Kuan YJ |author2=Charnley SB |author3=Huang HC |author4=et al. |title=Interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=593 |issue=2 |pages=848–867 |year=2003 |doi=10.1086/375637 | bibcode = 2003ApJ...593..848K }}</ref> the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy.<ref name=Snyder2005>{{ cite journal |author=Snyder LE |author2=Lovas FJ |author3=Hollis JM |author4=et al. |title=A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=619 |issue=2 |pages=914–30 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/426677 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...619..914S |arxiv = astro-ph/0410335 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} [[Image:Gruntman ena 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A hot plasma ion 'steals' charge from a cold neutral atom to become an '''E'''nergetic '''N'''eutral '''A'''tom ('''ENA''').<ref name=GrunDiagram>{{ cite book |title= Charge Exchange Diagrams | author=Mike Gruntman | work=Energetic Neutral Atoms Tutorial | url=http://astronauticsnow.com/ENA/index.html | accessdate=2009-10-27 }}</ref> Credit Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Gruntman ena 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px |The ENA leaves the charge exchange in a straight line with the velocity of the original plasma ion.<ref name=GrunDiagram/> Credit: Mike Gruntman.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 1951, prior to the Space Age, the existence of energetic neutral hydrogen atoms (as high as 70 keV in energy) in space plasma was discovered."<ref name=Hsieh>{{ cite journal |author=K. C. Hsieh |author2=C. C. Curtis |title=Imaging Space Plasma With Energetic Neutral Atoms Without Ionization, In: ''Measurement Techniques in Space Plasmas: Fields'' |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location= |date= 1998 |editor= |volume=Geophysical Monograph 103 |issue= |pages=235-49 |url=http://www.agu.org/books/gm/v103/GM103p0235/GM103p0235.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2014-10-02 }}</ref> "Plasma is the fourth state of matter, consisting of electrons, ions and neutral atoms, usually at temperatures above 10⁴ degrees Kelvin."<ref name=Birdsall>{{ cite book |author=CK Birdsall, A. Bruce Langdon |title=Plasma Physics via Computer Simulation |publisher=CRC Press |location=New York |date=October 1, 2004 |editor= |pages=479 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=S2lqgDTm6a4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&ots=nOPXyqtDo8&sig=-kA8YfaX6nlfFnaW3CYkATh-QPg |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=9780750310253 |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> "ENA imaging permits study of the ways in which our entire plasma environment -- including the magnetopause, ring current, plasmasphere, auroral zones, plasma sheet, and the ionosphere -- reacts to the changing conditions of the solar wind (Williams, 1990)."<ref name=Hsieh/> {{clear}} ==Diatomic gases== [[Image:Hydrogen discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with hydrogen H₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Deuterium discharge tube.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spectrum = gas discharge tube filled with deuterium D₂, used with 1.8 kV, 18 mA, 35 kHz. ≈8" length. Credit: [[c:User:Alchemist-hp|Alchemist-hp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 energies.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The molar energies of ortho- and parahydrogen and two significant mixtures are graphed versus temperature. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ortho-para H2 Cvs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The molar heat capacities for the same substances as above. Credit: [[c:User:Gadolinist|Gadolinist]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Molecular hydrogen gas is excited in the discharge tube shown on the right. When an electron returns to a lower energy orbital state the purple color is observed. "Molecular hydrogen (H₂) [is] a colourless, odourless and flammable gas at room temperature."<ref name=HydrogenWikt>{{ cite book |title=hydrogen |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=September 1, 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hydrogen |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> "The familiar red H-alpha [Hα 656 nm] spectral line of hydrogen gas, which is the transition from the shell ''n'' = 3 to the Balmer series shell ''n'' = 2, is one of the conspicuous colors of the universe. It contributes a bright red line to the spectra of emission or ionization nebula, like the Orion Nebula, which are often H II regions found in star forming regions. In true-color pictures, these nebula have a distinctly pink color from the combination of visible Balmer lines that hydrogen emits."<ref name=BalmerSeries>{{ cite book |title=Balmer series |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=February 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series |accessdate=2012-07-11 }}</ref> A "high-resolution spectrum of the Becklin-Neugebauer (BN) infrared point source located in [the region of the Orion Nebula] ... with the Steward Observatory 2.29 m (90 inch) telescope ... [confirmed] the reality of [the 2.12 μ] line ... on 1976 January 15 and 16. The line was then identified by R. Treffers as the ''S''(1) line of the 1-0 vibration-rotation quadrupole spectrum of H₂. Six other lines of the same band were also found. The presence of two of our lines has been confirmed by Grasdalen and Joyce (1976). Electronic transitions of interstellar H₂ have previously been observed in the ultraviolet (Carruthers 1970; Smith 1973; Spitzer ''et al.'' 1973)."<ref name=Gautier>{{ cite journal |author=T. N. Gautier II |author2=Uwe Fink |author3=Richard R. Treffers |author4=Harold P. Larson |title=Detection of Molecular Hydrogen Quadrupole Emission in the Orion Nebula |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=July 15, |year=1976 |volume=207 |issue=07 |pages=L129-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976ApJ...207L.129G |arxiv= |bibcode=1976ApJ...207L.129G |doi=10.1086/182195 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-05 }}</ref> Diatomic hydrogen gas apparently exists in two distinct forms which can mix: orthohydrogen and parahydrogen. On the right is a graph of molar energies of orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, plus an equilibrium mixture obtained when a catalyst is present to allow for ortho-para interconversion. The curve marked 3:1 is the ortho:para ratio at room temperature that will persist if no catalyst is present during cooling. Orthohydrogen has the spins of the two protons parallel while para hydrogen has them antiparallel. The second graph shows the molar heat capacities for the same gases versus temperature. {{clear}} ==Rocky objects== {{main|Rocks/Rocky objects}} [[Image:PanSTARRS C-2012 K1.png|thumb|right|250px|Sweeping slowly through northern skies, the comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1 posed for this telescopic portrait on June 2nd in the constellation Ursa Major. Credit: Alessandro Falesiedi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] There are many advantages to using a proton beam over an electron beam: # There is less crystal charging from Bremsstrahlung radiation, although there is some from the emission of Auger electrons, # there is significantly less than if the primary beam was itself an electron beam, and # because of the higher mass of protons relative to electrons, there is less lateral deflection of the beam. '''Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS)''' is an analytical technique sometimes referred to as high-energy ion scattering (HEIS) spectrometry. RBS is used to determine the structure and composition of materials by measuring the backscattering of a beam of high energy protons or ions impinging on a piece of material such as a dust grain. If the energy of the incident proton is increased sufficiently, the Coulomb barrier is exceeded and the wavefunctions of the incident and struck particles overlap. This may result in nuclear reactions in certain cases, but frequently the interaction remains elastic, although the scattering cross-sections may fluctuate wildly as a function of energy. This case is known as "Elastic (non-Rutherford) Backscattering Spectrometry" (EBS). We can describe Rutherford backscattering as an elastic (hard-sphere) collision between a high kinetic energy proton from the incident beam (the ''projectile'') and a stationary particle located in the dust grain (the ''target''). ''Elastic'' in this context means that no energy is either lost or gained during the collision. In some circumstances a collision may result in a nuclear reaction, with the release of considerable energy. Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) is very useful for detecting light elements. The energy E₁ of the scattered projectile is reduced from the initial energy E₀: ::<math>E_1 = k \cdot E_0, </math> where k is known as the ''kinematical factor'', and ::<math>k = \left(\frac{m_1 \cos{\theta_1} \pm \sqrt{m_2^2 - m_1^2(\sin{\theta_1})^2}}{m_1 + m_2}\right)^2,</math><ref name="Oura110">{{cite book |display-authors=4|author=Oura, K.|author2=Lifshits, V.G.|author3=Saranin, A.A.|author4=Zotov, A.V.|author5=Katayama, M. |date=2003 |title=Surface Science: An Introduction |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=3-540-00545-5 }}</ref> where particle 1 is the projectile, particle 2 is the target nucleus, and <math>\theta_1</math> is the scattering angle of the projectile in the laboratory frame of reference (that is, relative to the observer). The plus sign is taken when the mass of the projectile is less than that of the target, otherwise the minus sign is taken. To describe the probability of observing such an event. For that we need the ''differential cross-section'' of the backscattering event: ::<math>\frac{d\omega}{d\Omega} = \left(\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2}{4E_0}\right)^2 \frac{1}{\left(\sin{\theta/2}\right)^4},</math><ref name="Oura110"/> where <math>Z_1</math> and <math>Z_2</math> are the atomic numbers of the incident [proton] and target [nucleus]. [From] the centre of mass frame of reference and is therefore not a function of the mass of either the projectile or the target nucleus. The "scattering angle <math>\theta_1</math> is ''not'' the same as the scattering angle <math>\theta</math> (although for RBS experiments they are usually very similar). A scattering cross-section is zero implies that the projectile never comes close to the target, nor penetrates the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. The pure Coulomb formula for the scattering cross-section shown above must be corrected for this [[w:Shielding effect|screening effect]], which becomes more important as the energy of the projectile decreases. While large-angle scattering only occurs for protons which scatter off target nuclei, inelastic small-angle scattering can also occur off the sample electrons. This results in a gradual decrease in protons which penetrate more deeply into the sample, so that backscattering off interior nuclei occurs with a lower "effective" incident energy. The amount by which the ion energy is lowered after passing through a given distance is referred to as the stopping power of the material and is dependent on the electron distribution. This energy loss varies continuously with respect to distance traversed, so that stopping power is expressed as : <math>S(E) = -{dE \over dx}. </math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;136</ref> For high energy stopping power is usually proportional to <math>\frac{Z_2}{E}</math>. Stopping power or, ''stopping force'' has units of energy per unit length. It is generally given in thin film units, that is eV /(atom/cm²) since it is measured experimentally on thin films whose thickness is always measured absolutely as mass per unit area, avoiding the problem of determining the density of the material which may vary as a function of thickness. Stopping power is now known for all materials at around 2%, see http://www.srim.org. When a beam of protons with parallel trajectories is incident on a target atom, scattering off that atom prevents or blocks collisions in a cone-shaped region "behind" the target relative to the beam. This occurs because the repulsive potential of the target atom bends close ion trajectories away from their original path. The radius of this blocked region, at a distance L from the original atom, is given by ::<math>R = 2\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2e^2L}{E_0}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;114</ref> When a proton is scattered from deep inside a sample, it can then re-scatter off a second atom, creating a second blocked cone in the direction of the scattered trajectory. This can be detected by carefully varying the detection angle relative to the incident angle. ''Channeling'' is observed when the incident beam is aligned with a major symmetry axis of the crystal. Incident protons which avoid collisions with surface atoms are excluded from collisions with all atoms deeper in the sample, due to blocking by the first layer of atoms. When the interatomic distance is large compared to the radius of the blocked cone, the incident protons can penetrate many times the interatomic distance without being backscattered. This can result in a drastic reduction of the observed backscattered signal when the incident beam is oriented along one of the symmetry directions, allowing determination of a sample's regular crystal structure. Channeling works best for very small blocking radii, i.e. for protons. The tolerance for the deviation of the [proton] beam angle of incidence relative to the symmetry direction depends on the blocking radius, making the allowable deviation angle proportional to ::<math>\sqrt{\frac{Z_1Z_2}{E_0d}}</math><ref>Oura ''et al''. (2003) p.&nbsp;117</ref> While the intensity of an RBS peak is observed to decrease across most of its width when the beam is channeled, a narrow peak at the high-energy end of a larger peak will often be observed, representing surface scattering from the first layer of atoms. The presence of this peak opens the possibility of surface sensitivity for RBS measurements. {{clear}} ==Hydrogens== {{main|Chemicals/Hydrogens}} [[Image:Hydrogen Lamp (24856071897).jpg|thumb|right|250px|After some excitation, purple light is emited, which corresponds to the visible spectral line emissions of the hydrogen atom (Balmer series). Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/93636241@N07 UCL Mathematical & Physical Sciences from London, UK].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Phase diagram of hydrogen.png|thumb|left|250px|Diagram shows the phases of hydrogen. Credit: [[:ru:User:Tretyak|Tretyak]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Proton–hydrogen charge-exchange collisions [such as those shown at right] are often the most important process in space plasma because hydrogen is the most abundant constituent of both plasmas and background gases and hydrogen charge-exchange occurs at very high velocities involving little exchange of momentum. The "efforts to study the 21 cm hydrogen line from the northern and southern hemispheres in 1954 and 1959 [...] were combined and provided the first full-galaxy radio map of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way".<ref name=Reeve>{{ cite book |author=Whitham D. Reeve |title=Book Review |publisher=Whitham D. Reeve |location=Anchorage, Alaska USA |date= 1973 |url=http://www.reeve.com/Documents/Book%20Reviews/Reeve_Book%20Review-Evolution%20of%20Radio%20Astronomy.pdf |accessdate=2014-01-11 }}</ref> A hydrogen atom is about 0.11 nm in diameter. The "relative motion in a hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields leads to peculiar quasi-ionized states with an electron localized very far from a proton."<ref name=Dzyaloshinskii>{{ cite journal |author=I. Dzyaloshinskii |title=Effects of the finite proton mass in a hydrogen atom in crossed magnetic and electric fields: a state with a giant electric dipole moment |journal=Physics Letters A |date=May 1992 |volume=165 |issue=1 |pages=69-71 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037596019291056W |arxiv= |bibcode=1992PhLA..165...69D |doi=10.1016/0375-9601(92)91056-W |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-13 }}</ref> The Solar Wind Anisotropies (SWAN) aboard SOHO "is the only remote sensing instrument on SOHO that does not look at the Sun. It watches the rest of the sky, measuring hydrogen that is ‘blowing’ into the Solar System from interstellar space. By studying the interaction between the solar wind and this hydrogen gas, SWAN determines how the solar wind is distributed. As such, it can be qualified as SOHO’s solar wind ’mapper’."<ref name=Quemerais>{{ cite book |author=E. Quémerais |title=SOHO Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, MD, USA |date=30 June 2003 |url=http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/docs/SOHO_Fact_Sheet.pdf |accessdate=2016-03-27 }}</ref> ¹H, the most commonly used spin ½ nucleus in NMR investigation, has been studied using many forms of NMR. Hydrogen is highly abundant, especially in biological systems. It is the nucleus most sensitive to NMR signal (apart from ³H which is not commonly used due to its instability and radioactivity). Proton NMR produces narrow chemical shift with sharp signals. Fast acquisition of quantitative results (peak integrals in stoichiometric ratio) is possible due to short relaxation time. [NMR widely used in chemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and phosphorus-31 NMR. "'''Proton NMR''' ( '''Hydrogen-1 NMR''', or '''¹H NMR''') is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance in NMR spectroscopy with respect to hydrogen-1 nuclei within the molecules of a substance, in order to determine the structure of its molecules.<ref name=Silverstein>R. M. Silverstein, G. C. Bassler and T. C. Morrill, ''Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds'', 5th Ed., Wiley, 1991.</ref> In samples where natural hydrogen (H) is used, practically all of the hydrogen consists of the isotope ¹H (hydrogen-1; i.e. having a proton for a nucleus). A full ¹H atom is called protium. {{clear}} ==Lithium nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Lithiums}} [[Image:Lithium Raies Spectrales.png|right|thumb|300px|This spectrum for lithium has been calculated using data from the Handbook of Chemistry & Physics. Credit: [[c:user:Epop|Epop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "evidence for the overwhelming majority of the Li-atoms in photospheres has its origin not only in nuclear synthesis near the stellar centers, but also by active processes in stellar atmospheres. [...] the lithium [resonance] line [is] near 478 keV."<ref name=Livshits>{{ cite journal |author=M. A. Livshits |title=The Amount of Lithium Produced during Impulsive Flares |journal=Solar Physics |month=July |year=1997 |volume=173 |issue=2 |pages=377-81 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1004958522216#page-1 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1004958522216 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-01 }}</ref> "Approximately 90% of lithium atoms originate from α - α reactions for the typical spectra of an accelerated particles on the Sun [...] During impulsive flares, interaction between the accelerated particles and the ambient medium occurs mainly at low altitudes, i.e., close to the footprints of loops."<ref name=Livshits/> {{clear}} ==Nitrogen nuclei== {{main|Chemicals/Nitrogens}} [[Image:Violet aurora Ohio US Oct 2013.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This multicolored aurora has a strong violet band above the pink band. Credit: Black Swamp Storm Intercept Team.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "For cosmic rays the low abundance ”valleys” in the solar system composition around Z=4, 21, 46, and 70 are not present. This is usually believed to be the result of spallation of heavier nuclei during their propagation through the galaxy. Hydrogen, helium, and the CNO–group are suppressed in cosmic rays. This has been explained by the high first ionization potential of these atoms [63] or by the high volatility of these elements which do not condense on interstellar grains [64]. Which property is the right descriptor of cosmic–ray abundances has proved elusive, however, the volatility seems to become the more accepted solution [65]."<ref name=Hoerandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R. Hoerandel |title=On the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=May |year=2003 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=193-220 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0210453 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00198-6 |pmid= |accessdate=2017-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Metallicities== [[Image:A Swarm of Ancient Stars - GPN-2000-000930.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The globular cluster Messier 80 are mainly older metal-poor members of Population&nbsp;II. Credit: NASA, The Hubble Heritage Team, STScI, AURA.{{tlx|free media}}]] For stars, the metallicity is often expressed as "[Fe/H]", which represents the logarithm of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun (iron is not the most abundant heavy element, but it is among the easiest to measure with spectral data in the visible spectrum). The formula for the logarithm is expressed thus: {{center top}}<math> [\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}] = \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{star}} - \log_{10}{\left(\frac{N_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{N_{\mathrm{H}}}\right)_{sun}} </math>{{center bottom}} where <math>N_{\mathrm{Fe}}</math> and <math>N_{\mathrm{H}}</math> are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively. The unit often used for metallicity is the "dex" which is a (now-deprecated) contraction of decimal exponent.<ref name=Rowlett>[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictD.html A Dictionary of Units of Measurement]</ref> By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive logarithmic value, while those with a lower metallicity than the Sun have a negative value. The logarithm is based on powers of ten; stars with a value of +1 have ten times the metallicity of the Sun (10¹). Conversely, those with a value of -1 have one tenth (10 ⁻¹), while those with -2 have a hundredth (10⁻²), and so on.<ref name=Martin>{{ cite book | author=John C. Martin | title=New Analysis RR Lyrae Kinematics in the Solar Neighborhood, In: ''What we learn from a star's metal content'' | url=https://edocs.uis.edu/jmart5/www/rrlyrae/metals.htm |accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Young Population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older Population II stars. Primordial Population III stars are estimated to have a metallicity of less than −6.0, that is, less than a millionth of the abundance of iron which is found in the Sun. {{clear}} ==Astrophysics== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astrophysics}} [[Image:ThermalFissionYield.svg|thumb|300px|right|Fission product yields by mass are for thermal neutron fission of uranium-235, plutonium-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and uranium-233 used in the thorium cycle. Credit: [[w:user:JWB|JWB]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a cavity filled with hot gas blown into the interstellar medium by stellar winds is called an '''astrosphere'''. '''Def.''' the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation [is] called '''molecular astrophysics'''. {{clear}} ==Sun== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:Sun Atmosphere Temperature and Density SkyLab.jpg|thumb|200 px|This graph shows the temperature and density of the Sun's atmosphere from Skylab observations. Credit: John A. Eddy, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] As stars are defined as luminous balls of plasma, the Sun may not qualify as its photosphere has a plasma concentration of approximately 10^-4. The rest is composed of neutral atoms at about 5800 K. The visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H⁻ ions.<ref name="Gibson">{{ cite book |author=E.G. Gibson |title=The Quiet Sun |publisher=NASA |date=1973 |isbn= |asin=B0006C7RS0 }}</ref><ref name="Shu">{{ cite book |last=Shu |first=F.H. |title=The Physics of Astrophysics |publisher=University Science Books |volume=1 |date=1991 |isbn=0-935702-64-4 }}</ref> "The production and escape of hot ions (H⁺ and H⁺₂) and hot atomic hydrogen by stellar ultraviolet radiation is ... likely".<ref name=Guillot>{{ cite journal |author=T. Guillot |author2=A. Burrows |author3=W. B. Hubbard |author4=J. I. Lunine |author5=D. Saumon |title=Giant Planets at Small Orbital Distances |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=March |year=1996 |volume=459 |issue=3 |pages=L35-8 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/459/1/L35 |arxiv=astro-ph/9511109 |bibcode=1996ApJ...459L..35G |doi=10.1086/309935 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Heliognosy== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliognosy|Heliognosy}} [[Image:Figure3 sun aufbau.gif|thumb|right|250px|This image is a theory for the interior of the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In the 1920s, Payne [3] and Russell [4] reported that the Sun’s atmosphere consisted mostly of hydrogen (H) and helium (He), but Hoyle [5] notes that he and others "in the astronomical circles to which I was privy" (p. 153) continued until after the Second World War to believe that the Sun was made mostly of iron. Then Hoyle notes that "much to my surprise" (p. 154), the high-hydrogen, low-iron model was suddenly adopted without opposition."<ref name=Manuel>{{ cite journal |author=O. Manuel, C. Bolon, A. Katragada, and M. Insall |title=Attraction and Repulsion of Nucleons: Sources of Stellar Energy |journal=Journal of Fusion Energy |date= 2001 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=93-8 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1012290028638 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1023/A:1012290028638 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-13 }}</ref> Depending primarily upon gas temperature, the presence of gas may be used to determine the composition of the gas object observed, at least the outer layer. Early spectroscopy<ref name=Russell>{{ cite journal |author=H. N. Russell |title= |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month= |year=1929 |volume=70 |issue= |pages=11-82 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= }}</ref> of the '''Sun''' using estimates of "the line intensities of several lines by eye [to derive] the abundances of ... elements ... [concluded] that the Sun [is] largely made of hydrogen."<ref name=Basu>{{ cite journal |author=Sarbani Basu |author2=H. M. Antia |title=Helioseismology and Solar Abundances |journal=Physics Reports |month=March |year=2008 |volume=457 |issue=5-6 |pages=217-83 |url= |arxiv=0711.4590 |bibcode=2008PhR...457..217B |doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-06 }}</ref> As temperature increases in an astronomical object composed of H₂ gas, the molecules begin to dissociate. "At a temperature of 8000 K, hydrogen gas is 99.99 percent monatomic."<ref name=Tipler>{{ cite book |author=Paul A. Tipler, Gene Mosca |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Macmillan |location= |date=May 1, 2007 |editor= |pages=1172 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AttDBYgLeZkC&pg=PA614&lpg=PA614&source=bl&ots=mDyTt5SY03&sig=-IdefwfOk591NKKnKm2iPsorRxo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XkPGUs6UCdDqkAeeuYF4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwBA |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=142920124X |accessdate=2014-01-02 }}</ref> :<math> \rho_H = \rho_{H_0} e^{E_T/{kT}},</math> where <math>\rho_{H_0}</math> is an initial concentration [H] at low temperatures as partial particle density, <math>E_T</math> is the dissociation energy 4.52 eV, k is Boltzmann's contant (8.6173324(78)×10⁻⁵ eV K^-1), and T is temperature in K. Using :<math> [H] = 70400 e^{-4.52/(0.00008617T)}</math> # what is the concentration of H ([H]) at T = 8000 K? # what is [H] at T = 800 K? # at what temperature is [H] = 1? # what is [H] at T = 5778 K? At 5778 K [H] = 8 %. {{clear}} ==Venus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Venus}} [[Image:Venus xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This Chandra X-ray Observatory image is the first X-ray image ever made of Venus. Credit: NASA/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The first ever X-ray image of Venus is shown at right. The "half crescent is due to the relative orientation of the Sun, Earth and Venus. The X-rays from Venus are produced by fluorescent radiation from oxygen and other atoms in the atmosphere between 120 and 140 kilometers above the surface of the planet. In contrast, the optical light from Venus is caused by the reflection from clouds 50 to 70 kilometers above the surface. Solar X-rays bombard the atmosphere of Venus, knock electrons out of the inner parts of atoms, and excite the atoms to a higher energy level. The atoms almost immediately return to their lower energy state with the emission of a fluorescent X-ray. A similar process involving ultraviolet light produces the visible light from fluorescent lamps."<ref name=Dennerl >{{ cite book |author=K. Dennerl |title=Venus: Venus in a New Light |publisher=Harvard University, NASA |location=Boston, Massachusetts, USA |date=November 29, 2001 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2001/venus/ |accessdate=2012-11-26 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Earth== [[Image:Atmospheric Water Vapor Mean.2005.030.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a graph of the global mean atmospheric water vapor superimposed on an outline of the Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Energetic neutral atoms (ENA), emitted from the magnetosphere with energies of ∼50 keV, have been measured with solid-state detectors on the IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 spacecraft. The ENA are produced when singly charged trapped ions collide with the exospheric neutral hydrogen geocorona and the energetic ions are neutralized by charge exchange."<ref name=Roelof>{{ cite journal |author=E. C. Roelof |author2=D. G. Mitchell |author3=D. J. Williams |title=Energetic neutral atoms (E ∼ 50 keV) from the ring current: IMP 7/8 and ISEE 1 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |date= 1985 |volume=90 |issue=A11 |pages=10,991-11,008 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1985/JA090iA11p10991.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA090iA11p10991 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> "The IMAGE mission ... High Energy Neutral Atom imager (HENA) ... images [ENAs] at energies between 10 and 60 keV/nucleon [to] reveal the distribution and the evolution of energetic [ions, including protons] as they are injected into the ring current during geomagnetic storms, drift about the Earth on both open and closed drift paths, and decay through charge exchange to pre‐storm levels."<ref name=Mitchell>{{ cite journal |author=D. G. Mitchell |author2=K. C. Hsieh |author3=C. C. Curtis |author4=D. C. Hamilton |author5=H. D. Voes |author6=E. C Roelof |author7=P. C:son-Brandt |title=Imaging two geomagnetic storms in energetic neutral atoms |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date= 2001 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1151-4 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000GL012395.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2000GL012395 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-12 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Airglows== [[Image:Love and Joy for the New Year - NASA Earth Observatory.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this International Space Station image, you can see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the International Space Station image at right, you can "see green and yellow airglow paralleling the Earth’s horizon line (or limb) before it is overwhelmed by the light of the rising Sun. Airglow is the emission of light by atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere after they are excited by ultraviolet radiation. ... Astronaut photograph ISS030-E-015491 was acquired on December 22, 2011, with a Nikon digital camera, and is provided by the ISS Crew Earth Observations experiment and Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, Johnson Space Center."<ref name=Burbank>{{ cite book |author=Dan Burbank |title=Love and Joy for the New Year |publisher=NASA's Earth Observatory |location=International Space Station |date=December 21, 2011 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/nasaearthobservatory/6620255181/ |accessdate=2012-07-22 }}</ref> '''Airglow''' (also called '''nightglow''') is the very weak [[w:emission spectrum|emission]] of [[w:light|light]] by a planetary [[w:atmosphere|atmosphere]]. In the case of [[w:atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], this [[w:optical phenomenon|optical phenomenon]] causes the [[w:night sky|night sky]] to never be completely dark (even after the effects of [[w:starlight|starlight]] and [[w:diffusion|diffused]] [[w:sunlight|sunlight]] from the far side are removed). Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the sun during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. {{clear}} ==Auroras== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras}} [[Image:Multicolor aurora.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This is a multicolor aurora. Credit: tommy-eliassen and leonafaye.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Colorful-aurora-borealis-in-finland.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This shows a multicolored aurora over Finland. Credit: S. D. Simonson.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ColorTypes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Discrete auroras (the bright visible forms} are classified by Color Types. Credit: rgk.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39).jpg|thumb|left|300px|This view of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "When the charged particles from the Sun penetrate Earth's magnetic shield, they are channelled downwards along the magnetic field lines until they strike atoms of gas high in the atmosphere. Like a giant fluorescent neon lamp, the interaction with excited oxygen atoms generates a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while excited nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=ESAGauna>{{ cite book |author=European Space Agency |title=Aurora over Icelandic Lake |publisher=ESA |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55767-aurora-over-icelandic-lake/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> "Pulsating auroras are so-called because their features shift and brighten in distinct patches, rather than elongated arcs across the sky like active auroras. However, their appearance isn't the only difference. Though all auroras are caused by energetic particles--typically electrons--speeding down into Earth's atmosphere and colliding brilliantly with the atoms and molecules in the air, the source of these electrons is different for pulsating auroras and active auroras."<ref name=Samara>{{ cite book |author=Marilia Samara |title=Unexpected role of electrons in creating pulsating auroras |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 October 2015 |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/151007185043.htm |accessdate=2015-12-01 }}</ref> The "density of neutral atoms within the atmosphere can change throughout the day because of heating by sunlight, the original understanding was that the heating—and the extra-dense layers of neutral particles—was driven horizontally. However, some satellites have hit speed bumps as they have orbited through Earth’s magnetic cusp—their acceleration briefly slowed, which indicates a small vertical slice of higher-density neutral atoms that are harder to travel through."<ref name=Frazier>{{ cite book |author=Sarah Frazier |title=NASA Plans Twin Sounding Rocket Launches over Norway this Winter |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=30 November 2015 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/assp-sounding-rocket-launches-successfully-from-alaska |accessdate=2015-11-30 }}</ref> "Auroras are produced by solar storms that eject clouds of energetic charged particles. These particles are deflected when they encounter the Earth’s magnetic field, but in the process large electric voltages are created. Electrons trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field are accelerated by these voltages and spiral along the magnetic field into the polar regions. There they collide with atoms high in the atmosphere and emit X-rays".<ref name=Bhardwaj>{{ cite book |author=A. Bhardwaj |author2=R. Elsner |title=Earth Aurora: Chandra Looks Back At Earth |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |date=February 20, 2009 |url=http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/earth/ |accessdate=2013-05-10 }}</ref> "Auroras are known to be generated by beams of electrons which are accelerated along Earth's magnetic field lines. The fast-moving electrons collide with atoms in the ionosphere at altitudes of between 100 to 600 km. This interaction with oxygen atoms results in a green or, more rarely, red glow in the night sky, while nitrogen atoms yield blue and purple colours."<ref name=Wright>{{ cite book |author=Andrew Wright |title=Heart of the Black Auroras Revealed by Cluster |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date=9 April 2015 |url=http://sci.esa.int/cluster/55764-heart-of-the-black-auroras-revealed-by-cluster/ |accessdate=2015-04-12 }}</ref> * "Type A aurora (green with red tops): # colors due to emission by atomic oxygen * Type D aurora (red): # red color due to emission by atomic oxygen (as in Type A) * Proton aurora: # additional red and blue from atomic hydrogen emission"<ref name=rgk>{{ cite book |author=rgk |title=AURORA (POLARIS) |publisher=University of New York at Albany |location=Albany, New York USA |date=July 2012 |url=http://www.albany.edu/faculty/rgk/atm101/aurora.htm |accessdate=2015-12-02 }}</ref> "This view [on the left] of the Aurora Australis, or Southern Lights, which was photographed by an astronaut aboard Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-39) in 1991, shows a spiked band of red and green aurora above the Earth's Limb. Calculated to be at altitudes ranging from 80 - 120 km (approx. 50-80 miles), the auroral light shown is due to the "excitation" of atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere by charged particles (electrons) streaming down from the magnetosphere above."<ref name=Gutro>{{ cite book |author=Rob Gutro |title=Earth's Auroras Don't Mirror |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=4 April 2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/lookingatearth/dueling_auroras.html#.VljKkMbvu3U |accessdate=2015-11-27 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Moon== [[Image:Moon Chandra Optical.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Chandra X-ray Observatory image at right of the bright portion of the Moon is from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms. Credit: Optical: Robert Gendler; X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/J.Drake ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Chandra X-ray Observatory has detected X-rays from oxygen, magnesium, aluminum and silicon atoms on the Moon.<ref name=Burnham>{{ cite book |author=Robert Burnham |title=Moon Prospecting |publisher=Kalmbach Publishing Co. |location= |date=2004 |editor= |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:Martian Methane Map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mars xray 420.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On July 4, 2001, this Chandra X-ray Observatory image became the first look at X-rays from Mars. Credit: NASA/CXC/MPE/K.Dennerl ''et al''.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The major atmospheric gases on Earth, Venus, and Mars were probably CO₂, H₂O, and N₂. [The ions from the upper parts of an atmosphere] are often suprathermal, and their interactions can produce suprathermal neutral atoms as well [The] ionopause [...] separates the bound ionosphere from an outer region in which the solar wind is diverted and flows around and past the planet. This region still contains some neutral gas, and if such atoms are ionized by solar photons or electron impact, they are swept up in the flow."<ref name=Hunten>{{ cite journal |author=Donald M. Hunten |title=Atmospheric Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Science |date=February 12, 1993 |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=915-20 |url=http://www.csun.edu/~hmc60533/CSUN_311/article_references/Sc_Feb93_AtmosEvolTerrestPlanets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-21 }}</ref> "There are strong reasons to believe that Mars once had much more atmospheric CO₂ and H₂O than it now has ... (Impacts, which may have eroded even larger amounts, operated at an earlier period.) ... The visible polar caps are thought to contain relatively small quantities. [...] More recently it has been proposed (35) that Mars may have had several episodes of high atmospheric pressure, warm conditions, and substantial precipitation of rain and snow, with a north polar ocean and southern glaciers."<ref name=Hunten/> Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere, first image at right, by carefully observing the planet throughout several Mars years with NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility and the W.M. Keck telescope, both at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. At right is an X-ray image of [[Keynote lectures/Mars|Mars]]. X-radiation from the Sun excites oxygen atoms in the Martian upper atmosphere, about 120 km above its surface, to emit X-ray fluorescence. A faint X-ray halo that extends out to 7,000 km above the surface of Mars has also been found.<ref name=Dennerl2002>{{ cite journal |author=K. Dennerl |title=Discovery of X-rays from Mars with Chandra |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=1119-28 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2002A&A...394.1119D |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021116 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Europa== {{main|Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa}} [[Image:Europa-moon-with-margins.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Europa's trailing hemisphere in false colour (violet, green, and infrared as red, green and blue channel). The prominent crater in the lower right is Pwyll and the darker regions are areas where Europa's primarily water ice surface has a higher mineral content. Credit: NASA/JPL/DLR.{{tlx|free media}}]] Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen. Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a tenuous atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen (O₂).<ref name="Hall1995">Hall, Doyle T.; ''et al.''; [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v373/n6516/abs/373677a0.html ''Detection of an oxygen atmosphere on Jupiter's moon Europa''], Nature, Vol. 373 (23 February 1995), pp. 677–679 (accessed 15 April 2006)</ref><ref name="EuropaOxygenJPL">{{ cite book |author=Donald Savage |author2=Tammy Jones |author3=Ray Villard |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/europa/hst.html |title=Hubble Finds Oxygen Atmosphere on Europa, In: ''Project Galileo'' |accessdate=2007-08-17 |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |date=1995-02-23 }}</ref> The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1&nbsp;μPa, or 10⁻¹² times that of the Earth.<ref name="McGrathChapter">{{ cite book |author=McGrath |editor=Pappalardo, Robert T. |editor2=McKinnon, William B. |editor3=Khurana, Krishan K. |title=Europa |date=2009 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=0-8165-2844-6 |chapter=Atmosphere of Europa }}</ref> In 1997, the ''Galileo'' spacecraft confirmed the presence of a tenuous ionosphere (an upper-atmospheric layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation and energetic particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere,<ref name="Kliore1997">{{ cite journal |author=Arvydas J. Kliore |author2=D. P. Hinson |author3=F. Michael Flasar |author4=Andrew F. Nagy |author5=Thomas E. Cravens |year=1997 |month=July |title=The Ionosphere of Europa from Galileo Radio Occultations |journal=Science |volume=277 |issue=5324 |pages=355–8 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5324.355 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/5324/355 |accessdate=2007-08-10 |pmid=9219689 |bibcode =1997Sci...277..355K }}</ref><ref name="NASA1997">{{ cite book |date=July 1997 |title=Galileo Spacecraft Finds Europa has Atmosphere, In: ''Project Galileo'' |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/status970718.html |accessdate=2007-08-10 }}</ref> providing evidence of an atmosphere. The molecular hydrogen that escapes Europa's gravity, along with atomic and molecular oxygen, forms a torus (ring) of gas in the vicinity of Europa's orbit around Jupiter. This "neutral cloud" has been detected by both the ''Cassini'' and ''Galileo'' spacecraft, and has a greater content (number of atoms and molecules) than the neutral cloud surrounding Jupiter's inner moon Io. Models predict that almost every atom or molecule in Europa's torus is eventually ionized, thus providing a source to Jupiter's magnetospheric plasma.<ref name="Smyth2006">{{ cite journal |author=William H. Smyth, Max L. Marconi |year=2006 |title=Europa's atmosphere, gas tori, and magnetospheric implications |journal=Icarus |bibcode=2006Icar..181..510S |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.10.019 |volume=181 |issue=2 |pages=510 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Comets}} [[Image:C2007N3Lulin2panel brimacombe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Recent changes in Comet Lulin's greenish coma and tails are shown in these two panels taken on January 31st (top) and February 4th (bottom) 2009. In both views the comet has an apparent antitail to the left of the coma of dust. Credit: Joseph Brimacombe, Cairns, Australia.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a 3D model of the Rosetta Spacecraft. The individual scientific payloads are highlighted in different colours. Credit: [[w:User:IanShazell|IanShazell]].{{tlx|free media}}]] One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen.<ref name=NYCTimes>{{ cite book |title=Yerkes Observatory Finds Cyanogen in Spectrum of Halley's Comet |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E4DF1430E233A2575BC0A9649C946196D6CF |date=8 February 1910 |accessdate=15 November 2009 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> Cyan blue is the color of several cyanide (CN) containing materials, including CN detected in comet haloes. "Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C₂). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight".<ref name=Phillips>{{ cite book |author=James A. Phillips |title=Green Comet Approaches Earth |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Science News |location= |date= 2009 |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/04feb_greencomet/ |accessdate=2012-05-05 }}</ref> For elongated dust particles in cometary comas an investigation is performed at 535.0 nm (green) and 627.4 nm (red) peak transmission wavelengths of the [[w:Rosetta (spacecraft)|Rosetta spacecraft]]'s OSIRIS Wide Angle Camera broadband green and red filters, respectively.<ref name=Bertini>{{ cite journal |author=I. Bertini |author2=N. Thomas |author3=C. Barbieri |title=Modeling of the light scattering properties of cometary dust using fractal aggregates |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=January |year=2007 |volume=461 |issue=1 |pages=351-64 |url=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full/2007/01/aa5461-06/aa5461-06.html |arxiv= |bibcode=2007A&A...461..351B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20065461 |pmid= |pdf=http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2007/01/aa5461-06.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-08 }}</ref> "In the green, the polarization of the pure silicate composition qualitatively appears a better fit to the shape of the observed polarization curves".<ref name=Bertini/> "[B]ut they are characterized by a high albedo."<ref name=Bertini/> The silicates used to model the cometary coma dust are olivene (Mg-rich is green) and the pyroxene, enstatite.<ref name=Bertini/> "[U]nequivocal detections [occurred at McDonald Observatory on 10 nights from 25 June through 17 July 2000] of the O (¹S) and O (¹D) metastable lines in emission in the cometary [Comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)] spectrum. These lines are well separated from any telluric or cometary emission features."<ref name=Cochran>{{ cite journal |author=Anita L. Cochran, William D. Cochran |title=Observations of O (¹S) and O (¹D) in Spectra of C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) |journal=Icarus |month=December |year=2001 |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=381-90 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0108065v1.pdf |arxiv=astro-ph/0108065 |bibcode=2001Icar..154..381C |doi=10.1006/icar.2001.6718 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-16 }}</ref> "[T]he presence of the [oxygen] green line can still be questioned, unless the 2972 Å trans-auroral line [¹''S'' - ³''P''] is detected (Herbig, 1976)."<ref name=Festou>{{ cite journal |author=M. C. Festou |author2=P. D. Feldman |title=The Forbidden Oxygen Lines in Comets |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |month=November |year=1981 |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=154-9 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1981A&A...103..154F |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-21 }}</ref> "The transitions involved (allowed and forbidden) in the spectrum of the oxygen atoms in a cometary atmosphere" are 557.7 nm, 630.0 and 636.4 nm, 295.8 and 297.2 nm, 98.9 nm (a triplet), 799.0 nm, 844.7 nm, and 1304 nm (a triplet), 102.7 nm (a triplet) and 1128.7 nm.<ref name=Festou/> "When the green line is overwhelming (in faint comets like Encke), this emission is mainly due to the airglow, the red airglow emission being quenched and consequently weaker than the green."<ref name=Festou/> "The measured intensity on 10 January 1980, when the comet was 0.71 a.u. from the Sun and 0.615 a.u. from the Earth, is 30±15 Rayleighs.<ref name=Festou/> {{clear}} ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} [[Image:PIA16483 ip trimmed.png|thumb|center|400px|This artist's concept shows plasma flows around NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft as it approaches interstellar space. Credit: Jon Nelson.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''heliosphere''' is a bubble in space "blown" into the [[interstellar medium]] (the hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[Milky Way|galaxy]]) by the solar wind. Although electrically neutral atoms from interstellar volume can penetrate this bubble, virtually all of the material in the heliosphere emanates from the Sun itself. {{clear}} ==Fermi glow== [[Image:Red Giant Plunging Through Space.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Credit: IR: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Ueta (U. of Denver); Artist Concept: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle (SSC/Caltech).{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fermi glow''' are ultraviolet-glowing<ref name=ref1> "[http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic9911/ The Heliosphere is Tilted - implications for the 'Galactic Weather Forecast'?]". [http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/ Hubble]. 13 March 2000.</ref> particles, mostly hydrogen,<ref name=ref3/> originating from the [[Solar System]]'s [[w:Bow shock|Bow shock]], created when light from stars and the Sun enter the region between the [[w:heliopause|heliopause]] and the interstellar medium and undergo [[w:Fermi acceleration|Fermi acceleration]]<ref name=ref3> "[http://bric.postech.ac.kr/myboard/read.php?Board=news&id=31674&Page=733&PARA0=5&SOURCE=&PARA15=&FindIt=&FindText= Where the Solar Wind Hits the Wall]". [http://bric.postech.ac.kr/about/greeting/index.php BRIC]. 20 March 2000.</ref>, bouncing around the transition area several times, gaining energy via collisions with atoms of the interstellar medium. The first evidence of the Fermi glow, and hence the bow shock, was obtained with the help from [[w:Voyager 1|Voyager 1]]<ref name=ref1/> and the [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]]<ref name=ref1/>. {{clear}} ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:484684main 1 AP IBEX combined 1.74.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is an all-sky map of neutral atoms streaming in from the interstellar boundary. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio.{{tlx|free media}}]] "In 2009, NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission science team constructed the first-ever all-sky map [at right] of the interactions occurring at the edge of the solar system, where the sun's influence diminishes and interacts with the interstellar medium. A 2013 paper provides a new explanation for a giant ribbon of energetic neutral atoms – shown here in light green and blue -- streaming in from that boundary."<ref name=Fox>{{ cite book |author=Karen C. Fox |title=A Major Step Forward in Explaining the Ribbon in Space Discovered by NASA’s IBEX Mission |publisher=NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, MD USA |date=February 5, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ibex/news/ribbon-explained.html |accessdate=2013-02-06 }}</ref> "[T]he boundary at the edge of our heliosphere where material streaming out from the sun interacts with the galactic material ... emits no light and no conventional telescope can see it. However, particles from inside the solar system bounce off this boundary and neutral atoms from that collision stream inward. Those particles can be observed by instruments on NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX). Since those atoms act as fingerprints for the boundary from which they came, IBEX can map that boundary in a way never before done. In 2009, IBEX saw something in that map that no one could explain: a vast ribbon dancing across this boundary that produced many more energetic neutral atoms than the surrounding areas."<ref name=Fox/> ""What we are learning with IBEX is that the interaction between the sun's magnetic fields and the galactic magnetic field is much more complicated than we previously thought," says Eric Christian, the mission scientist for IBEX at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. "By modifying an earlier model, this paper provides the best explanation so far for the ribbon IBEX is seeing.""<ref name=Fox/> {{clear}} ===H I regions=== An '''H I region''' is an interstellar cloud composed of neutral atomic [[hydrogen]] (H I), in addition to the local abundance of helium and other elements. [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]] contains some 6,010 entries of the astronomical object type 'HI' (H I region). These regions are non-luminous, save for emission of the [[w:hydrogen line|21-cm (1,420 MHz) region]] spectral line. Mapping H I emissions with a radio telescope is a technique used for determining the structure of spiral galaxies. The degree of ionization in an H I region is very small at around 10⁻⁴ (i.e. one particle in 10,000). The temperature of an H I region is about 100 K,<ref name=Spitzer>{{ cite journal |author=L. Spitzer, M. P. Savedoff |title= The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. III |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date= 1950 |volume=111 |issue= |pages=593 |url= |doi=10.1086/145303 |bibcode=1950ApJ...111..593S }}</ref> and it is usually considered as isothermal, except near an expanding [[w:H II region|H II region]].<ref name=Savedoff>{{ cite journal |author=Savedoff MP, Greene J |title=Expanding H II region |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=November 1955 |volume=122 |issue=11 |pages=477–87 |bibcode=1955ApJ...122..477S |doi=10.1086/146109 }}</ref> For hydrogen, complete ionization "obviously reduces its cross section to zero, but ... the net effect of partial ionization of hydrogen on calculated absorption depends on whether or not observations of hydrogen [are] used to estimate the total gas. ... [A]t least 20 % of interstellar hydrogen at high galactic latitudes seems to be ionized".<ref name=RMorrison>{{ cite journal |author=Robert Morrison |author2=Dan McCammon |title=Interstellar photoelectric absorption cross sections, 0.03-10 keV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=July 1983 |volume=270 |issue=7 |pages=119-22 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...270..119M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-11 }}</ref> "When detection of neutral hydrogen (HI) absorption of the pulsar signal is possible, an estimate, or at least a limit on the distance may be obtained using a Galactic rotation model".<ref name=Toscano>{{ cite journal |author=M. Toscano |author2=M. C. Britton |author3=R. N. Manchester |author4=M. Bailes |author5=J. S. Sandhu |author6=S. R. Kulkarni |author7=S. B. Anderson |title=Parallax of PSR J1744–1134 and the local interstellar medium |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=October 1, 1999 |volume=523 |issue=2 |pages=L171 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/523/2/L171 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/312276 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-19 }}</ref> "There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the [local insterstellar medium] LISM. This cavity surrounds the Sun and extends several hundred parsecs into quadrant 3 (Lucke 1978). The cavity appears as a region of low reddening extending 500 pc between ℓ = 210° and 255° and 1.5 kpc toward ℓ = 240°. Running counter to this is very heavy obscuration beyond ~100 pc in the first quadrant. Similarly, HI column densities derived from ultraviolet observations show a marked paucity in HI along LOSs directed towards ℓ = 230° (Frisch & York 1983; Paresce 1984). A similar morphology for this cavity is gleaned from NaI absorption measurements".<ref name=Toscano/> "To further characterize the distribution of electrons in the LISM it is useful to relate their location to other interstellar features, such as bubbles, superbubbles, and clouds of neutral gas. There is strong evidence for an elongated cavity in the neutral component of the LISM. [...] There are several features of interest within this cavity. One of these is the local hot bubble (LHB): a volume encompassing the Sun distinguished by low neutral gas densities and a 10⁶ K, soft X-ray emitting gas"<ref name=Toscano/> The "neutral hydrogen column density [has] a level of ''N''(HI)= 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻²"<ref name=Toscano/> "Distance estimates now exist for a few hundreds of pulsars, resulting from three basic techniques: neutral hydrogen absorption (in combination with the Galactic rotation curve), trigonometric parallax and from associations with objects of known distance".<ref name=Stepanov>{{ cite journal |author=R. Stepanov |author2=P. Frick |author3=A. Shukurov |author4=D. Sokoloff |title=Wavelet tomography of the Galactic magnetic field I. The method |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=August 2002 |volume=391 |issue=08 |pages=361-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...391..361S |arxiv=astro-ph/0112507 |bibcode=2002A&A...391..361S |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020552 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-04-20 }}</ref> ===Cold neutral mediums=== [[Image:Reflection nebula IC 349 near Merope.jpg|thumb|right|250px|IC 349 may be an example of a cold neutral medium (CNM). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] IC 349 may be an example of a cold, dense, very small-scale condensation of the [[interstellar medium]].<ref name="Heiles1997">{{cite journal | last = Heiles | first = Carl | date = May 1997 | title = Tiny-Scale Atomic Structure and the Cold Neutral Medium | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 481 | issue = 1 | pages = 193–204 | doi = 10.1086/304033 | bibcode = 1997ApJ...481..193H }}</ref><ref name="Herbig1996">{{cite journal | last = Herbig | first = George | date = March 1996 | title = IC 349: Barnard's Merope Nebula | journal = The Astronomical Journal | volume = 111 | issue = 3 | pages = 1241–1251 | doi = 10.1086/117869 | bibcode = 1996AJ....111.1241H }}</ref> H I regions of the ISM contain the cold neutral medium (CNM). The CNM constitutes 1-5 % by volume of the ISM, ranges in size from 100-300 pc, has a temperature between 50 and 100 K, with an atom density of 20-50 atoms/cm³.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The CNM has hydrogen in the neutral atomic state and emits the 21 cm line. {{clear}} ===Warm neutral mediums=== The warm neutral medium (WNM) is 10-20 % of the ISM, ranges in size from 300-400 pc, temperature between 6000 and 10000 K, is composed of neutral atomic hydrogen, has a density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, and emits the hydrogen 21 cm line.<ref name=Ferriere>{{ cite journal | author=K. Ferriere | title= The Interstellar Environment of our Galaxy | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=2001 | volume=73 | issue=4 | pages= 1031–66 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 | arxiv=astro-ph/0106359 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73.1031F }}</ref> The "peak emissivity is enhanced by about 23% for the WIM [and only 11 % for the warm neutral medium (WNM)], although the peak frequency remains unchanged."<ref name=Ali>{{ cite journal |author=Yacine Ali-Haïmoud |title=Spinning dust radiation: a review of the theory |journal=Advances in Astronomy |date= 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=462697 |pages= |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1211.2748v1.pdf |arxiv=1211.2748 |bibcode=2013AdAst2013E...2A |doi=10.1155/2013/462697 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-10-19 }}</ref> ===Warm ionized mediums=== Within the H I regions is the warm ionized medium (WIM), constituting 20-50 % by volume of the ISM, with a size around 1000 pc, a temperature of 8000 K, an atom density of 0.2-0.5 atoms/cm³, of ionized hydrogen, emitting the hydrogen alpha line and exhibiting pulsar dispersion.<ref name=Ferriere/> ===Hot ionized mediums=== "Of interest is the hot ionized medium (HIM) consisting of a [[coronal cloud]] ejection from star surfaces at 10⁶-10⁷ K which emits X-rays. The ISM is turbulent and full of structure on all spatial scales. Stars are born deep inside large complexes of molecular clouds, typically a few parsecs in size. During their lives and deaths, stars interact physically with the ISM. Stellar winds from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant HII regions surrounding them) and shock waves created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures are stellar wind bubbles and superbubbles of hot gas. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, a denser region in the low-density Local Bubble."<ref name=Marshallsumter1>{{ cite book |author=[[w:User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] |title=X-ray astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 15, 2013 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy |accessdate=2013-05-11 }}</ref> A fossil stellar magnetic field is a relic "of the primordial field that [threads] the interstellar gas out of which stars [form].<ref name=Brun>{{ cite journal |author=Allan Sacha Brun |author2=Matthew K. Browning |author3=Juri Toomre |title=Simulations of Core Convection in Rotating A-Type Stars: Magnetic Dynamo Action |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=August 10, |year=2005 |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=461–81 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=2005ApJ...629..461B |doi=10.1086/430430 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-10 }}</ref> ===H II regions=== [[Image:Messier 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image is a three-color composite of the sky region of Messier 17. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] An '''H&nbsp;II region''' is a large, low-density cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place. At right is an image in three-color infrared of an H II region excited by a cluster of young, hot stars. The region is in Messier 17 (M 17). A large silhouette disc occurs to the southwest of the cluster center. This image is obtained with the ISAAC near-infrared instrument at the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope at Paranal. {{clear}} ==Molecular clouds== [[Image:Barnard 68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a colour composite of visible and near-infrared images of the dark cloud Barnard 68. Credit: ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Molecular.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cloud of gas and dust is being deleted. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), N. Walborn (STScI) & R. Barbß (La Plata Obs.), NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] G0.253+0.016 was probed "with another network of telescopes, the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy [CARMA] in California."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff>{{ cite book |author=SPACE.com Staff |title=Baffling Star Birth Mystery Finally Solved |publisher=Yahoo! Inc. |location= |date=January 14, 2013 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/baffling-star-birth-mystery-finally-solved-194046433.html |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> "G0.253+0.016, which is about 30 light-years long, defies the conventional wisdom that dense gas glouds should produce lots of stars. ... The cloud is 25 times more dense than the famous Orion Nebula, which is birthing stars at a furious rate. But only a few stars are being born in G0.253+0.016, and they're pretty much all runts."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> "It's a very dense cloud and it doesn't form any massive stars, which is very weird"<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/>. "CARMA data showed that gas within G0.253+0.016 is zipping around 10 times faster than gas in similar clouds. G0.253+0.016 is on the verge of flying apart, with its gas churning too violently to coalesce into stars. Further, the ... cloud is full of silicon monoxide, a compound typically produced when fast-moving gas smashes into dust particles. The abnormally large amounts of silicon monoxide suggest that G0.253+0.016 may actually consist of two colliding clouds, whose impact is generating powerful shockwaves."<ref name=SPACEcomStaff/> When surveyed at 1.1 mm as part of the Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey, "[t]he only currently known starless [massive proto-cluster] MPC is G0.253+0.016, which lies within the dense central molecular zone and is subject to greater environmental stresses than similar objects in the Galactic plane (Longmore et al. 2012)."<ref name=Ginsburg>{{ cite journal |author=A. Ginsburg |author2=E. Bressert |author3=J. Bally |author4=C. Battersby |title=There are No Starless Massive Proto-Clusters in the First Quadrant of the Galaxy |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=October 20, |year=2012 |volume=758 |issue=2 |pages=L29-33 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.4097.pdf |arxiv=1208.4097 |bibcode=2012ApJ...758L..29G |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/758/2/L29 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> '''Def.''' a "large and relatively dense cloud of cold gas and dust in interstellar space from which new stars are formed"<ref name=MolecularCloudWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=molecular cloud |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molecular_cloud |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> is called a '''molecular cloud'''. The image on the right is a composite of visible (B 440 nm and V 557 nm) and near-infrared (768 nm) of the dark cloud (absorption cloud) Barnard 68.<ref name=ESO0102/> Barnard 68 is around 500 lyrs away in the constellation Ophiuchus.<ref name=ESO0102/> "At these wavelengths, the small cloud is completely opaque because of the obscuring effect of dust particles in its interior."<ref name=ESO0102>{{ cite book |author=eso0102 |title=How to Become a Star |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location= |date=10 January 2001 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0102a/ |accessdate=2015-09-30 }}</ref> "It was obtained with the 8.2-m VLT ANTU telescope and the multimode FORS1 instrument in March 1999."<ref name=ESO0102/> In the image at right is a molecular cloud of gas and dust that is being reduced. "Likely, within a few million years, the intense light from bright stars will have boiled it away completely. The cloud has broken off of part of the Carina Nebula, a star forming region about 8000 light years away. Newly formed stars are visible nearby, their images reddened by blue light being preferentially scattered by the pervasive dust. This image spans about two light years and was taken by the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope in 1999."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author=Robert Nemiroff (MTU) |author2=Jerry Bonnell (USRA) |title=Disappearing Clouds in Carina |publisher=NASA |location=Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA |date=June 30, 2003 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030630.html |accessdate=2012-09-05 }}</ref> A '''molecular cloud''', sometimes called a '''stellar nursery''' if [[w:star formation|star formation]] is occurring within, is a type of [[w:interstellar cloud|interstellar cloud]] whose density and size permits the formation of molecules, most commonly [[w:molecular hydrogen|molecular hydrogen]] (H₂). Molecular hydrogen is difficult to detect by infrared and radio observations, so the molecule most often used to determine the presence of H₂ is CO ([[w:carbon monoxide|carbon monoxide]]). The ratio between CO [[w:luminosity|luminosity]] and H₂ [[w:mass|mass]] is thought to be constant, although there are reasons to doubt this assumption in observations of some other [[w:galaxies|galaxies]].<ref name=Kulesa>{{ cite book | author=Craig Kulesa | title=Overview: Molecular Astrophysics and Star Formation | url=http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/research/overview.html | accessdate=September 7, 2005 }}</ref> Such clouds make up < 1% of the ISM, have temperatures of 10-20 K and high densities of 10² - 10⁶ atoms/cm³. These clouds are astronomical radio and infrared sources with radio and infrared molecular emission and absorption lines. {{clear}} ==Messier 17== [[Image:ESO- Stellar Nursery-M 17-Phot-24a-00-normal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. Credit: European Southern Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] At right "is a near-infrared, colour-coded composite image of a sky field in the south-western part of the galactic star-forming region Messier 17. In this image, young and heavily obscured stars are recognized by their red colour. Bluer objects are either foreground stars or well-developed massive stars whose intense light ionizes the hydrogen in this region. The diffuse light that is visible nearly everywhere in the photo is due to emission from hydrogen atoms that have (re-)combined from protons and electrons. The dark areas are due to obscuration of the light from background objects by large amounts of dust — this effect also causes many of those stars to appear quite red. A cluster of young stars in the upper-left part of the photo, so deeply embedded in the nebula that it is invisible in optical light, is well visible in this infrared image. Technical information : The exposures were made through three filtres, J (at wavelength 1.25 µm; exposure time 5 min; here rendered as blue), H (1.65 µm; 5 min; green) and Ks (2.2 µm; 5 min; red); an additional 15 min was spent on separate sky frames. The seeing was 0.5 - 0.6 arcsec. The objects in the uppermost left corner area appear somewhat elongated because of a colour-dependent aberration introduced at the edge by the large-field optics. The sky field shown measures approx. 5 x 5 arcmin 2 (corresponding to about 3% of the full moon). North is up and East is left."<ref name=ESO00>{{ cite book |author=ESO00 |title=Peering into a Star Factory |publisher=European Southern Observatory |location=Paranal |date=September 14, 2000 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0030a/ |accessdate=2013-03-14 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Wolf-Rayet stars== {{main|Stars/Wolf-Rayets}} [[Image:A cosmic couple.jpg|right|thumb|250px|WR 124 is surrounded by the nebula M1-67. Credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA and Judy Schmidt.{{tlx|free media}}]] "At the low density given by the spherically symmetric wind model (see Table 1), the dominant species in the gas are atomic ions while as the gas number density increases, the recombination of ions takes place and the gas composition is governed by neutral-phase chemistry, that is, the dominant species are neutral atoms and molecules although electrons and some ions are still present in relatively large amounts (for example, C⁺, O⁺ and He⁺)."<ref name= Cherchneff >{{ cite journal |author=I. Cherchneff |author2=Y.H. Le Teuff |author3=P.M. Williams |author4=A.G.G.M. Tielens |title=Dust formation in carbon-rich Wolf-Rayet stars. I. Chemistry of small carbon clusters and silicon species |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=May 2000 |volume=357 |issue=5 |pages=572-80 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=2000A%26A...357..572C&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=2000A&A...357..572C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-12-05 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Intergalactic medium== {{main|Sources/Intergalactic medium}} [[Image:Stephan's Quintet with annotation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This composite image shows Stephan's Quintet and the IGM around the galaxies. Credit: Martin Harwit, George Helou, Lee Armus, C. Matt Bradford, Paul F. Goldsmith, Michael Hauser, David Leisawitz, Daniel F. Lester, George Rieke, and Stephen A. Rinehart/NASA GSFC.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Stephan's Quintet (SQ) is a system consisting of at least four interacting galaxies which is well known for its complex dynamical and star formation history. It possesses a rich intergalactic medium (IGM), where hydrogen clouds, both atomic and molecular, associated with two starbursts (refered to as SQ A and B) have been found."<ref name=Lisenfeld>{{ cite journal |author=Ute Lisenfeld |author2=Jonathan Braine |author3=Pierre-Alain Duc |author4=Stéphane Leon |author5=Vassilis Charmandaris |author6=Elias Brinks |title=Abundant molecular gas in the intergalactic medium of Stephan's Quintet |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=2002 |volume=394 |issue=11 |pages=823-33 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002A%26A...394..823L |arxiv=astro-ph/0208494 |bibcode=2002A&A...394..823L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20021232 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-11 }}</ref> The composite image at right shows "Stephan’s Quintet [with] a diffuse arc of atomic hydrogen emission, indicated in green, roughly coincident with a shock front observed in the X-ray domain. Spitzer observations reveal powerful H₂ emission originating from the center of this 10³ km s^-1 shock."<ref name=Harwit>{{ cite journal |author=Martin Harwit |author2=George Helou |author3=Lee Armus |author4=C. Matt Bradford |author5=Paul F. Goldsmith |author6=Michael Hauser |author7=David Leisawitz |author8=Daniel F. Lester |author9=George Rieke |author10=Stephen A. Rinehart |title=Far-Infrared/Submillimeter Astronomy from Space Tracking an Evolving Universe and the Emergence of Life |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |month= |year=2010 |pages=39 |url=http://astrophysics.gsfc.nasa.gov/cosmology/spirit/FIR-SIM_Crosscutting_White_Paper.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-10 }}</ref> "One of [SQs] most striking properties is that the major part of the gas is in the intragroup medium, most likely the result of interactions in the past and present. [...] a few times 10⁸ yr ago the group experienced a collision with NGC 7320c, a galaxy ∼4 arcmin to the east of NGC 7319 but with a very similar recession velocity (6583 kms⁻¹ [...] to the other galaxies in SQ. This collision removed most of the gas of NGC 7319 towards the west and east, and produced the eastern tidal tail which connects to NGC 7319. Presently, the group is experiencing another collision with the “intruder” galaxy NGC 7318b which strongly affects the interstellar medium (ISM) removed during the first collision."<ref name=Lisenfeld/> {{clear}} ==Spectroscopy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy}} [[Image:Saturation free doppler spectroscopy.png|thumb|right|300px|The relative absorption of an infrared laser. In the red line's profile you can see the hyperfine-structure of the first excited level of rubidium. Credit: Clemens Adolphs.{{tlx|free media}}]] By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and temperatures of stars and interstellar clouds. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules. Interstellar formaldehyde was the first polyatomic organic molecule detected in the interstellar medium. {{clear}} ==Technology== [[Image:Image-Pegasus XL IBEX in clean room 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the IBEX (photo cells forward) being surrounded by its protective nose cone. Credit: NASA (John F. Kennedy Space Center).{{tlx|free media}}]] "The sensors on the IBEX spacecraft are able to detect energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) at a variety of energy levels."<ref name=McComas>{{ cite book |author=Dave McComas |author2=Lindsay Bartolone |title=IBEX: Interstellar Boundary Explorer |publisher=NASA Southwest Research Institute |location=San Antonio, Texas USA |date=May 10, 2012 |url=http://ibex.swri.edu/mission/measurements.shtml |accessdate=2012-08-11 }}</ref> The satellite's payload consists of two energetic neutral atom (ENA) imagers, IBEX-Hi and IBEX-Lo. Each of these sensors consists of a collimator that limits their fields-of-view, a conversion surface to convert neutral hydrogen and oxygen into ions, an electrostatic analyzer (ESA) to suppress ultraviolet light and to select ions of a specific energy range, and a detector to count particles and identify the type of each ion. "IBEX–Lo can detect particles with energies ranging from 10 electron–volts to 2,000 electron–volts (0.01 keV to 2 keV) in 8 separate energy bands. IBEX–Hi can detect particles with energies ranging from 300 electron–volts to 6,000 electron–volts (.3 keV to 6 keV) in 6 separate energy bands. ... Looking across the entire sky, interactions occurring at the edge of our Solar System produce ENAs at different energy levels and in different amounts, depending on the process."<ref name=McComas/> “The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) [is in] low Earth orbit ... to make targeted observations of giant molecular clouds and dark cloud cores. The focus of SWAS is five spectral lines: water (H₂O), isotopic water (H₂¹⁸O), isotopic carbon monoxide (¹³CO), molecular oxygen (O₂), and neutral carbon (C I).”<ref name=Submillimetreastronomy>{{ cite book |title=Submillimetre astronomy |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=June 2, 2012 |url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submillimetre_astronomy |accessdate=2012-06-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Chemistry|Astrochemistry]] * [[Plasmas/Plasma objects/Auroras|Auroras]] * [[Rocks/Ice sheets/Europa|Europa]] * [[Sources/Intergalactic medium|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Sources/Interstellar medium|Interstellar medium]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutral astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Atomic radiation astronomy}} <!-- footer categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] fyqr4bznb0v644l22sxqpse2l4n8851 0 250943 2417155 2029654 2022-08-22T03:19:54Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Martian Methane Map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Methane is found in the Martian atmosphere. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic radiation astronomy]]''' is a lecture as part of the [[Portal:Radiation astronomy|radiation astronomy department]] course on the [[principles of radiation astronomy]]. You are free to take this quiz based on [Radiation astronomy/Atomics|Atomic radiation astronomy]] at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Atomics/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the item letter with each of the possibilities below: Meteors - A Cosmic rays - B Neutrons - C Protons - D Electrons - E Positrons - F Gamma rays - G Superluminals - H X-ray jets { C (i) } the index of refraction is often greater than 1 just below a resonance frequency { H (i) }. iron, nickel, cobalt, and traces of iridium { A (i) }. Sagittarius X-1 { G (i) }. escape from a typical hard low-mass X-ray binary { F (i) }. collisions with argon atoms { B (i) }. X-rays are emitted as they slow down { E (i) }. Henry Moseley using X-ray spectra { D (i) }. {True or False, The disparity between the atomic number of an atom and its atomic mass is explained by the existence of the neutrino. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {An argon-37 atom is converted by a neutrino by the charged current interaction from what atom? |type="{}"} { chlorine-37|³⁷Cl (i) } {Which of the following may be characteristic of magnetohydrodynamics? |type="[]"} + driven by current gradients - neutral atoms + closed tube loops + twisted flux + open field lines + synchrotron radiation {True or False, The fundamental unit was over 1000 times smaller than an atom, suggesting the subatomic particles called delta rays. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {The elastic collisions between the projectile ion and atoms in the detector involving the interaction of the ion with the nuclei in the detector material? |type="{}"} { nuclear stopping power (i) } {True or False, The density distributions of a solid or unit of condensed matter involving more than atoms or molecules is not discrete like a spectral density but continuous. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are characteristic of positronium? |type="[]"} + an exotic atom - a nucleus of neutronium - a decay product of a neutron - a weak interaction + an eletromagnetic interaction + a center of mass {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Match up the radiation type with the satellite: meteor - A cosmic ray - B neutral atoms - C neutron - D proton - E electron - F positron - G neutrino - H gamma ray - I X-ray - J ultraviolet - K optical - L visual - M violet - N blue - O cyan - P green - Q yellow - R orange - S red - T infrared - U submillimeter - V microwave - W radio - X radar - Y superluminal - Z [[Image:JUNO - PIA13746.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { M (i) }. [[Image:RAE B.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { X (i) }. [[Image:Chandra-spacecraft labeled-en.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { J (i) }. [[Image:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Z (i) }. [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { N (i) }. [[Image:GLAST on the payload attach fitting.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { I (i) }. [[Image:Mars-express-volcanoes-sm.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Y (i) }. [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }. [[Image:IBEX.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }. [[Image:STEREO spacecraft.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { P (i) }. [[Image:GOES-P.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }. [[Image:Aquarius SAC-D satellite.png|thumb|left|100px]] { W (i) }. [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { O (i) }. [[Image:Micrometeoroid hole.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }. [[Image:Rosetta.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { Q (i) }. [[Image:INTEGRAL-spacecraft410.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }. [[Image:FUSE prelaunch crop.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { K (i) }. [[Image:Swas 1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { V (i) }. [[Image:2001 mars odyssey wizja.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }. [[Image:Spitzer space telescope pre-launch.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { U (i) }. [[Image:TERRA_am1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { R (i) }. [[Image:Galileo Energetic Particles Detector.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) } [[Image:Landsat7photo.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { S (i) }. [[Image:Pioneer_10_on_its_kickmotor.jpg|thumb|100px|left]] { B (i) }. [[Image:Mariner 10.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { T (i) }. [[Image:HST-SM4.jpeg|thumb|left|100px]] { L (i) }. {{clear}} {True or False, A small amount of aluminum-26 is produced by collisions of magnesium atoms with cosmic-ray protons. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Mathematical phenomena associated with an exponential decrease are |type="[]"} - a positive exponent - a negative absorption coefficient + the number of atoms per cm³ + the initial absorption of a monolayer + the absorption cross section in cm² - thinness of material {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The { Lyman (i) } series is the series of transitions and resulting ultraviolet emission lines of the { hydrogen (i) } atoms as an electron goes from a high-energy level to an n = { one|1 (i) } level. {Which of the following are associated with muon astronomy? |type="[]"} + high-energy cosmic rays + secondary and tertiary cosmic rays + nuclear interactions between neutrons and quartz + nuclear interactions between muons and calcite + production rates of a few atoms per gram of rock per year + build-up of cosmogenic nuclides through time {When plasma is present, what characteristic is readily observed? |type="()"} - the magnetic north pole - gravity - neutral neodymium atoms + electrons - temperatures below 10⁴ K - solar positron events </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # More technical questions concerning neutrons and neutron detection safety may be good. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Blue astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Colors/Quiz|Color astronomy quiz]] * [[Cyan astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Green astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Infrared astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Microwave astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Optical astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Orange astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Particles/Quiz|Particle astronomy quiz]] * [[Proton astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radar astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Quiz]] * [[Radio astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Red astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Synchrotrons/Quiz|Synchrotron astronomy quiz]] * [[Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Violet astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Visual astronomy/Quiz]] * [[X-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Yellow astronomy/Quiz]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Atomic radiation astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation quizzes]] 8zpuouunmfyxa86thaimjia1hbuztq3 0 252167 2417113 2243186 2022-08-21T22:48:31Z U962051 2947541 /* Overview */ Editing grammar errors wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation:<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-WeDD8Gz4Fh1bMk6c5IxlgnLpo8B6c8q/view}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Global travel has been on a long and changing pattern of consumption, from the early trade market and discovery of new land, to the 19^th century where missionaries were setting out to immerse themselves in different cultures, motivated to enlighten others with their religious views. Travel became a more normal part of life in western society post the second world war, prior to this, tourism had typically been reserved for the wealthy (Chen & Chen, 2011). The mass tourism industry really began to flourish in the 1960s and branched into niche tourism markets over the next two decades (Lo & Lee, 2011). By the 1990s, the rush of volunteer tourism had arrived (Callanan & Thomas, 2005). Consumption behaviour changed again as the global awareness of environmental issues altered the way that people wanted to devote time to travel, combined with the need for unpaid volunteers to offer support internationally (Chen & Chen, 2011). Volunteer Tourism initially became a popular alternative market of travel in Britain and Europe, going on to become a global travel trend that rapidly reached places like Australia (Wearing & McGehee, 2013). Nestora, Yeung & Calderon (2009) suggest heavily publicised global events like the September 11 terrorist attack and the Indonesian Tsunami fuelled a sense of greater awareness of the world around us, prompting further interest in the alternative travel options. Volunteer Tourism (VT) is the integration of travelling, generally overseas and typically in developing countries and performing humanitarian acts. Some examples are, conservation experiences, sustainable community projects and education support. People participate for varying amounts of time from weeks to month or years. Over the decades this alternative travel experience has been growing in popularity and has become a focus of research which attempts to explain the patterns of behaviour associated with it, including what motivates people to participate '''('''Mustonen, 2007; Benson & Seibert, 2009;Polus and Bidder, 2016), how they perceive their experience (Polus and Bidder, 2016) and how these factors may influence each other (Han, Meng, Chua, Ryu & Kim, 2019). The phenomenon goes by different names like the popular title of [http://voluntourism.org/ Voluntourism]. To conceptualise voluntourism for the purposes of this chapter, we will explore the topic based on the widely accepted definition "tourist, who for various reasons, volunteer in an organized way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments or research into aspects of society or environment" (Wearing, 2001). Research into the benefit of participating in VT has dominated earlier studies describing it as an opportunity for the traveller to experience transformation of the self and identity (Coghlan & Weiler, 2015), a chance for cultural immersion and understanding (Barbieri, Santos & Katsube, 2011), as well as an opportune time to build relationships with like minded people, and host communities (Brown 2005). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ;Focus questions # What are the reasons people want to participate in volunteering overseas? # What are the common themes? # How can these be explained by motivational theory and research? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What do we know from volunteer tourists about why they participate?== Callan & Thomas (2005) theorised that there are 3 levels of tourists participation, the “shallow” being the first level characterised by more preoccupation with a shorter stay (few weeks), motivated more by self interest, less skilled and take the back seat in participating, the other end of the spectrum is the “deep” tourist who demonstrates more altruistic motives, may actually have some technical / professional skills to offer and more hands on in helping the community. Important differentiation to make in understanding what creates such diversity in motivations and outcomes{{rewrite}}. The vast majority of research in this area has consistently found the below results{{gr}}. === Motives found frequently in research on volunteer tourism === *Altruism (Wearing, 2001; Lo & Lee, 2011; Otoo & Amuquandoh, 2014) *Cultural exchange and immersion (Wearing, 2001) *Participation in program (Wearing, 2001) *Self development/ esteem development (Charlebois & Foller-Carroll, 2016; Weaver, 2015; Wearing & McGee, 2013) *Challenge of a new experience (Polus & Bidder, 2016; Pegg, Patterson & Matsumoto, 2012) Wearing (2001) proposes that the adversity and challenges people seek in VT is likey something that makes them more resilient to the challenges of everyday life when they return. *Escape from daily life (Han, Meng, Chua, Ryu & Kim, 2019) *Education ( Otoo & Amuquandoh, 2014) * Forming social connections (Brown, 2005; Weaver, 2015) * Personal Growth (Wearing, 2001) * Scenery and experience of a new place (Pegg, Patterson, & Matsumoto, 2012) *Authenticity Authenticity is a common umbrella term that continues to appear in studies trying to capture pre trip motivations (Benson & Seibert, 2009; Brown 2005), often in the form of aspects like cultural immersion,{{gr}} Kontogeorgopoulos' (2017) study of volunteers involved in a program in Thailand, all participants reported the desire for object authenticity, "real" Thai people behaving in natural ways as they go about their day to day life in the absence of the tourist microscope. {{gr}}though this is achieved more so in VT then In mass tourism experience, it is acknowledged that the host would still likely be selective about the parts of what real everyday life in Thailand would be like, the participants of the study unanimously decided that object authenticity was the most important reason for wanting to participate in VT. ===== The emerging constructs of volunteer tourist motivations ===== In more recent research Han et al (2019) discuss the constructs that have emerged as the foundation for understanding key pillars in motivational research: * Altruism, motivated by the desire to genuinely help and support others * Personal growth and development * Opportunities to learn, open to new experiences seeking a new adventure * The self "ego enhancement" as described by Han et al (2019) is the endeavour towards deeper meaning * Escaping from the routine of everyday life These broad constructs typically cover all of the smaller factors identified as being key to motivation in previous studies. Research into volunteer tourism motivations has in large part been exploratory rather then an attempt at explaining the psychological mechanisms that function below the surface level motives (Francis & Yasué, 2019). Voluntourism partly has its routes in volunteerism research but a much larger foundation in travel research, where similarly motivates{{gr}} are diverse and complex,{{gr}} travel theories have been developed over the past couple of decades to systematically make sense of the research. == Push/pull theory of motivation == As a systematic way of explaining and organising the large range of motives for travel, Dann (1977) theorised that intrinsic needs motivate someone to seek out travel opportunities,{{gr}} these "push" factors move someone towards travelling, and "pull" factors are what lures them to their destination, Crompton (1979) went on to suggests a list of factors for travel, in the volunteer tourism literature {{gr}} Benson & Seibert (2011) identified key push/pull factors as per Crompton notion there were 5 categories of push factors and 2 categories of pull to survey from, they identified the 5 most important motives for travel, four of those were push factors: Push factors were * Experiencing something different * Cultural immersion and learning * To live in another country * To broaden one's mind Pull factor: * "Meet African people" Based on this study there is evidence to suggest that perhaps internal push factors are more motivating than the pull factors, but there is continued support for the interplay between both. This {{what}} theory has strong foundations in tourism research and as theoretical application continues to grow in Voluntourism there would likely be some similarities to push pull factors in travel but with unique distinctions to volunteering such as altruism and career development (Callan & Thomas, 2005) <quiz display="simple"> {True or false? push and pull factors both function together as mechanisms that motivate the individual to pursue travel |type="()"} - False + True </quiz> == Motivation to volunteer abroad: A needs satisfaction approach == Needs are motivating drives that cause us to behave in ways that satisfy a deficiency or a need for growth, our development and wellbeing as human beings depends on their satisfaction. Physiological needs, believed to be the most important (Maslow 1943) are innate needs relating to maintaining [[wikipedia:Homeostasis|homeostasis]] in the body, they alert us to thirst, hunger etc, considerably important in staying alive. Psychological needs are what pushes us towards actively participating in the environment and engaging in activities that allow us to experience, learn and grow from our surroundings motivating us towards human connection and relationships. The research on volunteer touirsts motivations has been primarily descriptive and although the industry has been established for a while it's foundational research is marginal as compared to mass tourism, theoretical framework used to explain tourism has been frequently applied to volunteer tourism, such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943). It is understood in the travel literature that a robust explanation for desire to travel is in large part due to the fulfilment of human needs (Brown 2005). == Maslow's Hierarchy of needs is, an explanation of intrinsic motivation == [[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs''|alt=|383x383px]] within the literature on tourism Maslow's hierarchy has been applied to a wide pool of research and has gathered great empirical support in this area (Jang & Cai, 2002). This is a universal model for the categorisation of human needs, as per figure 1 this pyramid describes the order that the individuals' needs will emerge, beginning with basic physiological needs through to the highest order needs inclusive of self actualisation and fulfillment of potential. Originally Maslow believed that after the lower needs in the hierarchy must be satisfied before the higher needs become salient (Maslow, 1943), later revision implies the lower needs may not always become entirely satisfied and there is room for flexibility within this model (1970). There is a likelihood of experiencing more then one level of needs being salient at a time,{{gr}} Maslow also factored in interpersonal difference, external circumstances and the possibilities of an individual desire for fulfillment and creativity superseding everything else (Maslow 1970, 1987). ===== Deficiency needs ===== This grouping stems from a deficit in the mind and body and as mentioned above needs to be satisfied before being ready for personal growth to be a priority:<br />1^st physiological and biological needs/ innate drives like thirst, hunger, sleep and shelter 2^nd safety needs: feeling safe emotionally, physically, possibly financially 3rd social needs: relationships of all kinds, interpersonal connection that is perceived to have value, community 4^th esteem needs: importance, status, recognition, self respect and a favourable self concept are important here, depending on whether the indiduval{{sp}} has low or high self esteem they will tend to either have more of a need for recognition from others (low) or a focus on respecting themselves, personal achievement and mastery (high) ===== Growth needs ===== Once we move past being in a state of deficiency in the lower needs there is room for interest in personal growth: <big>5^{th self-actualisation: motivated to reach ones potential, fulfillment, motivated by the need for personal growth, focus towards humanity and the service of others}</big> Revised Model inclusive of 3 additional growth needs: Cognitive needs: meaning, knowledge and understating of the world around us Aesthetic needs: beauty, balance, form Transcendence needs: assistance in other people’s journey towards self actualisation * When applied to VT research, as the lower level needs approach a level of satisfaction the need for self development and self actualisation may emerge in the form of being motivated to volunteer abroad, this kind of travel may be appealing for motives like transcendence, we may also continue to participate through out the life span as travel often has an end goal of self actualisation (Mill and Morrison (2002), a need that is salient across the life span. * Theorised need for knowledge and understanding may offer explanation for the desire towards cultural immersion and an authentic experience * According to Brown (2005) there is also opportunity for satisfying lower level needs in travel,{{gr}} her results demonstrated that strengthened connection to family and an opportunity for camaraderie was emphasised by voluntourists as a key motive for travel. * Maslow (1970) discussed behaviour leading to self actualisation and characteristics of self actualisers that allude to caring about humanity and wanting to assist others in their accent up the pyramid, this may offer an explanation as to why altruistic behaviour has such a high presence in the voluntourism literature. <br />volunteer statement: “So I decided to do it because I do well in life and I like to give back. I enjoy doing that kind of work and so I think my main reason was it’s time to start giving back again.” (Brown, 2005) <quiz display="simple"> {Choose from one of the following, Maslow's hierarchy of needs is: |type="()"} - Not very well known the literature on tourism. - A theory about extrinsic motivation. - A Hierarchical model that suggests once you have satisfied the need for self actualisation you work your way down the hierarchy of motivational needs. +A well known model that has been widely applied in motivational research where is suggested that the lower level needs will likely need to be satisfied before the higher order needs arise. </quiz> === Pearce's travel career pattern theory (Pearce 2005) === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ; key concepts started as travel career "ladder"- the hierarchical model as people build their travel experience, also referred to as a "career" in this model, their pre-trip motivation will undergo a transformation over the course of their life. This is based on the notion that there is a certain predictability in people's travel motivations. travel career "pattern" (travel- needs theory) the revised version of the earlier model that removes the hierarchical element and focuses on the diverse motives towards a trip. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The category with the most corresponding travel motives, will be the travellers "dominant motivation" # Physiological needs, escape excitement relaxation physical drives # Safety and security needs # Relationship needs # Self esteem and development needs # Self actualisation and fulfilment needs Pearce explains that rather then this being a hierarchical model of people needing to satisfy needs in an accent up the ladder, It accounts for the fact that motivation to travel to a destination is diverse and multifaceted. The theory acknowledges that travellers may have a diverse list of motivations for travelling but one will be more prominent than the rest,{{gr}} it also proposes that if people's means to travel become limited and they cannot continue to build the career then their move through the stages will become stagnant. the key concept in this theory is the acknowledgement of individual motivation across categories that allows for a more robust framework widely applicable to tourism and involved in the beginning stages of the voluntourism research (Pearce 2005). Initial support was gained for this theory in Pearce's earlier work (1982) where he found that the older more experienced travellers results were dominated more by need for self actualisation and belonging needs, further along in the career then younger groups of the participants. This would imply some support in his notion of predictable travel patterns. <quiz display="simple"> {Which is not a motive, repeatedly found in studies for participating in volunteer tourism ? |type="()"} - Self development - Have an authentic experience - To help others + Taking photos for Instagram = to build your cultural understanding </quiz> ==Conclusion== so why is it significant to understand what motivates us towards volunteer tourism experiences? there is continuous acknowledgment of the benefit the experience has on both the traveller and the host community, to continue to grow this kind of tourism it is imperative to understand why future generations will engage, knowing what motivates them allows the industry to develop a targeted approach to getting people to participate. According to motivational theory, motives to participate in volunteer tourism are a complex blend of altruistic behaviour and also many self interest components,{{gr}} as humans we are drawn and pushed to these experiences by the psychological need for new experiences, challenges, more understanding and so on,{{gr}} it is suggested that travel opportunities particularly in this niche market may be very advantageous to need satisfaction and may have a great deal to offer in supporting people to feel fulfilled and move towards self actualisation. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Volunteer motivation|Volunteer motivation]] (Motivation and Emotion book chapter, 2013) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation]] (Motivation and Emotion book chapter, 2015) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Motivation and Emotion book chapter, 2011) *[[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International volunteering further information]] (Wikipedia.org) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Barbieri, C., Santos, C., & Katsube, Y. (2011). Volunteer tourism: On-the-ground observations from Rwanda. ''Tourism Management'','' 33'' https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.05.009 Benson, A. and Seibert, N. (2009). Volunteer tourism: Motivations of German participants in South Africa. ''Annals of Leisure Research'','' 12'', 295-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2009.9686826 Brown, S. (2005). Travelling with a purpose: understanding the motives and benefits of volunteer vacationers. ''Current Issues In Tourism'', '' 8,'' 479-496. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500508668232 Callanan, M., & Thomas, S. (2005). Volunteer tourism. Niche tourism, 183-200. Chen, L. J., & Chen, J. S. (2011). The motivations and expectations of international volunteer tourists: A case study of “Chinese Village Traditions”. ''Tourism Management'', ''32'', 435-442. doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.01.009 Coghlan, A., & Weiler, B. (2015). Examining transformative processes in volunteer tourism.'' Current Issues In Tourism'','' 21'', 567-582. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1102209 Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation.'' Annals of tourism research, 6'', 408-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(79)90004-5 Dann, G. M. S. (1977) Anomie, Ego-Enhancement and Tourism. ''Annals of Tourism Research,4'', 184–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(77)90037-8 Francis, D. and Yasué, M. (2019). A mixed-methods study on the values and motivations of voluntourists. ''Tourism Recreation Research, 44,'' pp.232-246. Han, H., Meng, B., Chua, B., Ryu, H. and Kim, W. (2019). International volunteer tourism and youth travelers – an emerging tourism trend.'' Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36'', 549-562. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2019.1590293 Jang, S., & Cai, L. (2002). Travel motivations and destination choice: A study of British outbound market. ''Journal Of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 13,'' 111-133. doi: 10.1080/10548400209511570 Kontogeorgopoulos, N. (2017) Forays into the backstage: volunteer tourism and the pursuit of object authenticity. ''Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 15,'' 455-475. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2016.1184673 Lo, A. S., & Lee, C. Y. (2011). Motivations and perceived value of volunteer tourists from Hong Kong. ''Tourism management, 32,'' 326-334. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370- 96. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row. Maslow, A.H. (1970) Motivation and Personality (3rd edn). New York: Harper and Row Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14, 987. McLeod, S. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Simply psychology Mill, R. C., & Morrison, A. M. (2002) the tourism system (4th ed.) Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/ Hunt Publishing Company Mustonen, P. (2007). Volunteer tourism—Altruism or mere tourism?. ''Anatolia, 18,'' pp.97-115. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2007.9687038 Nestora, A., Yeung, P., Calderon., H., (2009) Volunteer travel insights 2009. Bradt travel guides, Lasso communications GeckoGo (2009) Report can be found online at: http://www.geckogo.com/volunteer/report2009 Pegg, S., Patterson, I., & Matsumoto, Y., (2012). Understanding the motivations of volunteers engaged in an alternative tourism experience in Northern Australia. ''Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 21,'' 800-820, https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2012.680244 Polus, R., C., & Bidder, C., (2016) Volunteer tourists’ motivation and satisfaction: A case of Batu Puteh Village Kinabatangan Borneo. ''Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 224,'' 308-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.490 Otoo, F., & Amuquandoh, F. (2014). An exploration of the motivations for volunteering: A study of international volunteer tourists to Ghana. ''Tourism Management Perspectives, 11'', 51-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2014.04.001 Wearing, S., 2001. Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make A Difference https://books.google.com.au/books?id=6VRrdFoCCDwC&lpg=PR8&ots=gx6ANLiJkX&dq=volunteer%20tourism&lr&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q=volunteer%20tourism&f=false Wearing, S., & McGehee, N. (2013). Volunteer tourism: A review. ''Tourism Management, 38'', 120-130. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2013.03.002 Weaver, D. (2015). Volunteer tourism and beyond: motivations and barriers to participation in protected area enhancement. ''Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23,'' 683-705. doi:10.1080/09669582.2014.992901}} <br /> ==External links== * [http://voluntourism.org Voluntourism resources] (David Clemmons Founder, Voluntourism.org) *[https://dfat.gov.au/people-to-people/volunteers/Pages/smart-volunteering.aspx Australian Government DFAT - Smart Volunteering Info Page] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=14zSB6Da-qE Volunteer tourism motivations and implications] (youtube.com) [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2019]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Travel]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] 1vqaxssi2q402k8papbthdwlw1u3sb3 0 253066 2417318 2412334 2022-08-22T07:56:30Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Hierarchical Framework */ Heading update wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} == Overview == == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] im3i7winz8joybber86195rrd8pez4s 2417324 2417318 2022-08-22T08:11:02Z GabbieUC 2947746 Formatting changes wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] o43g2fyhtzcswaltde05mej43t9guvy 2417345 2417324 2022-08-22T08:44:53Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Quizzes */ Quiz update / Add links to See also wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] jxh2xrrpvbolvfi7ns0yomtfldcv5qy 2417349 2417345 2022-08-22T08:58:53Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ text edit wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. '''Plan:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * Why is emotion knowledge important? * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}''DRAFT'' '''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] fl8i3qc3xc1sxnk1vj37gipn6wtdtx4 2417351 2417349 2022-08-22T09:22:43Z GabbieUC 2947746 add table of contents wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __FORCETOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. '''Plan:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * Why is emotion knowledge important? * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}''DRAFT'' '''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ 2c3j3g2m854m2gtlgs7qlxi7ubdw4as 2417352 2417351 2022-08-22T09:27:00Z GabbieUC 2947746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. '''Plan:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * Why is emotion knowledge important? * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}''DRAFT'' '''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ ba52hpn5z1zrtnkwj23av4qnc11zbqw 2417355 2417352 2022-08-22T09:39:48Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ text edit wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ 5nuc1xl9t8mn2ty9ghgbetg05v0wklf 2417357 2417355 2022-08-22T10:06:24Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ added links / overview edit wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** according to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. ** * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ l1tuktpbengb5kgqtfenaepwhd5fs7h 2417359 2417357 2022-08-22T10:36:33Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ added definitions wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ fujl9ib661upbch7i3otixzm6hxrxne 2417360 2417359 2022-08-22T10:53:03Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ text added wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important<ref>(Vandervoort, 2006)</ref> ** There are personal and social benefits to emotional intelligence. ** High emotional intelligence with good self-knowledge and accurate perceptions of others increases the probability that an individual will choose a compatible romantic partner. ** Emotional intelligence provides social competence, allowing people to relate to others. ** Students with high self-knowledge are more likely to make wiser career choices. * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ h2c40deyrteej3ih9rc5x82egry497i 2417361 2417360 2022-08-22T11:03:07Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Overview */ added Emotional Competence Framework wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important<ref>(Vandervoort, 2006)</ref> ** There are personal and social benefits to emotional intelligence. ** High emotional intelligence with good self-knowledge and accurate perceptions of others increases the probability that an individual will choose a compatible romantic partner. ** Emotional intelligence provides social competence, allowing people to relate to others. ** Students with high self-knowledge are more likely to make wiser career choices. * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Emotional Competence Framework === Key attributes to emotional intelligence <ref>(Serrat, 2017)</ref> *Self-awareness **Emotional awareness **Accurate self-assessment **Self-confidence *Self-regulation **Self-control **Trustworthiness **Conscientiousness **Adaptability **Innovativeness *Self-motivation **Achievement drive **commitment **Initiative **Optimism *Social Awareness **Empathy **Service orientation **Developing others **Leveraging diversity **Political awareness *Social Skills **Influence **Communication **Leadership **Change catalyst **Conflict management **Building bonds **Collaboration and cooperation **Team capabilities === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ 74hb2dgfaw5vhkiwiggx1lvro3s095h 2417362 2417361 2022-08-22T11:04:08Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Prototype approach */ add new heading wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important<ref>(Vandervoort, 2006)</ref> ** There are personal and social benefits to emotional intelligence. ** High emotional intelligence with good self-knowledge and accurate perceptions of others increases the probability that an individual will choose a compatible romantic partner. ** Emotional intelligence provides social competence, allowing people to relate to others. ** Students with high self-knowledge are more likely to make wiser career choices. * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Emotional Competence Framework === Key attributes to emotional intelligence <ref>(Serrat, 2017)</ref> *Self-awareness **Emotional awareness **Accurate self-assessment **Self-confidence *Self-regulation **Self-control **Trustworthiness **Conscientiousness **Adaptability **Innovativeness *Self-motivation **Achievement drive **commitment **Initiative **Optimism *Social Awareness **Empathy **Service orientation **Developing others **Leveraging diversity **Political awareness *Social Skills **Influence **Communication **Leadership **Change catalyst **Conflict management **Building bonds **Collaboration and cooperation **Team capabilities === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === == How to develop emotion knowledge == __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ mtbnn6rfqnu7jeqns9ablcovdpheoik 2417364 2417362 2022-08-22T11:06:30Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Emotional Competence Framework */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important<ref>(Vandervoort, 2006)</ref> ** There are personal and social benefits to emotional intelligence. ** High emotional intelligence with good self-knowledge and accurate perceptions of others increases the probability that an individual will choose a compatible romantic partner. ** Emotional intelligence provides social competence, allowing people to relate to others. ** Students with high self-knowledge are more likely to make wiser career choices. * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Emotional Competence Framework === Key attributes to emotional intelligence <ref>(Serrat, 2017)</ref> *Self-awareness *Self-regulation *Self-motivation *Social Awareness *Social Skills === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === == How to develop emotion knowledge == __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ a6cihbg02d7rs8fbyxeq3haxmeim7it 2417365 2417364 2022-08-22T11:07:38Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* Boxes */ remove template elements wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion knowledge:<br>What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. * Define emotion knowledge ** According to the APA dictionary, emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and use emotional information<ref>(Australian Psychological Association, 2015)</ref>. **According to Karimi et al. (2013), emotional intelligence is the ability to identify, assess, and control emotions (concerning the self and others). * Reasons why emotion knowledge is important<ref>(Vandervoort, 2006)</ref> ** There are personal and social benefits to emotional intelligence. ** High emotional intelligence with good self-knowledge and accurate perceptions of others increases the probability that an individual will choose a compatible romantic partner. ** Emotional intelligence provides social competence, allowing people to relate to others. ** Students with high self-knowledge are more likely to make wiser career choices. * Key ways to develop emotion knowledge * Provide an example/case study of emotion knowledge {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions:''' * What is emotion knowledge? * How can emotion knowledge help us in day-to-day life? * What are some ways that we can develop emotion knowledge? * {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion knowledge? == === Emotional Competence Framework === Key attributes to emotional intelligence <ref>(Serrat, 2017)</ref> *Self-awareness *Self-regulation *Self-motivation *Social Awareness *Social Skills === Distinguishing emotions === === Hierarchical framework === === Prototype approach === == How to develop emotion knowledge == __TOC__ ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== * include a quiz on emotion knowledge skills Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[w:Emotion classification|Emotion classification]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotional intelligence training|Emotional intelligence training]] (Book chapter, 2022) * [[w:Emotion recognition|Emotion recognition]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/how-to-improve-your-emotional-intelligence/ How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence] (Harvard University) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion knowledge]] __FORCETOC__ biusk9l8xhmz8f92kuj1lsxe17a9h6v 0 253958 2417100 2405686 2022-08-21T21:09:06Z Ncharamut 2824970 added pdf wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Richard R. | last1 = Abidin | orcid1 = | affiliation1 = University of Virginia | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = Logan T. | last2 = Smith | orcid2 = 0000-0002-2931-4236 | affiliation2 = Temple University | first3 = Hannah | last3 = Kim | affiliation3 = University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | orcid3 = 0000-0002-7191-9896 | correspondence = logan520@temple.edu | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine <!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --> | submitted = 11/4/2019 | license = | abstract = Parenting Stress relates to stressors that are a function of being in and executing the parenting role. It is a construct that relates to both psychological phenomena and to the human body’s physiological state as a parent or caretaker of a child. This article serves as a brief narrative review of the construct. | keywords = <!-- up to 6 keywords --> parenting stress | pdf= https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/d/d4/Parenting_Stress_WJM_.pdf }} == Introduction == {{fig|1 | image = Components of Parenting Stress.png | caption = Parent and child personality and pathology factors that contribute to parenting stress. | attribution = Hannah Kim, [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Hannah |date=2019 |title=Parenting Stress |url=https://osf.io/9cg58/ |journal=Open Science Framework |doi=10.17605/osf.io/9cg58 }}</ref> | align = left }} ''Parenting Stress'' relates to stressors that are a function of being in and executing the parenting role. Unlike many stressful situations and events, parenting stressors tend to be long-term, repetitive, and can create chronic stress that manifests both in psychological and physiological ways. Extensive cross-cultural research has found that parenting stress is associated with parenting and child behaviors, various parenting-related cognitions, and the parent’s and child’s physiological states. Abidin<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abidin|first=Richard R.|date=1992-12|title=The Determinants of Parenting Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12|journal=Journal of Clinical Child Psychology|volume=21|issue=4|pages=407–412|doi=10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12|issn=0047-228X}}</ref> has presented a non-exhaustive model and a measure that attempts to define the major components of parenting stress, and the impact of these stressors on parenting behavior and their child’s development.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/21184758 |title=Parenting Stress Index : manual (PSI) |last=Abidin, Richard R. |date=1986 |publisher=Pediatric Psychology Press |oclc=21184758 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/55989316 |title=Parenting Stress Index : professional manual |last=Abidin, Richard R. |date=1995 |publisher=Psychological Assessment Resources |oclc=55989316 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last = Richard | first = Abidin | title = Parenting Stress Lecture | location = Washington, D.C | date = 2017-08-10 }}</ref> The model concentrates on proximal variables related to the execution of the parenting role: the perceived behavioral characteristics of the child, the parent’s self-cognitions, and their perceptions of the familial and friend support available to them. These proximal factors in turn connect with other aspects of the child's and the parent's interpersonal milieu. There are several operational definitions and ways of measuring aspects of parenting stress.<ref name=":0" /> Many of these have shown good reliability and criterion validity across a range of different samples, establishing evidence of generalizability. The Parenting Stress Index (PSI),<ref>Abidin, Richard R. (2012) Parenting Stress Index: 4^th Ed. Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. 987654321.</ref> the most widely used measure of parenting stress, has shown associations with a wide range of parenting behaviors and child outcomes (see research reference list containing hundreds of published studies at [https://www.parinc.com/Supplemental-Resources#7479197-parenting-stress-index-fourth-edition-psi-4 this link]). Since the fourth edition of the PSI has been translated in over 30 languages,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parinc.com/products/pkey/333|title=Parenting Stress Index, 4th Edition {{!}} PSI-4|website=www.parinc.com|access-date=2021-05-03}}</ref> cross-cultural replications of the PSI factor structure have been published using normative samples from several countries. Copies of these measures and their test manuals may be obtained from the respective publisher. The goal of this article is to provide a brief overview of the construct of parenting stress for a broader audience, given that the topic is likely to be of interest and importance across a wide range of medical and research contexts. Parenting is a human universal across time and culture, and the construct connects with psychological development, socialization of children, education, health (including when either person in the parent-child dyad experiences other illness or injury), and a wealth of other issues. The overview concludes with links to resources for learning more, or for incorporating measures into other programs of research. For a recent and comprehensive review of the available parenting stress-related evidence-based measures, see Holly et al.<ref name=":0" /> == The Nature of Parenting Stress == The construct of parenting stress builds on the seminal works of both Selye<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3294632 |title=The stress of life |author=<nowiki>Selye, Hans, 1907-1982.</nowiki> |date=1978 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year= |isbn=0070562121 |edition=Rev. |location=New York |pages= |oclc=3294632 }}</ref> and Lazarus.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/224717677 |title=Stress and emotion : a new synthesis |last=Lazarus, Richard S. |date=2006 |publisher=Springer Pub. Co |isbn=9780826102614 |oclc=224717677 }}</ref> Selye demonstrated that a physiological response occurred in the body by phenomenological events like physical environmental stimuli. Although not always maladaptive, the stress in parenting is more likely to be maladaptive, especially when the stress is severe or chronic. Further, he demonstrated that, regardless of the sources of stress, the greater the number of stressors, the larger the body's physiological response. That finding suggested that parenting stress would need to be understood and measured by considering multiple variables. Lazarus articulated the connection of perceptions to emotions and subsequently to both the physiological response and the likely behavioral responses of individuals. Parenting stress thus conceived is not simply a reaction to observable events but the interpretations and other cognitions of the parent relative to the events. The Lazarus model suggests four stages of the stress reaction: 1. Recognition of an environmental demand, 2. The perception of the demand in terms of whether it is perceived as a threat, 3. Whether or not the individual believes they have the resources to cope with the event. This process is instantaneous and is essentially an unconscious response. 4. Based on stage three, the nervous system responds by either relaxing or preparing to flee or fight. Thus, the works of Selye and Lazarus provide conceptual frameworks for understanding the links between emotion perception, stress, and coping. For a review of the available evidence-based measures of parenting stress, see Holly et al. (2019).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Holly |first=Lindsay E. |last2=Fenley |first2=Alicia R. |last3=Kritikos |first3=Tessa K. |last4=Merson |first4=Rachel A. |last5=Abidin |first5=Richard R. |last6=Langer |first6=David A. |date=2019-09-03 |title=Evidence-Base Update for Parenting Stress Measures in Clinical Samples |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1639515 |journal=Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=685–705 |doi=10.1080/15374416.2019.1639515 |issn=1537-4416 |pmid=31393178 }}</ref> == Overview of the Research on Parenting Stress == Kirby Deater-Deckard, in the volume ''Parenting Stress'', presented the first comprehensive articulation of the research on parenting stress concerning the characteristics of parents, the parent-child relationship, and parents' coping behaviors.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300103939.003.0002|doi=10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001 |title=Parenting Stress |last=Deater-Deckard |first=Kirby |date=2004-08-11 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300103939 |pages=27–54 }}</ref> Since Deater-Deckard’s work, there has been a rapid expansion of research documenting the linkage between parenting stress and a wide variety of important issues related to family functioning and child development and behavior. The summary below provides a brief sampling to illustrate the breadth of impact parenting stress has on members of the core family system. It is a illustrative review extracting some examples from a recent more comprehensive review (with its own formal literature review search and extraction process) to concisely introduce a range of topics. '''Observed Parenting Behavior''' Parenting stress has been demonstrated to be predictive of abusive mother’s behavior towards their children during free play and task situations, parents’ verbal harshness, demanding and controlling behaviors, and parents' level of warmth and engagement with their child.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Tripp |first=Gail |last2=Schaughency |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Langlands |first3=Robyn |last4=Mouat |first4=Kelly |date=2007-06-01 |title=Family Interactions in Children With and Without ADHD |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9093-2 |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=385–400 |doi=10.1007/s10826-006-9093-2 |issn=1573-2843 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Wagner |first=Shannon L. |last2=Cepeda |first2=Ivan |last3=Krieger |first3=Dena |last4=Maggi |first4=Stefania |last5=D’Angiulli |first5=Amedeo |last6=Weinberg |first6=Joanne |last7=Grunau |first7=Ruth E. |date=2015-09-03 |title=Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232 |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=853–869 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232 |issn=0929-7049 }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Niu |first=Hua |last2=Liu |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Meifang |date=2018-05 |title=Intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline: The moderating role of parenting stress and parent gender |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.017 |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |volume=79 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.017 |issn=0145-2134 }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Feldman |first=Ruth |last2=Gordon |first2=Ilanit |last3=Zagoory-Sharon |first3=Orna |date=2010-12-16 |title=Maternal and paternal plasma, salivary, and urinary oxytocin and parent-infant synchrony: considering stress and affiliation components of human bonding |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01021.x |journal=Developmental Science |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=752–761 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01021.x |issn=1363-755X }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McKay |first=Jessamy M. |last2=Pickens |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Stewart |first3=Anne L. |date=1996-09-01 |title=Inventoried and observed stress in parent-child interactions |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686879 |journal=Current Psychology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=223–234 |doi=10.1007/BF02686879 |issn=1936-4733 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=J. Ron |last2=Stage |first2=Scott |last3=Duppong-Hurley |first3=Kristin |last4=Synhorst |first4=Lori |last5=Epstein |first5=Michael H. |date=2007-04 |title=Risk Factors Predictive of the Problem Behavior of Children at Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001440290707300306 |journal=Exceptional Children |language=en-US |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=367–379 |doi=10.1177/001440290707300306 |issn=0014-4029 }}</ref> '''Child Development and Outcomes''' Parents’ level of stress has been found to be predictive of the development of problem behaviors in children, children’s aggressiveness, callous-unemotional traits in children, and children’s coping competence.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Chanelle T. |last2=Hinshaw |first2=Stephen P. |date=2017 |title=Parenting Stress as a Mediator between Childhood ADHD and Early Adult Female Outcomes |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4670298/ |journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=588–599 |doi=10.1080/15374416.2015.1041595 |issn=1537-4416 |pmc=4670298 |pmid=26042524 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cappa |first=Kimberly A. |last2=Begle |first2=Angela Moreland |last3=Conger |first3=Judith C. |last4=Dumas |first4=Jean E. |last5=Conger |first5=Anthony J. |date=2011-06-01 |title=Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9397-0 |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=334–342 |doi=10.1007/s10826-010-9397-0 |issn=1573-2843 |pmc=PMC6639041 |pmid=31320789 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joyner |first=Krystle B. |last2=Silver |first2=Cheryl H. |last3=Stavinoha |first3=Peter L. |date=2009-04-13 |title=Relationship Between Parenting Stress and Ratings of Executive Functioning in Children With ADHD |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734282909333945 |journal=Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=452–464 |doi=10.1177/0734282909333945 |issn=0734-2829 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeCaro |first=Jason A. |last2=Worthman |first2=Carol M. |date=2008 |title=Return to school accompanied by changing associations between family ecology and cortisol |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dev.20255 |journal=Developmental Psychobiology |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=183–195 |doi=10.1002/dev.20255 |issn=0012-1630 }}</ref> Barroso et al. conducted a major review and meta-analysis of the parenting stress literature, which revealed that parenting stress is a major factor with parents coping with their children's behavior.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Raphael |first=J. L. |last2=Zhang |first2=Y. |last3=Liu |first3=H. |last4=Giardino |first4=A. P. |date=2010-03 |title=Parenting stress in US families: implications for paediatric healthcare utilization |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01052.x |journal=Child: Care, Health and Development |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=216–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01052.x |issn=0305-1862 }}</ref><ref name=":7" /> '''Child Academic Functioning''' Children whose parents exhibit high levels of parenting stress display difficulties in executive functioning, lower levels of academic competence, and other behavioral problems in school.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Le |first=Yunying |last2=Fredman |first2=Steffany J. |last3=Feinberg |first3=Mark E. |date=2017-09 |title=Parenting stress mediates the association between negative affectivity and harsh parenting: A longitudinal dyadic analysis. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000315 |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=679–688 |doi=10.1037/fam0000315 |issn=1939-1293 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerson |first=A. C. |last2=Furth |first2=S. L. |last3=Neu |first3=A. M. |last4=Fivush |first4=B. A. |date=2004-12 |title=Assessing associations between medication adherence and potentially modifiable psychosocial variables in pediatric kidney transplant recipients and their families |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00215.x |journal=Pediatric Transplantation |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=543–550 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00215.x |issn=1397-3142 }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Barroso |first=Nicole E. |last2=Mendez |first2=Lucybel |last3=Graziano |first3=Paulo A. |last4=Bagner |first4=Daniel M. |date=2017-05-29 |title=Parenting Stress through the Lens of Different Clinical Groups: a Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6 |journal=Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=449–461 |doi=10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6 |issn=0091-0627 }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> '''Physical Health and Physiological Issues''' Parenting stress has been associated with elevated cortisol and oxytocin levels both in parents and their children.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harmeyer |first=Erin |last2=Ispa |first2=Jean M. |last3=Palermo |first3=Francisco |last4=Carlo |first4=Gustavo |date=2016 |title=Predicting self-regulation and vocabulary and academic skills at kindergarten entry: The roles of maternal parenting stress and mother-child closeness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.05.001 |journal=Early Childhood Research Quarterly |volume=37 |pages=153–164 |doi=10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.05.001 |issn=0885-2006 }}</ref><ref name=":7" /> These are well-established chemical markers of an individual’s mental and physical health. Mothers who exhibit high levels of parenting stress also display a failure to care for their own health needs while also overusing pediatric healthcare services for their children.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benzies |first=Karen M. |last2=Harrison |first2=Margaret J. |last3=Magill-Evans |first3=Joyce |date=2004-03 |title=Parenting Stress, Marital Quality, and Child Behavior Problems at Age 7 Years |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0737-1209.2004.021204.x |journal=Public Health Nursing |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=111–121 |doi=10.1111/j.0737-1209.2004.021204.x |issn=0737-1209 }}</ref> Parenting stress has also been associated with parental brain functioning, epigenetic DNA methylation, and parent-child behavioral synchrony, and brain synchrony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noriuchi |first=Madoka |last2=Kikuchi |first2=Yoshiaki |last3=Mori |first3=Kumiko |last4=Kamio |first4=Yoko |date=2019-02-07 |title=The orbitofrontal cortex modulates parenting stress in the maternal brain |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-38402-9 |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-38402-9 |issn=2045-2322 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Michelle L. |last2=Huang |first2=Yunfeng |last3=Hui |first3=Qin |last4=Newhall |first4=Kevin |last5=Crusto |first5=Cindy |last6=Sun |first6=Yan V. |last7=Taylor |first7=Jacquelyn Y. |date=2017-12 |title=Parenting stress and DNA methylation among African Americans in the InterGEN Study |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cts.2018.3 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Translational Science |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=328–333 |doi=10.1017/cts.2018.3 |issn=2059-8661 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Azhari |first=A. |last2=Leck |first2=W. Q. |last3=Gabrieli |first3=G. |last4=Bizzego |first4=A. |last5=Rigo |first5=P. |last6=Setoh |first6=P. |last7=Bornstein |first7=M. H. |last8=Esposito |first8=G. |date=2019-08-06 |title=Parenting Stress Undermines Mother-Child Brain-to-Brain Synchrony: A Hyperscanning Study |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47810-4 |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47810-4 |issn=2045-2322 }}</ref> '''Compliance with Medical and Psychological Treatment''' Parents with elevated stress levels have significantly higher non-compliance rates for their treatment and the medically necessary care of their children. They also are early terminators of psychological treatments for their children.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e635102013-004 |title=Retention in a parenting intervention for parents involved with the child welfare system |last=McWey |first=Lenore |last2=Holtrop |first2=Kendal |date=2013 |website=PsycEXTRA Dataset |access-date=2019-09-19|doi=10.1037/e635102013-004 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rostad |first=Whitney L. |last2=Moreland |first2=Angela D. |last3=Valle |first3=Linda Anne |last4=Chaffin |first4=Mark J. |date=2017-12-22 |title=Barriers to Participation in Parenting Programs: The Relationship between Parenting Stress, Perceived Barriers, and Program Completion |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 |journal=Journal of Child and Family Studies |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=1264–1274 |doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 |issn=1062-1024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mash |first=Eric J. |last2=Johnston |first2=Charlotte |last3=Kovitz |first3=Karen |date=1983-12 |title=A comparison of the mother‐child interactions of physically abused and non‐abused children during play and task situations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15374418309533154 |journal=Journal of Clinical Child Psychology |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=337–346 |doi=10.1080/15374418309533154 |issn=0047-228X }}</ref> '''The Parenting Partner Relationship''' The quality of the parents' relationship is a central variable in terms of child outcomes. The level of parenting stress experienced by parenting partners is associated with the child's physical and mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kanter |first=Jeremy B. |last2=Proulx |first2=Christine M. |date=2019-02 |title=The longitudinal association between maternal parenting stress and spousal supportiveness |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30475003 |journal=Journal of family psychology: JFP: journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43) |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=121–131 |doi=10.1037/fam0000478 |issn=1939-1293 |pmid=30475003 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leavitt |first=Chelom E. |last2=McDaniel |first2=Brandon T. |last3=Maas |first3=Megan K. |last4=Feinberg |first4=Mark E. |date=2016-04-12 |title=Parenting Stress and Sexual Satisfaction Among First-Time Parents: A Dyadic Approach |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0623-0 |journal=Sex Roles |volume=76 |issue=5-6 |pages=346–355 |doi=10.1007/s11199-016-0623-0 |issn=0360-0025 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Korpa |first=Terpsichori |last2=Pervanidou |first2=Panagiota |last3=Angeli |first3=Eleni |last4=Apostolakou |first4=Filia |last5=Papanikolaou |first5=Katerina |last6=Papassotiriou |first6=Ioannis |last7=Chrousos |first7=George P. |last8=Kolaitis |first8=Gerasimos |date=03 2017 |title=Mothers' parenting stress is associated with salivary cortisol profiles in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28264636 |journal=Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands) |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1080/10253890.2017.1303472 |issn=1607-8888 |pmid=28264636 }}</ref> '''Future Directions''' This article serves only as a brief review and does not present an analytical approach to the concept of parenting stress. Future work should build on this review by incorporating statistical techniques to provide a quantitatively focused review of the topic. This analysis could include multi-group confirmatory factor analyses and differential item functioning to examine the extent to which parenting stress is consistent across societies and settings, as well as meta-analyses of the growing literature about associations with various aspects of parent and youth functioning. == Summary == Parenting stress as a construct is a relatively young idea in psychology, but research has quickly proliferated. Several instruments are available that measure aspects of parenting stress with good reliability and validity across a wide range of settings and samples. Parenting stress appears associated with a wide range of correlates and outcomes in both youths and the parents, emphasizing its vital role in family functioning. == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === The authors would like to thank Eric Youngstrom and Thomas Shafee for guidance in the submission process. === Competing interests === Richard Abidin is an author of the Parenting Stress Index. Logan Smith and Hannah Kim have no competing interests to declare. === Ethics statement === APA ethical guidelines were followed in the preparation of the review and determination of authorship. == References == {{reflist|35em}} tfga5jdx6z8iernu7g4l4vnwn9bq5ng 0 261724 2417127 2409332 2022-08-21T23:42:47Z OhanaUnited 18921 unneeded, share button is already available on the right hand side menu wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Eric A. | last1 = Youngstrom | orcid1 = 0000-0003-2251-6860 | affiliation1 = Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, and Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | correspondence1 = eay@unc.edu | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = Stephen P. | last2 = Hinshaw | affiliation2 = Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley | first3 = Alberto | last3 = Stefana | orcid3 = 0000-0002-4807-7184 | affiliation3 = Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia | first4 = Jun | last4 = Chen | affiliation4 = Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine | first5 = Kurt | last5 = Michael | orcid5 = 0000-0001-8145-5362 | affiliation5 = Department of Psychology, Appalachian State University | first6 = Anna | last6 = Van Meter | orcid6 = 0000-0003-0012-206X | affiliation6 = Department of Psychiatry, Northwell Health | first7 = Victoria | last7 = Maxwell | affiliation7 = Crazy for Life Co. | first8 = Erin E. | last8 = Michalak | orcid8 = 0000-0002-0812-6527 | affiliation8 = Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia | first9 = Emma G. | last9 = Choplin | affiliation9 = Helping Give Away Psychological Science | username6 = Arvm | username9 = Emmagch | first10 = Logan T. | last10 = Smith | orcid10 = 0000-0002-2931-4236 | affiliation10 = Department of Psychology, Temple University | first11 = Caroline | last11 = Vincent | affiliation11 = Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | first12 = Avery | last12 = Loeb | affiliation12 = Chapel Hill High School | first13 = Eduard | last13 = Vieta | affiliation13 = Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology, University of Barcelona | correspondence = eay@unc.edu | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 2020-04-20 | accepted = 2020-10-05 | doi = 10.15347/WJM/2020.004 | username1 = Eyoungstrom | license = <!-- [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]--> | abstract = Beyond public health and economic costs, the COVID-19 pandemic adds strain, disrupts daily routines, and complicates mental health and medical service delivery for those with mental health and medical conditions. [[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder|Bipolar disorder]] can increase vulnerability to infection; it can also enhance stress, complicate treatment, and heighten [https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0000068 interpersonal stigma]. Yet there are successes when people proactively improve social connections, prioritize [https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/self-care-tips-during-the-covid-19-pandemic self-care], and learn to effectively use mobile and telehealth. | keywords = [[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder|Bipolar disorder]], [[wikipedia:Coronavirus|coronavirus]], [[wikipedia:Social distancing|social distancing]], [[wikipedia:Social stigma|stigma]], [[Evidence based assessment|assessment]], [[wikipedia:Telehealth|telehealth]] | username10 = Logan520 | username11 = Carovinc2 | username12 = Aaloeb12 }} == Impact of the Pandemic and Public Health Responses == {{fig|1|20200410 Flatten the curve, raise the line - pandemic - international version.gif | align = left | caption = "Flattening the curve" of active cases, and "raising the line" of healthcare capacity, attempt to ensure that healthcare can be provided to a population | attribution = RCraig09, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY SA]] }} The ongoing [[wikipedia:2019–20 coronavirus pandemic|COVID-19 pandemic]] has to date infected more than 34 million people and led to more than 1 million deaths globally ([https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html map here]) ([https://covid19.healthdata.org/united-states-of-america projections of peak and incidence curve here]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ |title=Coronavirus Update (Live): 19,938,513 Cases and 731,906 Deaths from COVID-19 Virus Pandemic - Worldometer |website=www.worldometers.info |language=en |access-date=2020-08-09 }}</ref> Both the infection and mortality numbers will undoubtedly continue to go up before the outbreak recedes. Thus, many governments have enforced regional or national [[wikipedia:Stay-at-home order|stay-at-home orders]] to "flatten the curve" of incidence and slow its spread ([https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-stay-at-home-order.html map of the USA]). In this [[wikipedia:Public Health Emergency of International Concern|global health emergency]], special attention should be paid to the potential impact of the measures taken to combat the pandemic on patients with [https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-mental-health-and-substance-use/ mental health problems],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Druss |first=Benjamin G. |date=2020-04-03 |title=Addressing the COVID-19 Pandemic in Populations With Serious Mental Illness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0894 |journal=JAMA Psychiatry |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0894 |issn=2168-622X }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-mental-health-and-substance-use/ |title=The Implications of COVID-19 for Mental Health and Substance Use |last=Panchal |first=Nirmita |last2=Kamal |first2=Rabah |date=2020-04-21 |website=KFF |language=en-US |access-date=2020-05-20 |last3=Orgera |first3=Kendal |last4=Muñana |first4=Cailey |last5=Chidambaram |first5=Priya }}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Gruber |first1=June |last2=Prinstein |first2=Mitchell J. |last3=Clark |first3=Lee Anna |last4=Rottenberg |first4=Jonathan |last5=Abramowitz |first5=Jonathan S. |last6=Albano |first6=Anne Marie |last7=Aldao |first7=Amelia |last8=Borelli |first8=Jessica L. |last9=Chung |first9=Tammy |date=2020-08-10 |title=Mental health and clinical psychological science in the time of COVID-19: Challenges, opportunities, and a call to action |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/amp0000707 |journal=American Psychologist |doi=10.1037/amp0000707 |issn=1935-990X |first11=Erika E. |first32=David C. |first27=Adam Bryant |last28=Neblett |first28=Enrique W. |last29=Nock |first29=Matthew |last30=Olatunji |first30=Bunmi O. |last31=Persons |first31=Jacqueline B. |last32=Rozek |first33=Jessica L. |last33=Schleider |first26=Jane |last34=Slavich |first34=George M. |last35=Teachman |first35=Bethany A. |last36=Vine |first36=Vera |last37=Weinstock |first37=Lauren M. |last11=Forbes |first10=Joanne |last10=Davila |last27=Miller |last26=Mendle |last12=Gee |last18=Joormann |first12=Dylan G. |last13=Hall |first13=Gordon C. Nagayama |last14=Hallion |first14=Lauren S. |last15=Hinshaw |first15=Stephen P. |last16=Hofmann |first16=Stefan G. |last17=Hollon |first17=Steven D. |first18=Jutta |first25=Katie A. |last19=Kazdin |first19=Alan E. |first20=Daniel N. |last21=La Greca |first21=Annette M. |last22=Levenson |first22=Robert W. |last23=MacDonald |first23=Angus W. |last24=McKay |first24=Dean |last25=McLaughlin |last20=Klein }}</ref> especially those with [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/bipolar-you/202003/surviving-bipolar-disorder-during-the-covid-19-pandemic bipolar disorders (BDs)].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ibpf.org/managing-my-mental-health-during-covid-19/ |title=Managing my Mental Health During COVID-19 |date=2020-03-17 |website=International Bipolar Foundation |language=en-US |access-date=2020-05-20 }}</ref> [[wikipedia:Shelter in place|Shelter-in-place]] and [[wikipedia:Quarantine|quarantine]] are key public health tools, yet they have high [[doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8|psychological]]<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Samantha K |last2=Webster |first2=Rebecca K |last3=Smith |first3=Louise E |last4=Woodland |first4=Lisa |last5=Wessely |first5=Simon |last6=Greenberg |first6=Neil |last7=Rubin |first7=Gideon James |date=2020-03 |title=The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8 |journal=The Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10227 |pages=912–920 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8 |issn=0140-6736 }}</ref> and [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/coronavirus-covid-19-cost-economy-2020-un-trade-economics-pandemic/ economic costs.]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mercatus.org/publications/covid-19-policy-brief-series/cost-covid-19-rough-estimate-2020-us-gdp-impact |title=The Cost of COVID-19: A Rough Estimate of the 2020 US GDP Impact |date=2020-04-06 |website=Mercatus Center |language=en |access-date=2020-04-15 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/economic-cost-coronavirus-recession-covid-deaths |title=Containing COVID-19 Will Devastate the Economy. Here’s the Economic Case for Why It’s Still Our Best Option. |website=Kellogg Insight |language=en |access-date=2020-04-15 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/coronavirus-covid-19-cost-economy-2020-un-trade-economics-pandemic/ |title=This is how much the coronavirus will cost the world's economy, according to the UN |website=World Economic Forum |language=en |access-date=2020-04-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059011 |title=Coronavirus update: COVID-19 likely to cost economy $1 trillion during 2020, says UN trade agency |date=2020-03-09 |website=UN News |language=en |access-date=2020-04-14 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/04/11/the-changes-covid-19-is-forcing-on-to-business |title=The changes covid-19 is forcing on to business |work=The Economist |access-date=2020-04-16 |issn=0013-0613 }}</ref> They require sacrificing daily routines and public/personal social encounters that enhance health and quality of life and provide emotional support and resilience.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/731918383 |title=The power of habit : why we do what we do in life and business |last=Duhigg, Charles. |date=2012 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4000-6928-6 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=731918383 }}</ref><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Sanchez-Moreno |first=José |last2=Martinez-Aran |first2=Anabel |last3=Gadelrab |first3=Hesham F. |last4=Cabello |first4=Maria |last5=Torrent |first5=Carla |last6=del Mar Bonnin |first6=Caterina |last7=Ferrer |first7=Montse |last8=Leonardi |first8=Matilde |last9=Ayuso-Mateos |first9=José Luís |date=2010-01 |title=The role and impact of contextual factors on functioning in patients with bipolar disorder |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09638288.2010.520810 |journal=Disability and Rehabilitation |language=en |volume=32 |issue=sup1 |pages=S94–S104 |doi=10.3109/09638288.2010.520810 |issn=0963-8288 }}</ref> Even in the general population, extended duration and constrained physical space in [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/05/ce-corner-isolation social isolation] can lead to a wide range of adverse psychological [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/05/ce-corner-isolation effects], including depression, malaise, lowered self-esteem, alienation, helplessness, panic, [[wikipedia:Compulsive buying disorder|compulsive buying disorder behaviors]], and [[wikipedia:Panic buying|panic-buying]].<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sim |first=Kang |last2=Chua |first2=Hong Choon |last3=Vieta |first3=Eduard |last4=Fernandez |first4=George |date=2020-06 |title=The anatomy of panic buying related to the current COVID-19 pandemic |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165178120308349 |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=288 |pages=113015 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113015 |pmc=PMC7158779 |pmid=32315887 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Anger, [[wikipedia:Talk:Anxiety disorder|clinical anxiety]], and [[wikipedia:Posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] can persist years after the end of isolation, as indicated by literature on quarantine.<ref name=":7" /> Vulnerable populations – such as people with low income, racial and ethnic minorities, and those who struggle with managing their mental health – are also at an increased risk of contracting coronavirus due to factors such as lack of access to safe transportation (versus having to use subways/busing/metros), the inability to work at home due to unpaid time off, and differences in the type of jobs (low-wage essential workers like grocers, sanitation workers, home health aides, delivery drivers, and fast food servers all involve more exposure than desk jobs would).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/low-wage-essential-workers-get-less-protection-against-coronavirus-and-less-information-about-how-it-spreads-138076 |title=Low-wage essential workers get less protection against coronavirus – and less information about how it spreads |last=Hammonds |first=Clare |last2=Kerrissey |first2=Jasmine |website=The Conversation |language=en |access-date=2020-06-04 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sy |first=Karla Therese L. |last2=Martinez |first2=Micaela E. |last3=Rader |first3=Benjamin |last4=White |first4=Laura F. |date=2020-05-30 |title=Socioeconomic disparities in subway use and COVID-19 outcomes in New York City |url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.05.28.20115949v1 |journal=medRxiv |language=en |pages=2020.05.28.20115949 |doi=10.1101/2020.05.28.20115949 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yearby |first=Ruqaiijah |last2=Mohapatra |first2=Seema |date=2020-05-30 |title=Law, Structural Racism, and the COVID-19 Pandemic |url=https://academic.oup.com/jlb/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jlb/lsaa036/5849058 |journal=Journal of Law and the Biosciences |language=en |pages=lsaa036 |doi=10.1093/jlb/lsaa036 |issn=2053-9711 |pmc=PMC7313873 }}</ref> We cite all of this not to contradict the importance of [[wikipedia:Social distancing|physical and social distancing]] measures in the COVID era, but rather to underscore the potential consequences for vulnerable and marginalized populations. == Effects on People with Bipolar Disorders == {{fig|2|Coping with Bipolar Disorder during COVID-19 (Tashsa Regan) v1.jpg | clear = none | caption = COVID-19 has created much uncertainty which can negatively impact individuals living with bipolar disorder (BD). To help manage stress and symptoms during the pandemic, here are some ways to cope with BD. | attribution = Tasha Regan, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY-SA]][[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY-SA]] }} There are multiple ways that the pandemic is affecting people with bipolar disorders. === Disruption of Medical and Mental Health Services === The impact of measures to combat [[wikipedia:Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] could be particularly severe and long-lasting in persons with BD. The emergency disrupted both public and private mental health services. The situation has continued to shift speedily as governments, insurance companies, providers, and patients all advance policies and behavior in response to new information.<ref name=":10" />  Most initial patients had trouble accessing outpatient care in the immediate wake of the lock-downs and mandated social isolation and distancing. More specifically, during the current COVID-19 emergency, the state of mental health services in different countries worldwide, including China,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Shen |last2=Zhang |first2=Yong |date=2020-04 |title=Mental healthcare for psychiatric inpatients during the COVID-19 epidemic |url=http://gpsych.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100216 |journal=General Psychiatry |language=en |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=e100216 |doi=10.1136/gpsych-2020-100216 |issn=2517-729X }}</ref> Italy, and Spain<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arango |first=Celso |date=2020-04 |title=Lessons learned from the coronavirus health crisis in Madrid, Spain: How COVID-19 has changed our lives in the last two weeks |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.04.003 |journal=Biological Psychiatry |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.04.003 |issn=0006-3223 |pmc=PMC7141703 }}</ref> was as follows: Psychiatric outpatient facilities often initially suspended all programmed and routine clinical activities as well as case management, though still guaranteeing interventions in urgent cases (e.g., exacerbation of symptoms; the appearance of adverse effects reported by the patient or family members), clinical demands (e.g., administration of depot [[wikipedia:Antipsychotic|antipsychotic medication]]), and legal authority prescriptions. Home visits were limited to urgent cases and to ones that cannot be postponed when patients cannot reach the service. In all other cases, therapeutic continuity can be achieved via telephone or online sessions to monitor the patient’s clinical progress. Semi-residential facilities ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274745/ psychiatric day-care facilities)] are often closed, but even in these cases, [https://www.aafp.org/about/policies/all/definition-care.html continuity of care] has been achieved through phone contact. In residential facilities, individual clinical practices continue to be regularly carried out, and some group activities. In these settings, patient passes were suspended, and most outings were only allowed with operator supervision – both of which curtail freedom of movement. The entry of outside visitors was forbidden, so that the staff would be the only potential contagious carriers, thus again increasing social isolation. The entry of new patients has allowed in cases that cannot be delayed (e.g., patients coming from the hospital for a post-relapse period). Even [[wikipedia:Psychiatric hospital|psychiatric inpatient units]] have limited, as much as possible, hospitalizations to urgent cases and those that cannot be postponed.<ref name=":3" /> Patients presenting both active [https://www.verywellmind.com/psychiatric-disorder-definition-425317 psychiatric disorders] needing hospitalization and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 [[wikipedia:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|(SARS-CoV-2]]) symptoms are generally placed in psychiatric wards, and when possible, in COVID-dedicated areas or rooms. These patterns threaten to undermine [[wikipedia:Transitional care|treatment continuity]], [[wikipedia:Therapeutic relationship|patient-clinician alliance]], [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy#Adherence|treatment adherence]], and patient-driven recovery progress – while the pandemic simultaneously escalates stress levels. There was a rapid adjustment, with some clinics pivoting to providing services primarily or only by telephone, and then adding video sessions. Many governments and insurance payers modified rules to allow more video service provision, including changes to billing codes and regulations. Recommendations for telehealth and protective measures to allow the resumption of in-person services have swiftly followed, balancing issues of safety and prevention of infection with concerns about privacy and offer continued service provision. Six months after the initial distancing and lock-down orders, there is uncertainty and variation about how long to authorize telehealth as the primary form of service provision. Although the pace of innovation has accelerated, there have been changes in service use patterns, with some hospitals and clinics seeing a big decrease in admissions and appointments.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Clerici |first=M. |last2=Durbano |first2=F. |last3=Spinogatti |first3=F. |last4=Vita |first4=A. |last5=de Girolamo |first5=G. |last6=Micciolo |first6=R. |date=2020-05-05 |title=Psychiatric hospitalization rates in Italy before and during COVID-19: did they change? An analysis of register data |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0790966720000294/type/journal_article |journal=Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine |language=en |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.29 |issn=0790-9667 |pmc=PMC7264453 |pmid=32368994 }}</ref> The changes have been larger for elective issues than for emergencies, perhaps due to concerns about medical facilities being a place for potential exposure to the virus.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Girolamo |first=Giovanni |last2=Cerveri |first2=Giancarlo |last3=Clerici |first3=Massimo |last4=Monzani |first4=Emiliano |last5=Spinogatti |first5=Franco |last6=Starace |first6=Fabrizio |last7=Tura |first7=Giambattista |last8=Vita |first8=Antonio |date=2020-04-30 |title=Mental Health in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Emergency—The Italian Response |url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2765557 |journal=JAMA Psychiatry |language=en |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1276 |issn=2168-622X }}</ref> The situation is likely to continue to be fluid and variable across regions, even months after an effective vaccination program might become available.<ref name=":10" /> === Increased Strain === Alarming news [https://www.npr.org/2020/04/16/836424337/coronavirus-updates-the-economic-toll reports] about [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2020/03/06/481394/economic-impact-coronavirus-united-states-possible-economic-policy-responses/ economic] and human costs add heightened [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life-coping/managing-stress-anxiety.html#stressful stress,] while social distancing measures simultaneously reduce [[wikipedia:Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|exercise]] opportunities, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2290997/ sunlight exposure], participation in meaningful activities, and social engagement. Job loss and financial uncertainty add additional [https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Financial_strain strain], potentially triggering [https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/related-illnesses/bipolar-disorder anxiety and mood symptoms] – again, in a population already vulnerable. At the time of writing, there are now more than 22 million Americans out of work. Over 10 million Americans have applied for unemployment benefits, and more are anticipated to apply.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/02/jobless-march-coronavirus/ |title=Over 10 million Americans applied for unemployment benefits in March as economy collapsed |last=Long |first=Heather |date= |website=Washington Post |language=en |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2020-04-17 }}</ref> The surge is causing unemployment offices to fall behind.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/06/unemployment-benefits-coronavirus/ |title=Underfunded, understaffed and under siege: Unemployment offices nationwide are struggling to do their jobs |last=Romm |first=Tony |date= |website=Washington Post |language=en |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=2020-04-17 }}</ref> Many large corporations and small businesses are having to lay off workers and are experiencing significant financial hardship. The United States federal government appropriated funds for small businesses, but businesses are still in need of aid while waiting for the funds to be disbursed.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/16/business/coronavirus-sba-loans-out-of-money.html |title=Loan Money Runs Out While Small-Business Owners Wait in Line |last=Flitter |first=Emily |date=2020-04-16 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-04-17 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref> Many shuttered businesses may not reopen, causing the unemployment rates to remain low even when regions relax restrictions on movement and work. === Disrupted Routines and Sleep === A healthy life's regular rhythm becomes hard to maintain as sheltering-in-place eliminates much of the existing structure from an individual's day. It also interferes with the positive influence of other [[wikipedia:Zeitgeber|zeitgebers]] (e.g., getting exposure to sunlight, eating meals, engaging in social activities, and [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/how-exercise-impacts-sleep-quality going to the gym]) to keep sleep and activity regular.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Grandin |first=Louisa D. |last2=Alloy |first2=Lauren B. |last3=Abramson |first3=Lyn Y. |date=2006-10 |title=The social zeitgeber theory, circadian rhythms, and mood disorders: Review and evaluation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.001 |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=679–694 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.001 |issn=0272-7358 }}</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shen |first=Gail HC |last2=Alloy |first2=Lauren B |last3=Abramson |first3=Lyn Y |last4=Sylvia |first4=Louisa G |date=2008-06 |title=Social rhythm regularity and the onset of affective episodes in bipolar spectrum individuals |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x |journal=Bipolar Disorders |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=520–529 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x |issn=1398-5647 }}</ref> Sleep and schedule regularity are key components of mood maintenance for people with BD<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carvalho |first=Andre F. |last2=Firth |first2=Joseph |last3=Vieta |first3=Eduard |date=2020-07-02 |editor-last=Ropper |editor-first=Allan H. |title=Bipolar Disorder |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1906193 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |language=en |volume=383 |issue=1 |pages=58–66 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1906193 |issn=0028-4793 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Ellen |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Jodi M. |last3=Fagiolini |first3=Andrea |date=2006-06 |title=The Importance of Routine for Preventing Recurrence in Bipolar Disorder |url=http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.981 |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |language=en |volume=163 |issue=6 |pages=981–985 |doi=10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.981 |issn=0002-953X }}</ref> who typically have less social rhythm regularity under normal circumstances.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shen |first=Gail HC |last2=Alloy |first2=Lauren B. |last3=Abramson |first3=Lyn Y. |last4=Sylvia |first4=Louisa G. |date=2008 |title=Social rhythm regularity and the onset of affective episodes in bipolar spectrum individuals |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x |journal=Bipolar Disorders |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=520–529 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x |issn=1399-5618 |pmc=PMC4090015 |pmid=18452448 }}</ref> Thus, when work-at-home policies are implemented, and classes are canceled or moved [[wikipedia:Virtual school|online]], there are fewer external forces to help people with BD to adhere to a routine. Many people with BD have an evening [[w:Chronotype|chronotype]], preferring to stay up late and sleep through the morning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Melo |first=Matias C. A. |last2=Abreu |first2=Rafael L. C. |last3=Linhares Neto |first3=Vicente B. |last4=de Bruin |first4=Pedro F. C. |last5=de Bruin |first5=Veralice M. S. |date=2017-08-01 |title=Chronotype and circadian rhythm in bipolar disorder: A systematic review |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087079216300594 |journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews |language=en |volume=34 |pages=46–58 |doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2016.06.007 |issn=1087-0792 }}</ref> Work or [[wikipedia:Light in school buildings|school]] obligations can help to keep an individual’s [[wikipedia:Circadian rhythm|circadian rhythm]] more or less entrained with the environment. Unfortunately for many people, COVID-19 has led to job loss or cessation of regular classes (e.g., replacement of instruction with independent work or online instructional videos that can be viewed at any time). [[c:File:ILO Monitor Covid-19 work force and stats.pdf|More than a third of the global workforce was employed in sectors now experiencing a severe reduction in productivity with a high risk of furlough, job loss, or bankruptcy]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/coronavirus/impacts-and-responses/WCMS_739047/lang--en/index.htm |title=How will COVID-19 affect the world of work? |date=2020-03-19 |website=www.ilo.org |language=en |access-date=2020-04-16 }}</ref> {{fig|3 |ILO Monitor Covid-19 work force and stats.pdf |The United Nations' specialized agency, the International Labour Organization's second edition of key analysis and policy recommendations surrounding worsening COVID-19 world crisis with devastating effects on the world of work. |attribution=International Labour Organization, public domain }} Additionally, many other activities in which people have engaged for social or health benefits (e.g., sports teams, clubs) are on pause. Guidelines during shelter-in-place – stay at home as much as possible, leaving only to engage in essential activities – reinforce behaviors that clinicians often try hard to discourage. Although it is possible to attain structure on one’s day during shelter-in-place, it requires [[wikipedia:Avolition#Psychopathology|motivation]] and self-control. For many people with BD, acting against what feels best (i.e., resisting the tendency to stay up late) may be quite challenging to enforce. Other people can help impose structure through shared meals and other activities, but this also becomes a challenge. That is, people with BD are less likely to be partnered than other adults<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Breslau |first=J. |last2=Miller |first2=E. |last3=Jin |first3=R. |last4=Sampson |first4=N. A. |last5=Alonso |first5=J. |last6=Andrade |first6=L. H. |last7=Bromet |first7=E. J. |last8=Girolamo |first8=G. de |last9=Demyttenaere |first9=K. |date=2011 |title=A multinational study of mental disorders, marriage, and divorce |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01712.x |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |language=en |volume=124 |issue=6 |pages=474–486 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01712.x |issn=1600-0447 |pmc=PMC4011132 |pmid=21534936 }}</ref> and, as a result, may find themselves isolated. Although social interaction patterns may be beneficial for those who do live with others, other stressors related to being confined can introduce[[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder#psychosocial|interpersonal challenges]], with associated mood consequences. === Medical risk factors and comorbidity === ==== Higher risk of infection and poor outcome ==== People with BD are likely to be especially [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics#High-Risk Groups|susceptible]] to infection because those with BD have high comorbidity with [[wikipedia:Obesity|obesity]], [[wikipedia:Diabetes|diabetes mellitus]], [[wikipedia:Coronary artery disease|coronary heart disease]], and [[wikipedia:Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|obstructive pulmonary disease]], as well as [[wikipedia:Smoking|smoking]] and [[wikipedia:Substance abuse|substance use]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=De Hert |first=Marc De |last2=Correll |first2=Christoph U. |last3=Bobes |first3=Julio |last4=Cetkovich‐Bakmas |first4=Marcelo |last5=Cohen |first5=Dan |last6=Asai |first6=Itsuo |last7=Detraux |first7=Johan |last8=Gautam |first8=Shiv |last9=Möller |first9=Hans-Jurgen |date=2011 |title=Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00014.x |journal=World Psychiatry |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=52–77 |doi=10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00014.x |issn=2051-5545 |pmc=PMC3048500 |pmid=21379357 |via= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70929267 |title=Manic-depressive illness : bipolar disorders and recurrent depression |last=Goodwin, Frederick K. (1936-) |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Jamison, Kay R., Ghaemi, S. Nassir. |isbn=978-0-19-513579-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York, N.Y. |oclc=70929267 }}</ref> These factors and related physical illnesses compromise immune functioning and heighten the risk for severe acute respiratory syndrome (COVID-19 if one is infected with the [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics|coronavirus)]]. Smoking and cardio-pulmonary disease are also common comorbidities observed among those who perish from COVID-19. ==== Managing complex treatments ==== Current treatment protocols for COVID-19 are quickly evolving, incurring risk for [https://www.webmd.com/interaction-checker/default.htm drug interactions], especially in patients being managed with complex regimens. Of course, BD itself frequently involves polypharmacy. Because no specific antiviral treatment has been developed, current treatment options include off-label use of [[w:Azithromycin|azithromycin]], [[w:Lopinavir–ritonavir|lopinavir–ritonavir]], [[w:Chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine|chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine]], [[w:Tocilizumab|tocilizumab]], [[w:Remdesivir|remdesivir]], [[w:Atazanavir|atazanavir]], [[w:Favipiravir|favipiravir]], and other agents.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Vieta |first=Eduard |last2=Pérez |first2=Víctor |last3=Arango |first3=Celso |date=2020-04 |title=Psychiatry in the aftermath of COVID-19 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S188898912030029X |journal=Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=105–110 |doi=10.1016/j.rpsm.2020.04.004 |pmc=PMC7177054 |pmid=32376131 |via=Elsevier Public Health Emergency Collection }}</ref> However, using these medications for BD patients requires careful attention because of interactions between azithromycin/lopinavir–ritonavir and the commonly recommended medications for BD. For example, atazanavir and lopinavir/ritonavir are protease inhibitors that change CYP34A related metabolism, thus substantially increasing [[w:Quetiapine|quetiapine]], [[w:Lurasidone|lurasidone]], [[w:Ziprasidone|ziprasidone]], and pimozide levels, as well as levels of [[w:Benzodiazepines|benzodiazepines]], such as [[w:Midazolam|midazolam]] and [[w:Triazolam|triazolam]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Seshadri Sekhar |last2=Malathesh |first2=Barikar C |last3=Das |first3=Soumitra |last4=Singh |first4=Om Prakash |date=2020-08 |title=Interactions of recommended COVID-19 drugs with commonly used psychotropics |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1876201820302859 |journal=Asian Journal of Psychiatry |language=en |volume=52 |pages=102173 |doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102173 |pmc=PMC7239782 |pmid=32446195 }}</ref> Some of the COVID-19 experimental treatments (azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, and tocilizumab) may increase the QT interval, requiring ECG monitoring and caution when co-administered with some antipsychotics and antidepressants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anmella |first=G. |last2=Arbelo |first2=N. |last3=Fico |first3=G. |last4=Murru |first4=A. |last5=Llach |first5=C.D. |last6=Madero |first6=S. |last7=Gomes-da-Costa |first7=S. |last8=Imaz |first8=M.L. |last9=López-Pelayo |first9=H. |date=2020-09 |title=COVID-19 inpatients with psychiatric disorders: Real-world clinical recommendations from an expert team in consultation-liaison psychiatry |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032720312726 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |language=en |volume=274 |pages=1062–1067 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.149 }}</ref> Of real concern, the possible adverse psychiatric effects of chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine include [[w:Psychosis|psychosis]], mood change, [[w:Mania|mania]], and [[wikipedia:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nevin |first=Remington L. |last2=Croft |first2=Ashley M. |date=2016-06-22 |title=Psychiatric effects of malaria and anti-malarial drugs: historical and modern perspectives |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-016-1391-6 |journal=Malaria Journal |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=332 |doi=10.1186/s12936-016-1391-6 |issn=1475-2875 |pmc=PMC4918116 |pmid=27335053 }}</ref> Chloroquine may exacerbate BD<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bogaczewicz |first=J |last2=Sobów |first2=T |last3=Bogaczewicz |first3=A |last4=Robak |first4=E |last5=Bienkowski |first5=P |last6=Sysa-Jędrzejowska |first6=A |last7=Woźniacka |first7=A |date=2013-12-02 |title=Exacerbations of bipolar disorder triggered by chloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus—a case report |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0961203313513818 |journal=Lupus |language=en-US |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=188–193 |doi=10.1177/0961203313513818 |issn=0961-2033 }}</ref> and might increase [[w:Phenothiazine|phenothiazine]] levels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mascolo |first=Annamaria |last2=Berrino |first2=Pasquale Maria |last3=Gareri |first3=Pietro |last4=Castagna |first4=Alberto |last5=Capuano |first5=Annalisa |last6=Manzo |first6=Ciro |last7=Berrino |first7=Liberato |date=2018-06-09 |title=Neuropsychiatric clinical manifestations in elderly patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a review article |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10787-018-0498-5 |journal=Inflammopharmacology |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=1141–1149 |doi=10.1007/s10787-018-0498-5 |issn=0925-4692 }}</ref> [[w:Corticosteroids|Corticosteroids]] are being used in some COVID-19 patients with severe respiratory distress, and the effects of steroids in terms of triggering manic episodes in bipolar patients are well-known.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wada |first=Ken |last2=Yamada |first2=Norihito |last3=Sato |first3=Toshiki |last4=Suzuki |first4=Hiroshi |last5=Miki |first5=Masahito |last6=Lee |first6=Yomei |last7=Akiyama |first7=Kazufumi |last8=Kuroda |first8=Shigetoshi |date=2001-11 |title=Corticosteroid-Induced Psychotic and Mood Disorders: Diagnosis Defined by DSM-IV and Clinical Pictures |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.psy.42.6.461 |journal=Psychosomatics |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=461–466 |doi=10.1176/appi.psy.42.6.461 |issn=0033-3182 }}</ref> Finally, [[w:Carbamazepine|carbamazepine]] may significantly decrease the blood levels of many of the drugs medications for COVID-19, thus reducing such treatment's effectiveness.<ref name=":1" /> In short, the management of dual treatments for COVID-19 and BD requires substantial monitoring. == Stigma == [[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] flares when societies are under stress, with a malign eye falling on people associated with or belonging to high-risk groups, on those considered contagious, as well as on anyone considered “different.”<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hinshaw|first1= S. P.|date=2007|title=The mark of shame: Stigma of mental illness and an agenda for change|publisher= Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/med:psych/9780199730926.001.0001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hinshaw |first=Stephen P. |last2=Cicchetti |first2=Dante |date=2000/12 |title=Stigma and mental disorder: Conceptions of illness, public attitudes, personal disclosure, and social policy |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/stigma-and-mental-disorder-conceptions-of-illness-public-attitudes-personal-disclosure-and-social-policy/438D307B82573D79222C8A3D1E861EDB |journal=Development and Psychopathology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=555–598 |doi=10.1017/S0954579400004028 |issn=1469-2198 }}</ref> === Stigma around COVID-19 === {{fig|4 |Canva_-_Selective_Focus_Photography_of_Person_Wearing_Black_and_Red_Helmet_and_Gray_Mask.jpg |align=left |caption=Many people of Asian descent have been blamed and ostracized during the COVID-19 pandemic. |attribution = Min An, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0] }} Social stigma has mainly manifested toward several high-risk groups since the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html |title=Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States |last=Eligon |first=John |date=2020-04-07 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-04-16 |last2=Burch |first2=Audra D. S. |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |last3=Searcey |first3=Dionne |last4=Jr |first4=Richard A. Oppel }}</ref> Aside from those who are ostracized because of their diagnosis,<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/04/us/stigma-coronavirus.html |title=What It’s Like to Come Home to the Stigma of Coronavirus |last=Stockman |first=Farah |date=2020-03-04 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-04-16 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref> healthcare workers treating COVID-19 patients and people of Asian ethnicity have been subject to increased maltreatment in countries worldwide. In India, news outlets report that stigma towards healthcare workers is on the rise and has resulted in physical violence.<ref name=":42">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-13/doctors-come-under-attack-in-india-as-coronavirus-stigma-grows |title=Doctors Come Under Attack in India as Coronavirus Stigma Grows |last=Altstedter |first=Ari |date=2020-04-13 |work=Bloomberg |access-date=2020-04-16 |archive-url= |archive-date= |last2=Shrivastava |first2=Bhuma |language=en-US |issn=0007-7135 |last3=Pandya |first3=Dhwani }}</ref> In the United States, there are higher rates of infection and death in African Americans.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html |title=Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States |last=Eligon |first=John |date=2020-04-07 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-04-17 |last2=Burch |first2=Audra D. S. |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |last3=Searcey |first3=Dionne |last4=Jr |first4=Richard A. Oppel }}</ref> There have also been reports of Asian Americans who fear racially motivated violence due to COVID-19.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese-coronavirus-racist-attacks.html |title=Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety |last=Tavernise |first=Sabrina |date=2020-03-23 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-04-16 |last2=Jr |first2=Richard A. Oppel |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref> Government officials and the media's improper language to describe COVID-19 has created friction between racial groups and incited others to weaponize it against Asians across the globe.<ref>Covid-19 Is Becoming the Disease That Divides Us: By Race, Class and Age. (2020, March 21). ''Bloomberg.Com''. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-21/covid-19-divides-u-s-society-by-race-class-and-age</ref> The increase of fear and anxiety surrounding the Coronavirus outbreak has bred racially-motivated [[wikipedia:Hate crime|hate crimes]] against Asians as a form of [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201312/the-psychology-scapegoating scapegoating].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/anti-asian-racism-stopped-normalised-200412103717485.html |title=Anti-Asian racism must be stopped before it is normalised |last=Aziz |first=Sahar |website=www.aljazeera.com |access-date=2020-04-16 }}</ref> The rise of coronavirus hate crimes towards people of Asian descent has taken the form of physical assault such as acid attacks,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://asamnews.com/2020/04/07/ny-mayor-vows-to-throw-the-full-force-of-the-law-to-stop-anti-asian-hate-crimes-asian-woman-suffers-second-degree-burns-in-acid-attack/ |title=Acid attack on Brooklyn woman in apparent coronavirus hate crime. NY Mayor DeBlasio calls the rise in racist attacks on Asians a "crisis." |date=2020-04-07 |website=AsAm News |language=en-US |access-date=2020-04-16 }}</ref> verbal abuse and harassment such as yelling racial slurs and blaming for "spreading the virus."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads |title=Reports of Anti-Asian Assaults, Harassment and Hate Crimes Rise as Coronavirus Spreads |website=Anti-Defamation League |language=en |access-date=2020-04-16 }}</ref> Survivors of [https://www.apa.org/advocacy/interpersonal-violence/hate-crimes hate crimes] are more likely to experience psychological distress than survivors of violent crimes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://legalcouncil.org/hate-crimes-public-health/ |title=Hateful to Health: The lasting effects of hate crimes on public health |date=2019-03-04 |website=Legal Council for Health Justice |language=en-US |access-date=2020-04-16 }}</ref> [https://www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/media/Documents/ISTSS-Global-Perspectives-on-the-Trauma-of-Hate-Based-Violence-Briefing-Paper.pdf Victims of hate crimes suffer from psychological trauma] like internalizing the messages associated with perpetrators' motivation to engage in the attacks, leading to low self-esteem, posttraumatic stress reactions, and a fear and distrust of others and social institutions.<ref>Ghafoori, B., Caspi, Y., Salgado, C., Allwood, M., Kreither, J., Tejada, J.L., Hunt, T., Waelde, L.C., Slobodin, O., Failey, M., Gilberg, P., Larrondo, P., Ramos, N., von Haumeder, A., & Nadal, K. (2019). ''Global Perspectives on the Trauma of Hate-Based Violence: An International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Briefing Paper.'' Retrieved from [https://istss.org/public-resources/istss-briefing-papers/hate-based-violence www.istss.org/hate-based-violence]</ref> Another consequence of using racist language and the influx of hate crimes against the Asian community is the fracturing of unity in society, which makes preserving the sustenance of the global economy harder to achieve.<ref>Davenport, C., Gregg, A., & Timberg, C. (2020, March 22). Working from home reveals another fault line in America’s racial and educational divide. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/22/working-home-reveals-another-fault-line-americas-racial-educational-divide/</ref> === Stigma around bipolar disorder and other serious mental illnesses === BD is already prone to high levels of [[wikipedia:Mental disorder#Stigma|stigmatization]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Corrigan |first=Patrick W. |last2=Bink |first2=Andrea B. |last3=Fokuo |first3=J. Konadu |last4=Schmidt |first4=Annie |date=2015-03-30 |title=The public stigma of mental illness means a difference between you and me |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178115000074 |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=226 |issue=1 |pages=186–191 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2014.12.047 |issn=0165-1781 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hinshaw|first1= S. P.|date=2010|url=https://hinshawsubdomain.dreamhosters.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hinshaw-2010-Growing-Up-in-a-Family-Chapter-in-Miklowitz-Cicchetti.pdf|chapter= Growing Up in a Family with Bipolar Disorder: Personal Experience, Developmental Lessons, and Overcoming Stigma|editor1-first=D. |editor1-last=Miklowitz |editor2-first=D.|editor2-last= Cicchetti |title= Understanding bipolar disorder: A developmental psychopathology perspective|pages= 525-556|publisher= Guilford Press|isbn=9781606236222}}</ref> and will undoubtedly take a second hit when people with BD also contract COVID-19. Multiple incidents of ostracism, violence, and discrimination against doctors and people suffering from COVID-19 have already been flurrying in the news worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bagcchi |first=Sanjeet |date=2020-07 |title=Stigma during the COVID-19 pandemic |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1473309920304989 |journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases |language=en |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=782 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30498-9 |pmc=PMC7314449 |pmid=32592670 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/27/world/americas/coronavirus-health-workers-attacked.html |title=‘Afraid to Be a Nurse’: Health Workers Under Attack |last=Semple |first=Kirk |date=2020-04-27 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-10-05 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 }}</ref> Moreover, it is well documented that when people with mental disorders also develop a physical condition, the “medical” disorders are likely to be discounted and [https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(14)00023-6/fulltext undertreated]. If a person with BD contracts SARS-CoV-2 and develops COVID-19, there is a clear risk that stigma could change treatment decisions and threaten therapeutic rapport.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Corrigan |first=Patrick W. |last2=Mittal |first2=Dinesh |last3=Reaves |first3=Christina M. |last4=Haynes |first4=Tiffany F. |last5=Han |first5=Xiaotong |last6=Morris |first6=Scott |last7=Sullivan |first7=Greer |date=2014-08-15 |title=Mental health stigma and primary health care decisions |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178114003254 |journal=Psychiatry Research |language=en |volume=218 |issue=1 |pages=35–38 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2014.04.028 |issn=0165-1781 |pmc=PMC4363991 |pmid=24774076 }}</ref> The double stigma of having two burdens may not just aggravate a sense of isolation but provoke hostility instead of support – and deprive the individual of needed treatments.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy420 |title=Developmental Psychopathology |last=Martinez |first=Andres G. |last2=Hinshaw |first2=Stephen P. |date=2016-02-10 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-119-12555-6 |editor-last=Cicchetti |editor-first=Dante |location=Hoboken, NJ, USA |pages=1–43 |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy420 }}</ref> The World Health Organization has provided [https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/covid19-stigma-guide.pdf guidelines] and a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Pa2r02V5yjzR095ZQ2p1e80udfCuj_P9/view powerpoint] on ways to address the social stigma surrounding COVID-19 in the community such as effective ways to communicate, hosting an open discussion that includes health education while dispelling rumors and misinformation about the virus, and engaging influential people in the community to encourage harmony.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/links/covid19-resources-and-support-for-mncah-and-ageing/en/ |title=WHO {{!}} COVID-19 : Resources and support |website=WHO |access-date=2020-10-05 }}</ref> == Opportunities == {{fig|5 |"Crisis" combines the characters for "Danger" and "Opportunity"-Simplified & Traditional Chinese.png |caption=The Chinese word for "crisis" combines characters that separately would mean "danger" and "opportunity." The top row uses Simplified characters, and the bottom row shows Traditional characters. |attribution = Jun Chen, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC BY]] }} Still, crises are also times of opportunity. We can learn from examples of resilience and rethink and adapt our ways of working. At a global level, the pandemic and response to it are accelerating social and economic changes and transforming daily life and technology for shopping, communicating, and engaging with the community in ways likely to persist.<ref name=":2" /> === Learning from unexpected resilience === Within a few months after the start of China’s COVID-19 lock-down, Chinese mental health clinicians see that if patients move from insecure housing to more secure housing, they report more daily regulation and mood stability or improvement. These positive trends occur in patients returning to live with their families, as well as in hospital settings. Similarly, people with lived experience of BD who are engaged with the Collaborative RESearch Team in Bipolar Disorder (CREST.BD) network report silver linings. Indeed, during the [http://www.crestbd.ca/talkbd/ TalkBD Online Meetup: Staying Mentally Well During COVID-19] (March 20, 2020) forum, investigators found that being proactive about protecting routine and doubling down on [https://www.mhanational.org/ten-tools wellness tools] prevented social distancing from triggering deterioration. === Opportunities to transform service delivery === The COVID-19 pandemic forces a rethinking of how best to improve access to and implementation of enhanced psychological and psychiatric intervention services specific to [https://www.div12.org/diagnosis/bipolar-disorder/ BD treatment]. These should include—but not be limited to—home visits with physical distancing measures in place,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garriga |first=Marina |last2=Agasi |first2=Isabel |last3=Fedida |first3=Ester |last4=Pinzón-Espinosa |first4=Justo |last5=Vazquez |first5=Mireia |last6=Pacchiarotti |first6=Isabella |last7=Vieta |first7=Eduard |date=2020-04-11 |title=The role of Mental Health Home Hospitalization Care during the COVID-19 pandemic |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/acps.13173 |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |language=en |doi=10.1111/acps.13173 }}</ref> as well as [https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/telepsychiatry telepsychiatry] and [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|telepsychology]] (including both therapy and assessment; e.g., [https://effectivechildtherapy.org/assessment-center Effective Child Therapy's online assessment center]). Online prescription and medicine express delivery, [https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/telepsychology telepsychology] management interventions, [https://societyforpsychotherapy.org/report-task-force-telepsychotherapy/ telepsychotherapy], online psycho-education programs, [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735815300623 online mindfulness-based interventions], online sleep hygiene resources, and apps, facilitate access to existing phone and online support lines staffed by mental health professionals trained in treating BD are all salient and essential. The emerging number of apps and mental health resources may play a crucial positive role.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hidalgo-Mazzei |first=Diego |last2=Llach |first2=Cristian |last3=Vieta |first3=Eduard |date=2020-03 |title=mHealth in affective disorders: hype or hope? A focused narrative review |url=https://journals.lww.com/intclinpsychopharm/FullText/2020/03000/mHealth_in_affective_disorders__hype_or_hope__A.1.aspx |journal=International Clinical Psychopharmacology |language=en-US |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=61–68 |doi=10.1097/YIC.0000000000000302 |issn=0268-1315 }}</ref> [https://www.reddit.com/ Reddit], [https://www.quora.com/q/coronavirus?source=banner Quora], and [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics|Wikiversity]] provide mechanisms for prompt, interactive information exchange and education, with Reddit and Quora providing models for expert-community exchange (e.g., [https://www.lifewire.com/what-exactly-is-a-reddit-ama-3485985 “Ask Me Anything” (AMA) threads], such as [https://www.reddit.com/user/crest_bd CREST-BD]).  Wikiversity offers a potential “train the trainer” platform for rapidly changing areas, such as [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|telepsychology]]. A great need exists to train and support clinicians to go to people’s online presence. There are several low or no-cost crisis support resources for patients experiencing acute distress during and after the pandemic. For example, in the USA, the [https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/ Suicide Prevention Lifeline] (800-273-8255) is available 24/7. The Suicide Prevention Lifeline is also available in Spanish ([https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/help-yourself/en-espanol/ Nacional de Prevencion del Suicido; 888-628-9454]), and for the [https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/help-yourself/for-deaf-hard-of-hearing/ Deaf and Hard of Hearing (800-799-4889)]. For those who are more comfortable texting, [https://www.crisistextline.org/text-us/ Crisis Text Line] (CTL) is accessible and available around the clock (Text HOME to 741741). Disaster distress helplines like [https://www.samhsa.gov/ SAMHSA] are now offering counseling and support to those experiencing emotional distress related to the Coronavirus pandemic for free 24/7 by phone (1-800-985-5990), by texting "TalkWithUs" to 66746, or by visiting [https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/disaster-distress-helpline DisasterDistress.samhsa.gov]. Since 2013, CTL volunteer crisis workers have engaged in over 140,000,000 crisis conversations with individuals across the United States. Approximately 25% of crisis conversations include support requests by people experiencing suicidal thoughts. Among support options, CTL in particular, is accessed at higher rates during population-wide stressors, such as exposure to fictional suicides (e.g., [[What We Wish They Knew: 13 Reasons Why|13 Reasons Why]]), media coverage of suicide deaths of celebrities (e.g., [[w:Anthony Bourdain|Anthony Bourdain]]),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sugg |first=Margaret M. |last2=Michael |first2=Kurt D. |last3=Stevens |first3=Scott E. |last4=Filbin |first4=Robert |last5=Weiser |first5=Jaclyn |last6=Runkle |first6=Jennifer D. |date=2019-12-01 |title=Crisis text patterns in youth following the release of 13 Reasons Why Season 2 and celebrity suicides: A case study of summer 2018 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301706 |journal=Preventive Medicine Reports |language=en |volume=16 |pages=100999 |doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100999 |issn=2211-3355 |pmc=PMC6849446 |pmid=31750076 }}</ref> and climate-related disasters.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Runkle |first=Jennifer D. |last2=Michael |first2=Kurt D. |last3=Stevens |first3=Scott E. |last4=Sugg |first4=Margaret M. |date=2021-01 |title=Quasi-experimental evaluation of text-based crisis patterns in youth following Hurricane Florence in the Carolinas, 2018 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969720352311 |journal=Science of The Total Environment |language=en |volume=750 |pages=141702 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141702 }}</ref> For example, after [[w:Hurricane Florence|Hurricane Florence]] in 2018, CTL crisis text volume in North and South Carolina, USA, showed an immediate, sustained increase in crisis texts about stress/anxiety and suicidal thoughts in the six weeks following the weather-related disaster. Taken together, these data provide some promise in contributing feasible, acceptable, and accessible resources for those in distress in short order.<ref name=":6" /> In addition to promoting such easy-access crisis resources for bipolar disorder patients, it may become necessary to make home environments safer during a prolonged shelter-in-place orders. Unfortunately, suicidal crises, though often brief, can escalate quickly. In studies involving patients who have made a serious attempt, nearly 50% escalated from experiencing suicidal thoughts to an attempt in under 10 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deisenhammer |first=Eberhard A. |last2=Ing |first2=Chy-Meng |last3=Strauss |first3=Robert |last4=Kemmler |first4=Georg |last5=Hinterhuber |first5=Hartmann |last6=Weiss |first6=Elisabeth M. |date=2008-10-21 |title=The Duration of the Suicidal Process |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.07m03904 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=19–24 |doi=10.4088/jcp.07m03904 |issn=0160-6689 }}</ref> Thus, for those patients at risk for suicide (i.e., with either a history of attempts or acute distress), helping families secure unlocked firearms and reduce access to dangerous medications could help prevent suicide death during the pandemic.  For clinicians unfamiliar with these suicide prevention strategies, online training for particular types of means safety approaches (e.g., [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/calm-counseling-access-lethal-means Counseling on Access to Lethal Means; CALM]) are publicly available and free [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/calm-counseling-access-lethal-means here]. Other prominent [https://www.mirecc.va.gov/lethalmeanssafety/index.asp “lethal means safety” approaches] are available either for free [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/patient-safety-plan-template here] or for a modest cost, including the [http://www.cams-care.com/ Collaborative Assessment and Management of Suicidality (CAMS) Model]. ===[[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|Telepsychology and Telepsychiatry]]=== [https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/telepsychology Telepsychology], including both therapy and assessment, can be especially helpful during shelter-in-place. In addition to providing support during a stressful time, telepsychology can help patients maintain their lifestyle strategies and skills and adapt and cope with changing circumstances. Therapy also provides some interaction and structure during weekdays, which can be valuable for patients with BD. The sudden shift to online services is part of a general trend for the pandemic response to accelerating the transition back to normalcy.<ref name=":2" /> There are several ways to conduct therapy while maintaining social distance successfully. The easiest option is to use the [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Phone|phone]], as both patient and therapist should have the necessary equipment and are familiar with its use. Furthermore, phone-based therapy raises fewer HIPAA-related concerns than other modalities. The primary downside of phone therapy is that the therapist and patient cannot see each other during the session, and so, valuable information can be lost. If possible, it is often preferable to use a secure [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Video Conferencing|video conferencing platform]] such as [https://doxy.me/ doxy.me], [https://zoom.us/ Zoom](with needed security features), or [https://www.thera-link.com/ thera-LINK]. In addition to seeing one another and interacting more naturally, video enables the use of worksheets, play, and other activities to increase engagement and facilitate learning. Video is more technologically difficult to use than a phone, but most people can master it with some instruction. Video also requires that both the patient and the therapist have a camera-enabled device. [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Conducting assessment|Assessment]]—particularly frequent self-report of mood, sleep, and activities – can provide insight to both the therapist and patient. Routine assessment enables early identification of clinically significant change in need of intervention; it can also help the patient better understand him/herself and how choices they make (e.g., sleep habits, exercising or not) can affect mood and later physiology. Assessment can be conducted by emailing self-reports, reading the assessment out loud for the patient to respond to, using an [https://effectivechildtherapy.org/assessment-center online form or survey], or procuring an app. When choosing to engage in telepsychology, it is also important to consider [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Appropriate clients|patient symptom severity and risk]]. Knowing the patient’s address and emergency contact information is critical, as is [http://www.suicidesafetyplan.com/ updating the safety plan] with the patient to account for current circumstances. Some patients may need more intensive services than can reasonably be offered via telepsychology; finding an appropriate referral is vital in these cases. == Conclusion == Despite the dramatic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, this emergency presents both the opportunity for (a) broader and more in-depth understanding of BD patients’ psychological functioning; and (b) development and implementation of mental health policies and services. A prompt and effective response holds the potential to lower the personal and societal risks associated with poor mental health, with the added benefit of saving private and public money. These efforts offer the opportunity to address mental illness stigma. They potentially ameliorate internalized stigma by fostering a society where persons with a mental disorder are demonstrably valued—with adequate support of their health needs. Indeed, appropriate use of technology can help to maintain human connections despite physical distance. The COVID-19 crisis is a wave propelling sweeping changes in policy, access, delivery, and attitudes. When it recedes, the landscape for the treatment of BD will have changed. There will be damage and loss, but also opportunities to learn – and changes in service delivery that could evolve into significant innovations in service provision and improved outcomes. == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === We thank John Nicholas Fogg for help gathering candidate links, Tasha Regan for making the [[c:File:Coping_with_Bipolar_Disorder_during_COVID-19_(Tashsa_Regan)_v1.jpg|Coping with Bipolar During COVID-19 infographic]] and letting us feature it in this article, and Jennifer Youngstrom, PhD, for comments on several early versions of the paper. === Conflict of Interest === Eric A. Youngstrom, PhD, is the co-founder and CEO of [https://hgaps.org Helping Give Away Psychological Science], a [[w:501(c)3 nonprofit|501(c)3 nonprofit]] charitable educational national organization. He is on the editorial board of the ''WikiJournal of Medicine'' (and is recused from the review process). The other authors have no competing interests to declare. === Ethics statement === There are no primary results from human or animal subjects research presented in this paper. == References == {{reflist|35em}} rwpy3tnk7zf0c5qj3icahwtpk0qse9x 0 263444 2417088 2416830 2022-08-21T16:44:21Z Scogdill 1331941 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == * Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was the subject of much comment and gossip in her life, arising in part from her prominence in society and in part from her conduct, which was not particularly controlled by middle-class notions of "respectability." * "Louise Alten, for her part, exemplifies another vanished feature [of Victorian England], the role of the political hostess. The part she played in Hartington's career even while she was his mistress gives a special twist to this function, and her more conventional ascendancy as Duchess of Devonshire, when she was said to be the most powerful person outside the government, shows the influence that could be wielded by women in a political system from which they were formally excluded."<ref name=":20">Vane, Henry. ''Affair of State: A Biography of the 8th Duke and Duchess of Devonshire''. Peter Owen, 2004.</ref>{{rp|12}} == Also Known As == *Louise, Duchess of Devonshire (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911) *Louisa, Duchess of Manchester *Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten *Louisa Montagu *Louise Cavendish *The Double Duchess == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire) *Daisy, Lady Warwick *Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4">"The Queen's Drawing Room" ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} *Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} === Enemies === * Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)<ref name=":1">Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984.</ref>{{rp|pp. 31–32}} == Organizations == == Timeline == '''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.<ref name=":2">"Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1859''': "As for Louise, a glimpse of her unconventional ways is given by Lady Eleanor Stanley, describing a paper-chase at Kimbolton in 1859: 'The Duchess of Manchester, in getting too hastily over a stile, caught a hoop of her cage in it, and went head over heels, alighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats remaining above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen — and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her underclothing consisted of a pair of scarlet tartan knickerbockers (the things Charles shoots in) — which were revealed to all the world in general and the Duc de Malakoff in particular.' Lady Eleanor says that the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful because at this date a lady's normal wear under her petticoats was only a pair of leggings laced up to the waistband, an arrangement that could be unduly revealing in combination with a crinoline. ... But some of the more active ladies were beginning to adopt / Louise's expedient of donning a hidden pair of breeches for rambles in the country."<ref name=":20" />{{rp|25–26}} '''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 26}} '''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married. '''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married. '''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.<ref name=":3">"William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.<ref>"Helena Zimmerman." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.<ref name=":2" /> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London. '''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married. '''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1901 Spring''', Paris, [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough]], describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:<blockquote>A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?<ref name=":23">Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.</ref>{{rp|p. 115}}</blockquote> === Annual Events === Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter. == The Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == Louise, Duchess of Devonshire and Spencer Compton, 8th Duke of Devonshire hosted the famous [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Fancy-dress ball|fancy-dress ball]], which took place on Friday night. According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>Such an event required extensive planning and attention to detail. The housekeeper aided by two secretaries was in charge of organisation inside the house with precise instructions from the Duchess on menus and all arrangements.<ref name=":18" />{{rp|137}}</blockquote> === The Devonshire House Staff at the Ball === The Dukes of Devonshire did not keep employment records of the staff working at their various properties. The Servants and Staff Database managed by Chatsworth House has a list of everyone ever named in any documents as a servant or staff member, and by 1891 census records included employment at places like the properties owned by the Duke of Devonshire.<ref name=":19" /> === Questions === # Who was housekeeper? Who were the secretaries? # Where did this info about the "precise instructions" come from? === The Historical Zenobia === Louise, Duchess of Devonshire attended the ball dressed as Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.</ref> She was the subject of much art in the 19th century, including literature, opera, sculpture, and paintings. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.</ref> We do not know what sources, if any, were consulted by Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in preparing for personating Zenobia for the ball. The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' offers a sense of what was generally available to those interested in that kind of research. The discussion of Zenobia that would have been available in 1897, in 9th edition of the ''Britannica'', is embedded ion the article on Palmyra. It begins with her husband, Odænathus, and his father: <blockquote>Odænathus himself seems to have been engaged in almost constant warfare in the east and north against the Persians and perhaps the Scythians, but in his absence the reins of government were firmly held by his wife Zenobia, the most famous heroine of antiquity, to whom indeed Aurelian, in a letter preserved by Trebellius Pollio, ascribes the chief merit of all her husband's success. Septimia Zenobia was by firth a Palmyrene; her native name was Bath Zabbai ... [;] and Pollio's description of her dark beauty, black flashing eyes, and pearly teeth, together with her unusual physical endurance and the frank commanding manners which secured her authority in the camp and the desert, point emphatically to an Arabic rather than a Syrian descent. ... To the union of firmness and clemency, which is the most necessary quality of an Eastern sovereign, Zenobia added the rarer gifts of economy and organization, and an unusual range of intellectual culture. She spoke Coptic as well as Syriac, knew something of Latin, and had learned Greek from the famous Longinus, who remained at her court to the last, and paid the penalty of his life for his share in her counsels. She was also a diligent student of Eastern and Western history, and the statement that she enjoined her sons to speak Latin so that they had difficulty in using Greek implies a consistent and early adoption of the policy which made the sucess of Odænathus, and, taken in connexion with Aurelians' testimony, in a letter preserved by Pollio, that she had the chief merit of her husband's exploits, seems to justify the conclusion that it was her educated political insight that created the fortunes of the short-lived dynasty. ... In the zenith of his fame Odænathus was cut off by assassination along with his eldest son Herod, and it is generally assumed that the murder took place under Gallienus. ... [p. 201, Col. 2c – p. 202, Col. 1a] The fact seems to be that, while Odaenathus was busy at the other end of his kingdom, Zenobia administered the government at Palmyra and directed the conquest of Egypt, still nominally acting under the emperor at Rome, whose authority on the Nile was disputed by one or more pretenders. ... It still seems ... strange and yet an undoubted fact that Zenobia, who not only enjoyed the real authority behind her beardless son, but placed her name before his on public inscriptions, ... struck no coins till the second year of Aurelian, when the breach with Rome took place, and she suddenly appears as an empress (Σεβαστή, Augusta) of five years' standing. Up to that date the royal pair probably did not venture to coin in open defiance to Rome, and yet were unwilling to circulate an acknowledgment of vassalship in all the bazaars of the East. ... ... Zenobia, supported by her two generals, kinsmen of her husband, was now face to face with a Roman invasion. She held Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor as far as Ancyra; and Bithynia was ready to join her party had not the army of Aurelian appeared just in time from Byzantium. She could count too on the Armenians and the Arabs, but the loyalty of Syria was doubtful: the towns disliked a rule which was essentially "barbarian," and in Antioch at least the patroness of the Monarchian bishop Paul of Samosata could to be popular with the large Christian party by whom he was bitterly hated. There were many Romans [p. 202, Col. 1c – p. 202, Col. 2a] in Zenobia's force, and it was they who bore the brunt of the two great battles at Antioch and Emesa, which followed Aurelian's rapid advance through Asia Minor. But Zenobia made light of these defeats, — "I have suffered no great loss" was her message to Aurelian, "for almost all who have fallen are Romans." ... But the empire of Palmyra came four centuries too soon. Rome was not yet exhausted, and Zenobia had neither the religious discipline of Islam to hold the Arabs together nor the spoil of the treasuries of Persia to keep their enthusiasm always fresh. Aurelian's military skill was strained to the uttermost by the prudence and energy of Zenobia, but he succeeded in forming and maintaining the siege of Palmyra in spite of its bulwark of desert, and his gold corrupted the Arab and Armenian auxiliaries. Zenobia attempted to flee and throw herself on the Persians, but she was pursued and taken, and then the Palmyrene lost heart and capitulated. Aurelian seized the wealth of the city, but spared the inhabitants, and to Zenobia he granted her life while he put her advisors to death. She figured in his splendid triumph, and by the most probable account accepted her fall with dignity, and closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the life of a Roman matron. The fall of Zenobia may be placed in the spring of 272.<ref name=":21">"W. R. S." [Smith, W. Robertson]. "Palmyra." ''The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes. 9th edition. Vol. XVIII (Vol. 18): Orne–Phthisis. 1885. Google Books. Retrieved 11 August 2022.https://books.google.com/books?id=0au0xN1PrAEC.</ref>{{rp|p. 201, Col. 2a – p. 202, Col. 2b}} </blockquote>This extract is from "Palmyra" in the 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', which does not have an article on Zenobia. The Zenobia entry is a cross reference to the Palmyra article, which is about 10 columns and includes a biographical sketch of this ruler.<ref>By W.R.S., W. Robertson Smith, Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic, University of Cambridge.</ref> <ref name=":21" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 1c, after p. 858}} Written by George Albert Cooke<ref>Rev. George Albert Cooke (G.A.C.), Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, Fellow of Oriel College, Vol. XXVIII, p. viii. </ref>, the article on Zenobia in the 11th edition of the ''Britannica'', technically the next edition<ref>The 10th edition of the ''Britannica'', 1902–1903, is the 9th edition plus 10 supplementary volumes.</ref>, published in 1911, is substantial, more than an entire column.<ref>"G.A.C." [George Albert Cooke]. "Zenobia." Encyclopaedia Britannica: An Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information. Ed. . Vol. XXVIII (Vol. 28): Vetch to Zymotic Diseases. ''Google Books''. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://books.google.com/books?id=NEpAAQAAMAAJ.</ref>{{rp|p. 972, Col. 1a–2b}} == The Duchess of Devonshire's Costume == [[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]] At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.<ref name=":7">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=Attilio+Comelli&source=bl&ots=lFB0If7CwV&sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&q=Attilio%20Comelli&f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.</ref>)<ref name=":5">“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.</ref> <ref name=":8">"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} <ref name=":9">"By One Who Was There." “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref> and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,<blockquote>For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”<ref>Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.</ref></blockquote>Lafayette's portrait of "Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)" in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra," with a Long S in ''Duchess''.<ref>"Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra." Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.</ref> Often, the V&A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted drop behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph. That is, there is one source for our information about this portrait: this single photograph. === Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume === Newspaper articles about the Duchess's presence at the ball focused on her hosting, her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Jewelry|her jewelry]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Entourage|her entourage]], often in the same story. These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source: * The London ''Evening Standard'', ''Morning Post'' and ''Times'' published almost identical descriptions, varying only by the occasional punctuation mark or short phrase ("supplied by Worth, of Paris"). The fullest version is this one: "The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Stomacher|stomacher]] of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt."<ref name=":16">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref>{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} *"The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsage|corsage]] was to correspond, and had a magnificent [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Girdle|girdle]] of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. ... Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * According to the article in ''The Graphic'' written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]], though this caption to the Lafayette photograph may not be hers, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a "Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds."<ref name=":10">Greville, Violet, Lady. "Devonshire House Ball." The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.</ref>{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * According to ''The Gentlewoman'', a newspaper that often covered fashion and design, "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref name=":22" />(p. 32, Col. 1c–2a) Because it is in black and white, the photograph of the Duchess taken by Lafayette in her costume (above right) can tell us almost nothing about the colors of the costume. Fortunately, this costume has survived and is held in Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth). ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the volume about an exhibition mounted 25 March to 22 October 2017, has beautiful photographs from several perspective of the costume, including the train, and accessories. Published photographs of it '''show X'''.<ref name=":18">Burlington, Julia, and Hamish Bowles. ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth''. Skira Rizzoli, 2017. Based on an exhibition 25 March to 22 October 2017.</ref> It has been worn by '''Deborah, 11th Duchess of Devonshire when the Dowager Duchess at some point for some reason'''. Some accounts of her costume suggest that the reporter thought that all the jewels sewn onto the dress were actual precious or semiprecious stones, but the London ''Daily News'' says some of them were crystals.<ref name=":15" />(p. 5, Col. 6a) According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>The skirt of gold gauze, appliquéd with tinsel medallions and peacock plumes worked in bright foils, wire coils and spangled with sequins, was worn over an ivory satin underskirt wrought over with silver thread and diamonds. Attached to the shoulders was a long graduated train in the most vivid emerald-green velvet, appliquéd with velvet and gold work in an eastern design and studied with jewels.<ref name=":18" />(128)</blockquote> === Observations on the Duchess's Costume === In the photograph of her in costume, the Duchess is standing in a three-quarter front pose. That static position in a two-dimensional image makes it difficult to understand exactly how the costume and accessories worked. The terms we use are these: train, bodice (what's on the torso, no matter how many layers), stomacher, belt (really an accessory, like the jewelry), sleeves, overskirt and underskirt. Some of the 1897 terminology for parts of the dress differs from what we would use now. Some of the terms that appear in the newspaper reports include front, bodice, corsage, stomacher, girdle, train and overmantle, skirt, gown, robe and under-dress. ==== The Duchess's Body ==== The costume appears to have been designed to flatter the Duchess of Devonshire's body. (It hangs differently on Deborah, the 11th Duchess of Devonshire in photographs of when she wore it in '''20XX''', and it hangs differently on the smaller-sized mannequin used in the 2017 '''XX''' exhibit.) The bodice appears to be looser and the stomacher less fitted to her body. * She was 65 years old at the time of the ball. * She was unusually beautiful in her youth. In her 1984 ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball'', Sophia Murphy says, "As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'"<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 21}} * She was confident, a "political hostess," "said to be the most powerful person outside the government."<ref name=":20" />(12) * [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough]] describing Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, "Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash ...."<ref name=":23" />(115) She said this a few months after Queen Victoria's death in 1901, but they knew each other in 1897: the Duchess of Marlborough was at the ball. * Although it is impossible to tell anything about what undergarments she may have been wearing from the Lafayette portrait, the Duchess does not appear to have a tightly laced waist. She seems thicker in the middle than she would with traditional tight lacing, and the drape of the costume suggests it might have been more comfortable than intended to show off a small waist. ==== Fit ==== *The recent exhibitions of the dress show a different fit than what is shown in the Lafayette photograph. Louise, the 8th Duchess's bodice is draped loosely over the stomacher, but photographs of Deborah, 11th Duchess or of the mannequin in the 2017 exhibition show a bodice fitted to the stomacher. * Also, the costume itself may have been altered or adjusted to make the waist more defined and the line more Elizabethan (the wide, square neckline; the A-line, the split skirt with the petticoat in the middle). * The dress seems to have been designed to flatter the 8th Duchess's statuesque figure, especially her waist: the belt falls down to the hips, the A-line; the way what we can see of the under-dress is narrow at the top and widens toward the bottom. * The drape of the skirt is straighter on the 8th Duchess as well as the Dowager Duchess than on the mannequins. ==== Inconsistencies in the Descriptions and Images ==== * The newspaper accounts of the Duchess's costume do not agree on several particulars, including the color of the train and its lining. ==== Changing Victorian Design Elements ==== The costume as Louise, the 8th Duchess wore it is vaguely Middle Eastern and exotic, consistent with her '''leading''' the "Oriental" procession. The sleeve treatment, the drape of the bodice and the skirt are consistent with the line of something from the Middle East. This would have been what Comelli designed. Early clothing history books existed by the middle of the century, and it would be logical that Comelli would be familiar with them. The versions of the costume shown in recent exhibitions make it seem more Victorian than what we see in Lafayette's portrait. The tightness of the fit of the bodice indicates a Victorian corset under the costume. The line of the bodice and skirt, the bare arms in the sleeve treatment, the train, the belt, The versions of the dress the the tightness of the dress against the stomacher all look Victorian. A-line drape of the skirt was done for the exhibition to show the artistry and complexity of the trim. * The sleeve treatment in the 1897 photograph is caught up at the shoulder. On the Dowager Duchess and the mannequins, the sleeves are released. ==== Trim ==== * The sequins attached to the costume would have been metal. They appear to be silver that has tarnished, which is why they are dark now. Currently, the tarnish on the sequins and embroidery thread cannot be removed without damage to the fabric. * The gold thread in the embroidery has not tarnished, but the silver thread, which would have sparkled in 1897, has. ==== Accessories ==== * Belt * Wig? (she's 65, cf Duchess of Marlborough), covered by the elaborate headdress, impossible to tell from the Lafayette portrait whether it's up or down or a little of both. * Headdress * Do the horns on [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Zenobia's Crown|her crown]] go toward the back from the apex that rises from the jewel-encrusted band or do they stick straight out to the sides? Does the headdress include the traditional three white plumes? * Jewelry * Fan * Can't tell how many strands of pearls are around Louise's neck in the Lafayette photo, but the photographs of the recreation of the crown and of the costume from the 2017 exhibit show [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|five strands]]. ==== The Train ==== * The reporter's description of the Duchess's train in the London ''Daily News'' is confusing: it says the train is "bright green velvet" and "It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet." Embroidery is not "carried out" in velvet. Heliotrope is not green, it's pinkish purple. * Furthermore, heliotrope appears to have been a new word for a color, introduced perhaps in 1882 in A. Maerz and M. Rea Paul ''A Dictionary of Colour'', New York: '''1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196'''; Color Sample of Heliotrope: Page 131 Plate 54 Colour Sample C10 ("Heliotrope," Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)#]]<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|c]][[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|ite_note-2]]). The ''OED'' lists 3 newspaper sources for the 1880s, The ''World'' (1882), ''Truth'' (1886), and the ''Daily News'' (1887) ("heliotrope" 1.d. Retrieved 6 August 2022). The ''Daily News'' describes it well: "that peculiar mauve known as heliotrope." The word itself has existed in English for many centuries, <nowiki/>both for the flower (which turns to follow the sun) as well as for instruments that reflect or measure sunlight and also for a variety of quartz (also called bloodstone). * Color of green velvet on the train: the colors differ, depending on the photograph. One photograph shows a very vivid green, and the rest show a lighter green. We're not sure what's up with that. == The Duchess's Jewelry == The Duchess was known fo<nowiki/>r her jewelry, and as she aged and after her marriage to the 8th Duke in 1892, the jewelry she wore only increased in scale and notability. It is not surprising that her jewelry would make up copy for the newspapers. Newspaper reports before the ball gossiped about the jewelry associated with the costumes being developed. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, "The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.</ref> While almost all newspaper reports of her costume at the ball mention her jewels because they were so much a topic of conversation. Because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these descriptions emphasize her jewelry. Most are very similar to each other: * "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref name=":22">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. </ref>{{rp|p. 32, Cols. 1c–2a}} <ref name=":17">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle." The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.</ref>{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} * "A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}} * In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, "The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}} *The Duchess was dressed "as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art."<ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} <ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes." Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.</ref>{{rp|p. 11, 4a}} As with the colors, Lafayette's photograph of the Duchess in costume does not show the jewels very clearly. We cannot see the stomacher or the "long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels" or the pearls that "hung down almost to the knees" (although, of course, any newspaper account can be wrong because reporters were not present at the ball). === Zenobia's Crown<ref name=":10" /> === The crown that the Duchess wore as Zenobia is difficult to see clearly in the Lafayette photograph (above right), and no other images of the crown exist. It was lavish, "encrusted" with jewels and featuring pearls: * London ''Daily News'' says, "The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * These descriptions are all identical except for the addition or subtraction of an occasional comma: The London ''Evening Standard'' says, "A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead."<ref name=":16" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} <ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * The Guernsey ''Star'' says, "Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls."<ref name=":17" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} This crown was recreated from the single Lafayette photograph of the Duchess in costume for the ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the exhibition mounted in 2017 and exhibited on the mannequin wearing the Duchess's costume. A photograph of this recreation separate from the costume, but with the pearls and the white plumes, can be seen on [https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery this Sotheby's page] about C. W Sellor's, the jewelry firm that did the recreation as well as a number of other recreations for the exhibit.<ref>Sotheby's. "How C. W. Sellors Transformed Five Centuries of Fashion Into Modern Jewellery." ''Sotheby's'' 9 May 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery.</ref> Although Lafayette's photograph is not conclusive, in Sellor's recreation the horns on the crown point toward back of the head rather than out to the sides. === Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith === The Duchess's pearls, which were an important feature of her costume, occasioned a great deal of direct commentary in the newspaper accounts. The Duchess's jewelry occasioned a great deal of reportage in the articles about the ball. '''It was reported that she had her jewels restrung to be used in the costume. stomacher and review of jewelry in more general articles''' It is not possible to tell from the Lafayette portrait how many strands of pearls the Duchess's necklace contained, but in later appearances of the costume (on Deborah, 11the Duchess and on the mannequin in 2017), the necklace has five strands. She had had a pearl "necklet" with five strands since 1892, with a restringing on 1 March 1897. An invoice and receipt in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) is from a concern whose preprinted stationery has a crown in the upper-left corner, suggesting that they had a royal warrant, and no name other than Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith. This document offers a unique view into the evolution of one necklace, at least, over the years. It lists what are apparently three restringing of some pearls of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. The three restringings appear to be dated: The first necklace is a "Pearl Necklet in original 4 rows." The invoice is dated 20 October 1892 (but the stationery was printed to assume the invoice would be used in the 1880s, so the 9 is written over the second 8, and the 2 has been added).<ref name=":14">Invoice and receipt. Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant & Silversmith. Date of itemized invoices for restringing pearls: 20 October 1892, 1 March 1897, 1909. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number FIS/4/1/2.</ref>(p. 1) ==== The Original Necklet: 4 Rows ==== The necklet she brought in to be restrung contained a "Total [of] Total 224 large pearls": # 1st [row] 51 large pearls # 2nd 53 large pearls # 3rd 57 large pearls # 4th 63 large pearls ==== 1892 Restringing: 5 Rows ==== The second necklace is a "Necklet as re-strung on October 15th 1892, with addition of small pearls supplied, now consists of 5 rows, containing" a total of "224 large pearls & 227 small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 1): # 1st 41 large pearls & 40 small # 2nd 42 large pearls & 42 small # 3rd 44 large pearls & 45 small # 4th 47 large pearls & 48 small # 5th 50 large pearls & 51 small ==== 1897 Restringing: 5 Rows ==== The third necklace is a "Pearl Necklet as again re-strung with additional pearls supplied 1 March 1897, now consisting of 5 Rows containing" a total of "262 Large Pearls & 267 Small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 2): # 1st Row 45 Large Pearls & 44 Small # 2nd Row 48 large Pearls & 49 Small # 3rd Row 51 Large Pearls & 52 Small # 4th Row 56 Large Pearls & 65 small Possibly these pearls may have been restrung in 1909 into a coronet, but the handwriting is not clear enough to read.<ref name=":14" />(p. 2) If the Duchess wore one of these stringings of her pearls for the ball, then it must have been the second necklet, strung in 1892, a 5-strand necklace. None of the newspaper accounts refer to a 5-strand pearl necklace, although her pearls are often mentioned. == The Duchess's Entourage == Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. Four newspapers say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups, all in costume: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. The ''Westminster Gazette'' and the ''Man of Ross'' list the groups but do not mention the number of members of the groups. According to two sources, probably in error, the London ''Daily News''<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} and the Belfast ''News-Letter,''<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} these groups each had four members. The London ''Daily News'' is likely the source (because it was published at 5:00 a.m.<ref>Mitchell, Charles. ''Newspaper Press Directory'', 1895. [Hathi Trust via U Wisconsin Madison.] http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015085486150.</ref>{{rp|55}}) for the Belfast ''News-Letter'', which took part in [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]], like so many other newspapers of the 19th century. ['''check this: which one was published earlier in the day, and on which day?'''] These four sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed: *"The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} *"Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} *"The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli."<ref name=":5" /> *"The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group."<ref name=":9" /> === Details of the Costumes in the Entourage === The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has "receipts" or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following: * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet & Co.|B. Burnet & Co.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Liberty & Co., Ltd.|Liberty & Co., Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Lafayette, Ltd.|Lafayette, Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith]] This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time. The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes. The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below. While the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group contained four members,<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} the invoices and receipts suggest that the newspaper, the single source for this information, was wrong about the number of people in each group. It is theoretically possible, of course, that suppliers other than the ones in the Chatsworth Archive made some of these costumes and that other invoices and receipts must have existed at that time. But the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|Comelli memo, below]], seems definitive: he designed and seems to have overseen the construction of the costumes, which numbered six rather than twelve. '''[Collier discussion?]''' Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer. ==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ==== Attillo Giuseppe Comelli was a designer for opera, ballet and theatre in Europe, the UK and North America.<ref name=":13" /> The receipt in the Chatsworth Archive was sent from Covent Garden. The invoice lists £4 for "Making six costumes," 3''s'' for "Extras" and 12s for "Cab fares for men paid by the request of M. Comelli."<ref>M. Comelli, Covent Garden, to Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 13 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Three other names are on this invoice and receipt: * L. L[?] Collier [?], written under and perhaps as part of the direction to the Duchess of Devonshire * Mr. Strong ("Forwarded to Mr Strong. [sic] by the instructions of M. Comelli," written in the same hand as wrote the majority of the memo) * Floyd [?] Collier [??] ("Received with Thanks," presumably thanking for the payment, in a different hand) ==== B. Burnet & Co. ==== An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet & Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":11">B. Burnet & Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following: * 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 12 1/2 yards of "wht cloth"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 9 yards of "[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Selesia|Selesia]]"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 2 yards of Canvas<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 4 Tan Wool Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 2 Tan Boys Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage. The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists "6 prs Assyrian Buskins." Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been "defensive leggings"<ref>Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.</ref> laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights. The Burnet invoice lists "4 Broad Belts," which may have held "4 Skins Fleshers."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists "8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'" with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the "4 Broad Belts" (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, "8 Doz 'Plaques'" would be far too many for the belts of only the two children. A different hand, probably "[L.??] L. Collier," wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:<blockquote>All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}}</blockquote> This same hand, signing what is possibly "Floyd Collier," also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that "six dresses" were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No "Collier" is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":19">"Servants A-H." ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.</ref> The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers. ==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ==== An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":12">Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage: * 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above] * 4 Large Armlets * 4 Bracelets * 8 Armlets<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste. Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets: * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre pieces The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration. Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers: * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers The "Pearl & Gold Headdresses" were likely the "jewelled diadems" mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The "Fan properties with Feathers" are likely to have been the "long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold" mentioned in the newspaper report.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} At the end of the Millward invoice, a "reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]" of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} ==== Liberty & Co., Ltd. ==== One invoice and receipt from the Chatsworth Archive, dated 12 July, to the Duchess of Devonshire, lists "13 yds S&W Satin[?]," 7 yards of blue and 6 of purple.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Liberty & Co. Ltd. To Her Grace, The Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 July [1897]. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Because the fabric is satin and from Liberty, it is possible that it was not used in the costumes of the people in the entourage but perhaps for the costume of the Duchess herself??? ==== Lafayette, Ltd. ==== The invoice and receipt from Lafayette, Ltd., the photographer that set up a temporary studio in the garden to take portraits of people at the ball in their costumes, may not be related to the ball at all.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Lafayette, Ltd. To His Grace The Duke of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 April 1897; addressed to the Duke, 18 February 1898; receipt and thanks for payment, 7 April 1898. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Three dates are written on the preprinted stationery: # 18/2/98 (18 February 1898), under the direction to "His Grace The Duke of Devonshire" # 4/12/97 (4 December 1897), next to the single item on the invoice for which a charge is listed: "6 [??] £1.10.0" # 7/4/98 (7 April 1898), in a different hand, with "Recd by cheque 7/4/98 Lafayette Ltd pp[?] [??] thanks" At the bottom of the page, in the hand that wrote all of the invoice except the receipt and thanks, is "With Lafayette Ltds Compliments." ==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were "in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for "White Cloth Dresses":<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}} * "2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all" * "2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre" * "2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar" * "4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions" The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 6 yards of "Terra" Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the "terra draperies," or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of "Light Terra Satinette" worn by the children? ==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were "in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men. According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} * 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls?] * "2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]" * "2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front & back" * "4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch" The Millward invoice lists * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations] ==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were "attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} * "Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all" * "2 Top [?] fronts embroidered & round necks" * "4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch"The Millward invoice lists * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 12 yards of "Red Silk Fringe," which perhaps was used to trim the "crimson shawls" or "Crimson draperies," which may have been made from the 5 yards of "Red Satinette." Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes. == Demographics == *Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> === Residences === ==== As Duchess of Manchester ==== *Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire *Manchester House, London ==== As Duchess of Devonshire ==== *Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season) *Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) == Family == *Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> *William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892) #Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934) #Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944) #Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939) #Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908) == Notes and Questions == #As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).<ref>Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.</ref>{{rp|pp. 47–48}} #Deborah (née Mitford), 11th Duchess of Devonshire was photographed wearing the costume made for Louise, 8th Duchess in 1897 on the occasion of her 80th birthday, so perhaps 31 March 2000<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wait-for-me-memoirs-of-the-youngest-mitford-sister-by-deborah-devonshire-zb3q2bk9xdq|title=Wait for Me: Memoirs of the Youngest Mitford Sister, by Deborah Devonshire|last=Athill|first=Review by Diana|access-date=2022-08-20|language=en|issn=0140-0460}} The ''Times'' 11 September 2010. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wait-for-me-memoirs-of-the-youngest-mitford-sister-by-deborah-devonshire-zb3q2bk9xdq.</ref>. She wore it as Dowager Duchess of Devonshire, so she must have worn it between the time of her husband's death (3 May 2004<ref>"Andrew Robert Buxton Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire." "Person Page – 959." ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Aristocracy of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe'' https://www.thepeerage.com/p959.htm#i9590 (accessed 11 August 2022).</ref>) and her own (24 September 2014<ref>"Hon. Deborah Vivien Freeman-Mitford." "Person Page — p960." ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Aristocracy of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe'' https://www.thepeerage.com/p960.htm#i9591 (accessed 11 August 2022).</ref>). == Footnotes == {{reflist}} biuiad6nmbum8yxd9t9d4e0kthjfpst 2417114 2417088 2022-08-21T22:55:36Z Scogdill 1331941 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == * Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was the subject of much comment and gossip in her life, arising in part from her prominence in society and in part from her conduct, which was not particularly controlled by middle-class notions of "respectability." * "Louise Alten, for her part, exemplifies another vanished feature [of Victorian England], the role of the political hostess. The part she played in Hartington's career even while she was his mistress gives a special twist to this function, and her more conventional ascendancy as Duchess of Devonshire, when she was said to be the most powerful person outside the government, shows the influence that could be wielded by women in a political system from which they were formally excluded."<ref name=":20">Vane, Henry. ''Affair of State: A Biography of the 8th Duke and Duchess of Devonshire''. Peter Owen, 2004.</ref>{{rp|12}} == Also Known As == *Louise, Duchess of Devonshire (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911) *Louisa, Duchess of Manchester *Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten *Louisa Montagu *Louise Cavendish *The Double Duchess == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire) *Daisy, Lady Warwick *Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4">"The Queen's Drawing Room" ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} *Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} === Enemies === * Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)<ref name=":1">Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984.</ref>{{rp|pp. 31–32}} == Organizations == == Timeline == '''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.<ref name=":2">"Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1859''': "As for Louise, a glimpse of her unconventional ways is given by Lady Eleanor Stanley, describing a paper-chase at Kimbolton in 1859: 'The Duchess of Manchester, in getting too hastily over a stile, caught a hoop of her cage in it, and went head over heels, alighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats remaining above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen — and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her underclothing consisted of a pair of scarlet tartan knickerbockers (the things Charles shoots in) — which were revealed to all the world in general and the Duc de Malakoff in particular.' Lady Eleanor says that the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful because at this date a lady's normal wear under her petticoats was only a pair of leggings laced up to the waistband, an arrangement that could be unduly revealing in combination with a crinoline. ... But some of the more active ladies were beginning to adopt / Louise's expedient of donning a hidden pair of breeches for rambles in the country."<ref name=":20" />{{rp|25–26}} '''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 26}} '''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married. '''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married. '''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.<ref name=":3">"William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.<ref>"Helena Zimmerman." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.<ref name=":2" /> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London. '''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married. '''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1901 Spring''', Paris, [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough]], describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:<blockquote>A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?<ref name=":23">Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.</ref>{{rp|p. 115}}</blockquote> === Annual Events === Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter. == The Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == Louise, Duchess of Devonshire and Spencer Compton, 8th Duke of Devonshire hosted the famous [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Fancy-dress ball|fancy-dress ball]], which took place on Friday night. According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>Such an event required extensive planning and attention to detail. The housekeeper aided by two secretaries was in charge of organisation inside the house with precise instructions from the Duchess on menus and all arrangements.<ref name=":18" />{{rp|137}}</blockquote> === The Devonshire House Staff at the Ball === The Dukes of Devonshire did not keep employment records of the staff working at their various properties. The Servants and Staff Database managed by Chatsworth House has a list of everyone ever named in any documents as a servant or staff member, and by 1891 census records included employment at places like the properties owned by the Duke of Devonshire.<ref name=":19" /> === Questions === # Who was housekeeper? Who were the secretaries? # Where did this info about the "precise instructions" come from? === The Historical Zenobia === Louise, Duchess of Devonshire attended the ball dressed as Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.</ref> The historical Zenobia as well as fictional characters merely named Zenobia were popular subjects in 19th century art, including literature (including Benjamin Disraeli, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Walter Savage Landor), opera, sculpture, and paintings. She was also the subject of travel books. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839), for example, discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.</ref> We do not know what sources, if any, were consulted by Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in preparing for personating Zenobia for the ball. Noting, as always, language that is offensive to us now, Edward Gibbon's '''18XX''' ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' includes Zenobia: <blockquote>Modern Europe has produced several illustrious women who have sustained with glory the weight of empire; nor is our own age destitute of such distinguished characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements of Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior genius broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by the climate and manners of Asia. She claimed her descent [p. 19 / p. 20] from the Macedonian kings of Egypt, equalled in beauty her ancestor Cleopatra, and far surpassed that princess in chastity and valour. Zenobia was esteemed the most lovely as well as the most heroic of her sex. She was of a dark complexion (for in speaking of a lady these trifles become important). Her teeth were of a pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, tempered by the most attractive sweetness. Her voice was strong and harmonious. Her manly understanding was strengthened and adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome of oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of Homer and Plato under the tuition of the sublime Longinus. This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, who, from a private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. She soon became the friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals of war Odenathus passionately delighted in the exercise of hunting; he pursued with ardour the wild beasts of the desert, lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardour of Zenobia in that dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She had inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a covered carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military habit, and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of the troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed to her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their splendid victories over the Great King, whom they twice pursued as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the foundations of their united fame and power. The armies which they commanded, and the provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any other sovereigns than their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, and even the insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for his legitimate colleague. After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of Asia, the Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in Syria. Invincible in war, he was there cut off by domestic treason, and his favourite amusement of hunting was the cause, or at least the occasion, of his death. His nephew, Mæonius, [p. 20 / p. 21] presumed to dart his javelin before that of his uncle; and, though admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As a monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away his horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised the rash youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon forgot, but the punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, with a few daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst of a great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not of Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, was killed with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to assume the title of Augustus before he was sacrificed by Zenobia to the memory of her husband. With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately filled the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels Palmyra, Syria, and the East, above five years. By the death of Odenathus, that authority was at an end which the Egypt senate had granted him only as a personal distinction; but his martial widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged one of the Roman generals who was sent against her to retreat into Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. Instead of the little passions which so frequently perplex a female reign, the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the most judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she could calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she could impose silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was accused of avarice; yet on every proper occasion she appeared magnificent and liberal. The neighbouring states of Arabia, Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited her alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. The emperor Claudius acknowledged [p. 21 / p. 22] her merit, and was content that, while he pursued the Gothic war, ''she'' should assert the dignity of the empire in the East. The conduct, however, of Zenobia was attended with some ambiguity; nor is it unlikely that she had conceived the design of erecting an independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with the popular manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the courts of Asia, and exacted from her subjects the same adoration that was paid to the successors of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three sons a Latin education, and often showed them to the troops adorned with the Imperial purple. For herself she reserved the diadem, with the splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the East. When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose sex alone could render her an object of contempt, his presence restored obedience to the province of Bithynia, already shaken by the arms and intrigues of Zenobia. ... Antioch was deserted on his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled the fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all who, from necessity rather than choice, had been engaged in the service of the Palmyrenian queen. The unexpected mildness of such a conduct reconciled the minds of the Syrians, and, as far as the gates of Emesa, the wishes of the people seconded the terror of his arms. Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently permitted the emperor of the West to approach within an hundred miles of her capital. The fate of the East was decided in two great battles; so similar in almost every circumstance, that we can scarcely distinguish them from each other, except by observing that the first was fought [p. 22 / p. 23] near Antioch, and the second near Emesa. In both the queen of Palmyra animated the armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders on Zabdas, who had already signalised his military talents by the conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for the most part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were unable to sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at length discomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy body of cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean time, when they had exhausted their quivers, remaining without protection against a closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords of the legions. ... After the defeat of Emesa, Zenobia found it impossible to collect a third army. As far as the frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire had joined the standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, the bravest of his generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign and of her life should be the same.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bd_LZYcY3UIC&pg=PA19&dq=Zenobia&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir38Kjudj5AhX7kokEHW2BDF04KBDoAXoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=Zenobia&f=false|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|date=1887|publisher=J. Murray|language=en}} Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://books.google.com/books?id=Bd_LZYcY3UIC. Footnotes and similar annotations silently elided.</ref>(Ch. XI, 19–23)</blockquote>The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' offers a sense of what was generally available to those interested in that kind of research. The discussion of Zenobia that would have been available in 1897, in 9th edition of the ''Britannica'', is embedded ion the article on Palmyra. It begins with her husband, Odænathus, and his father: <blockquote>Odænathus himself seems to have been engaged in almost constant warfare in the east and north against the Persians and perhaps the Scythians, but in his absence the reins of government were firmly held by his wife Zenobia, the most famous heroine of antiquity, to whom indeed Aurelian, in a letter preserved by Trebellius Pollio, ascribes the chief merit of all her husband's success. Septimia Zenobia was by firth a Palmyrene; her native name was Bath Zabbai ... [;] and Pollio's description of her dark beauty, black flashing eyes, and pearly teeth, together with her unusual physical endurance and the frank commanding manners which secured her authority in the camp and the desert, point emphatically to an Arabic rather than a Syrian descent. ... To the union of firmness and clemency, which is the most necessary quality of an Eastern sovereign, Zenobia added the rarer gifts of economy and organization, and an unusual range of intellectual culture. She spoke Coptic as well as Syriac, knew something of Latin, and had learned Greek from the famous Longinus, who remained at her court to the last, and paid the penalty of his life for his share in her counsels. She was also a diligent student of Eastern and Western history, and the statement that she enjoined her sons to speak Latin so that they had difficulty in using Greek implies a consistent and early adoption of the policy which made the sucess of Odænathus, and, taken in connexion with Aurelians' testimony, in a letter preserved by Pollio, that she had the chief merit of her husband's exploits, seems to justify the conclusion that it was her educated political insight that created the fortunes of the short-lived dynasty. ... In the zenith of his fame Odænathus was cut off by assassination along with his eldest son Herod, and it is generally assumed that the murder took place under Gallienus. ... [p. 201, Col. 2c – p. 202, Col. 1a] The fact seems to be that, while Odaenathus was busy at the other end of his kingdom, Zenobia administered the government at Palmyra and directed the conquest of Egypt, still nominally acting under the emperor at Rome, whose authority on the Nile was disputed by one or more pretenders. ... It still seems ... strange and yet an undoubted fact that Zenobia, who not only enjoyed the real authority behind her beardless son, but placed her name before his on public inscriptions, ... struck no coins till the second year of Aurelian, when the breach with Rome took place, and she suddenly appears as an empress (Σεβαστή, Augusta) of five years' standing. Up to that date the royal pair probably did not venture to coin in open defiance to Rome, and yet were unwilling to circulate an acknowledgment of vassalship in all the bazaars of the East. ... ... Zenobia, supported by her two generals, kinsmen of her husband, was now face to face with a Roman invasion. She held Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor as far as Ancyra; and Bithynia was ready to join her party had not the army of Aurelian appeared just in time from Byzantium. She could count too on the Armenians and the Arabs, but the loyalty of Syria was doubtful: the towns disliked a rule which was essentially "barbarian," and in Antioch at least the patroness of the Monarchian bishop Paul of Samosata could to be popular with the large Christian party by whom he was bitterly hated. There were many Romans [p. 202, Col. 1c – p. 202, Col. 2a] in Zenobia's force, and it was they who bore the brunt of the two great battles at Antioch and Emesa, which followed Aurelian's rapid advance through Asia Minor. But Zenobia made light of these defeats, — "I have suffered no great loss" was her message to Aurelian, "for almost all who have fallen are Romans." ... But the empire of Palmyra came four centuries too soon. Rome was not yet exhausted, and Zenobia had neither the religious discipline of Islam to hold the Arabs together nor the spoil of the treasuries of Persia to keep their enthusiasm always fresh. Aurelian's military skill was strained to the uttermost by the prudence and energy of Zenobia, but he succeeded in forming and maintaining the siege of Palmyra in spite of its bulwark of desert, and his gold corrupted the Arab and Armenian auxiliaries. Zenobia attempted to flee and throw herself on the Persians, but she was pursued and taken, and then the Palmyrene lost heart and capitulated. Aurelian seized the wealth of the city, but spared the inhabitants, and to Zenobia he granted her life while he put her advisors to death. She figured in his splendid triumph, and by the most probable account accepted her fall with dignity, and closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the life of a Roman matron. The fall of Zenobia may be placed in the spring of 272.<ref name=":21">"W. R. S." [Smith, W. Robertson]. "Palmyra." ''The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature''. Ed., Thomas Spencer Baynes. 9th edition. Vol. XVIII (Vol. 18): Orne–Phthisis. 1885. Google Books. Retrieved 11 August 2022.https://books.google.com/books?id=0au0xN1PrAEC.</ref>{{rp|p. 201, Col. 2a – p. 202, Col. 2b}} </blockquote>This extract is from "Palmyra" in the 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', which does not have an article on Zenobia. The Zenobia entry is a cross reference to the Palmyra article, which is about 10 columns and includes a biographical sketch of this ruler.<ref>By W.R.S., W. Robertson Smith, Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic, University of Cambridge.</ref> <ref name=":21" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 1c, after p. 858}} Written by George Albert Cooke<ref>Rev. George Albert Cooke (G.A.C.), Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, Fellow of Oriel College, Vol. XXVIII, p. viii. </ref>, the article on Zenobia in the 11th edition of the ''Britannica'', technically the next edition<ref>The 10th edition of the ''Britannica'', 1902–1903, is the 9th edition plus 10 supplementary volumes.</ref>, published in 1911, is substantial, more than an entire column.<ref>"G.A.C." [George Albert Cooke]. "Zenobia." Encyclopaedia Britannica: An Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Information. Ed. . Vol. XXVIII (Vol. 28): Vetch to Zymotic Diseases. ''Google Books''. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://books.google.com/books?id=NEpAAQAAMAAJ.</ref>{{rp|p. 972, Col. 1a–2b}} == The Duchess of Devonshire's Costume == [[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]] At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.<ref name=":7">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=Attilio+Comelli&source=bl&ots=lFB0If7CwV&sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&q=Attilio%20Comelli&f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.</ref>)<ref name=":5">“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.</ref> <ref name=":8">"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} <ref name=":9">"By One Who Was There." “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref> and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,<blockquote>For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”<ref>Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.</ref></blockquote>Lafayette's portrait of "Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)" in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra," with a Long S in ''Duchess''.<ref>"Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra." Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.</ref> Often, the V&A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted drop behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph. That is, there is one source for our information about this portrait: this single photograph. === Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume === Newspaper articles about the Duchess's presence at the ball focused on her hosting, her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Jewelry|her jewelry]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Entourage|her entourage]], often in the same story. These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source: * The London ''Evening Standard'', ''Morning Post'' and ''Times'' published almost identical descriptions, varying only by the occasional punctuation mark or short phrase ("supplied by Worth, of Paris"). The fullest version is this one: "The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Stomacher|stomacher]] of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt."<ref name=":16">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref>{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} *"The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsage|corsage]] was to correspond, and had a magnificent [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Girdle|girdle]] of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. ... Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * According to the article in ''The Graphic'' written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]], though this caption to the Lafayette photograph may not be hers, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a "Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds."<ref name=":10">Greville, Violet, Lady. "Devonshire House Ball." The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.</ref>{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * According to ''The Gentlewoman'', a newspaper that often covered fashion and design, "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref name=":22" />(p. 32, Col. 1c–2a) Because it is in black and white, the photograph of the Duchess taken by Lafayette in her costume (above right) can tell us almost nothing about the colors of the costume. Fortunately, this costume has survived and is held in Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth). ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the volume about an exhibition mounted 25 March to 22 October 2017, has beautiful photographs from several perspective of the costume, including the train, and accessories. Published photographs of it '''show X'''.<ref name=":18">Burlington, Julia, and Hamish Bowles. ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth''. Skira Rizzoli, 2017. Based on an exhibition 25 March to 22 October 2017.</ref> It has been worn by '''Deborah, 11th Duchess of Devonshire when the Dowager Duchess at some point for some reason'''. Some accounts of her costume suggest that the reporter thought that all the jewels sewn onto the dress were actual precious or semiprecious stones, but the London ''Daily News'' says some of them were crystals.<ref name=":15" />(p. 5, Col. 6a) According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>The skirt of gold gauze, appliquéd with tinsel medallions and peacock plumes worked in bright foils, wire coils and spangled with sequins, was worn over an ivory satin underskirt wrought over with silver thread and diamonds. Attached to the shoulders was a long graduated train in the most vivid emerald-green velvet, appliquéd with velvet and gold work in an eastern design and studied with jewels.<ref name=":18" />(128)</blockquote> === Observations on the Duchess's Costume === In the photograph of her in costume, the Duchess is standing in a three-quarter front pose. That static position in a two-dimensional image makes it difficult to understand exactly how the costume and accessories worked. The terms we use are these: train, bodice (what's on the torso, no matter how many layers), stomacher, belt (really an accessory, like the jewelry), sleeves, overskirt and underskirt. Some of the 1897 terminology for parts of the dress differs from what we would use now. Some of the terms that appear in the newspaper reports include front, bodice, corsage, stomacher, girdle, train and overmantle, skirt, gown, robe and under-dress. ==== The Duchess's Body ==== The costume appears to have been designed to flatter the Duchess of Devonshire's body. (It hangs differently on Deborah, the 11th Duchess of Devonshire in photographs of when she wore it in '''20XX''', and it hangs differently on the smaller-sized mannequin used in the 2017 '''XX''' exhibit.) The bodice appears to be looser and the stomacher less fitted to her body. * She was 65 years old at the time of the ball. * She was unusually beautiful in her youth. In her 1984 ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball'', Sophia Murphy says, "As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'"<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 21}} * She was confident, a "political hostess," "said to be the most powerful person outside the government."<ref name=":20" />(12) * [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough|Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough]] describing Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, "Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash ...."<ref name=":23" />(115) She said this a few months after Queen Victoria's death in 1901, but they knew each other in 1897: the Duchess of Marlborough was at the ball. * Although it is impossible to tell anything about what undergarments she may have been wearing from the Lafayette portrait, the Duchess does not appear to have a tightly laced waist. She seems thicker in the middle than she would with traditional tight lacing, and the drape of the costume suggests it might have been more comfortable than intended to show off a small waist. ==== Fit ==== *The recent exhibitions of the dress show a different fit than what is shown in the Lafayette photograph. Louise, the 8th Duchess's bodice is draped loosely over the stomacher, but photographs of Deborah, 11th Duchess or of the mannequin in the 2017 exhibition show a bodice fitted to the stomacher. * Also, the costume itself may have been altered or adjusted to make the waist more defined and the line more Elizabethan (the wide, square neckline; the A-line, the split skirt with the petticoat in the middle). * The dress seems to have been designed to flatter the 8th Duchess's statuesque figure, especially her waist: the belt falls down to the hips, the A-line; the way what we can see of the under-dress is narrow at the top and widens toward the bottom. * The drape of the skirt is straighter on the 8th Duchess as well as the Dowager Duchess than on the mannequins. ==== Inconsistencies in the Descriptions and Images ==== * The newspaper accounts of the Duchess's costume do not agree on several particulars, including the color of the train and its lining. ==== Changing Victorian Design Elements ==== The costume as Louise, the 8th Duchess wore it is vaguely Middle Eastern and exotic, consistent with her '''leading''' the "Oriental" procession. The sleeve treatment, the drape of the bodice and the skirt are consistent with the line of something from the Middle East. This would have been what Comelli designed. Early clothing history books existed by the middle of the century, and it would be logical that Comelli would be familiar with them. The versions of the costume shown in recent exhibitions make it seem more Victorian than what we see in Lafayette's portrait. The tightness of the fit of the bodice indicates a Victorian corset under the costume. The line of the bodice and skirt, the bare arms in the sleeve treatment, the train, the belt, The versions of the dress the the tightness of the dress against the stomacher all look Victorian. A-line drape of the skirt was done for the exhibition to show the artistry and complexity of the trim. * The sleeve treatment in the 1897 photograph is caught up at the shoulder. On the Dowager Duchess and the mannequins, the sleeves are released. ==== Trim ==== * The sequins attached to the costume would have been metal. They appear to be silver that has tarnished, which is why they are dark now. Currently, the tarnish on the sequins and embroidery thread cannot be removed without damage to the fabric. * The gold thread in the embroidery has not tarnished, but the silver thread, which would have sparkled in 1897, has. ==== Accessories ==== * Belt * Wig? (she's 65, cf Duchess of Marlborough), covered by the elaborate headdress, impossible to tell from the Lafayette portrait whether it's up or down or a little of both. * Headdress * Do the horns on [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Zenobia's Crown|her crown]] go toward the back from the apex that rises from the jewel-encrusted band or do they stick straight out to the sides? Does the headdress include the traditional three white plumes? * Jewelry * Fan * Can't tell how many strands of pearls are around Louise's neck in the Lafayette photo, but the photographs of the recreation of the crown and of the costume from the 2017 exhibit show [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|five strands]]. ==== The Train ==== * The reporter's description of the Duchess's train in the London ''Daily News'' is confusing: it says the train is "bright green velvet" and "It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet." Embroidery is not "carried out" in velvet. Heliotrope is not green, it's pinkish purple. * Furthermore, heliotrope appears to have been a new word for a color, introduced perhaps in 1882 in A. Maerz and M. Rea Paul ''A Dictionary of Colour'', New York: '''1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196'''; Color Sample of Heliotrope: Page 131 Plate 54 Colour Sample C10 ("Heliotrope," Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)#]]<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|c]][[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|ite_note-2]]). The ''OED'' lists 3 newspaper sources for the 1880s, The ''World'' (1882), ''Truth'' (1886), and the ''Daily News'' (1887) ("heliotrope" 1.d. Retrieved 6 August 2022). The ''Daily News'' describes it well: "that peculiar mauve known as heliotrope." The word itself has existed in English for many centuries, <nowiki/>both for the flower (which turns to follow the sun) as well as for instruments that reflect or measure sunlight and also for a variety of quartz (also called bloodstone). * Color of green velvet on the train: the colors differ, depending on the photograph. One photograph shows a very vivid green, and the rest show a lighter green. We're not sure what's up with that. == The Duchess's Jewelry == The Duchess was known fo<nowiki/>r her jewelry, and as she aged and after her marriage to the 8th Duke in 1892, the jewelry she wore only increased in scale and notability. It is not surprising that her jewelry would make up copy for the newspapers. Newspaper reports before the ball gossiped about the jewelry associated with the costumes being developed. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, "The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.</ref> While almost all newspaper reports of her costume at the ball mention her jewels because they were so much a topic of conversation. Because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these descriptions emphasize her jewelry. Most are very similar to each other: * "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref name=":22">“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. </ref>{{rp|p. 32, Cols. 1c–2a}} <ref name=":17">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle." The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.</ref>{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} * "A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}} * In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, "The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}} *The Duchess was dressed "as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art."<ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} <ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes." Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.</ref>{{rp|p. 11, 4a}} As with the colors, Lafayette's photograph of the Duchess in costume does not show the jewels very clearly. We cannot see the stomacher or the "long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels" or the pearls that "hung down almost to the knees" (although, of course, any newspaper account can be wrong because reporters were not present at the ball). === Zenobia's Crown<ref name=":10" /> === The crown that the Duchess wore as Zenobia is difficult to see clearly in the Lafayette photograph (above right), and no other images of the crown exist. It was lavish, "encrusted" with jewels and featuring pearls: * London ''Daily News'' says, "The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * These descriptions are all identical except for the addition or subtraction of an occasional comma: The London ''Evening Standard'' says, "A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead."<ref name=":16" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} <ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * The Guernsey ''Star'' says, "Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls."<ref name=":17" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} This crown was recreated from the single Lafayette photograph of the Duchess in costume for the ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the exhibition mounted in 2017 and exhibited on the mannequin wearing the Duchess's costume. A photograph of this recreation separate from the costume, but with the pearls and the white plumes, can be seen on [https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery this Sotheby's page] about C. W Sellor's, the jewelry firm that did the recreation as well as a number of other recreations for the exhibit.<ref>Sotheby's. "How C. W. Sellors Transformed Five Centuries of Fashion Into Modern Jewellery." ''Sotheby's'' 9 May 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery.</ref> Although Lafayette's photograph is not conclusive, in Sellor's recreation the horns on the crown point toward back of the head rather than out to the sides. === Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith === The Duchess's pearls, which were an important feature of her costume, occasioned a great deal of direct commentary in the newspaper accounts. The Duchess's jewelry occasioned a great deal of reportage in the articles about the ball. '''It was reported that she had her jewels restrung to be used in the costume. stomacher and review of jewelry in more general articles''' It is not possible to tell from the Lafayette portrait how many strands of pearls the Duchess's necklace contained, but in later appearances of the costume (on Deborah, 11the Duchess and on the mannequin in 2017), the necklace has five strands. She had had a pearl "necklet" with five strands since 1892, with a restringing on 1 March 1897. An invoice and receipt in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) is from a concern whose preprinted stationery has a crown in the upper-left corner, suggesting that they had a royal warrant, and no name other than Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith. This document offers a unique view into the evolution of one necklace, at least, over the years. It lists what are apparently three restringing of some pearls of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. The three restringings appear to be dated: The first necklace is a "Pearl Necklet in original 4 rows." The invoice is dated 20 October 1892 (but the stationery was printed to assume the invoice would be used in the 1880s, so the 9 is written over the second 8, and the 2 has been added).<ref name=":14">Invoice and receipt. Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant & Silversmith. Date of itemized invoices for restringing pearls: 20 October 1892, 1 March 1897, 1909. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number FIS/4/1/2.</ref>(p. 1) ==== The Original Necklet: 4 Rows ==== The necklet she brought in to be restrung contained a "Total [of] Total 224 large pearls": # 1st [row] 51 large pearls # 2nd 53 large pearls # 3rd 57 large pearls # 4th 63 large pearls ==== 1892 Restringing: 5 Rows ==== The second necklace is a "Necklet as re-strung on October 15th 1892, with addition of small pearls supplied, now consists of 5 rows, containing" a total of "224 large pearls & 227 small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 1): # 1st 41 large pearls & 40 small # 2nd 42 large pearls & 42 small # 3rd 44 large pearls & 45 small # 4th 47 large pearls & 48 small # 5th 50 large pearls & 51 small ==== 1897 Restringing: 5 Rows ==== The third necklace is a "Pearl Necklet as again re-strung with additional pearls supplied 1 March 1897, now consisting of 5 Rows containing" a total of "262 Large Pearls & 267 Small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 2): # 1st Row 45 Large Pearls & 44 Small # 2nd Row 48 large Pearls & 49 Small # 3rd Row 51 Large Pearls & 52 Small # 4th Row 56 Large Pearls & 65 small Possibly these pearls may have been restrung in 1909 into a coronet, but the handwriting is not clear enough to read.<ref name=":14" />(p. 2) If the Duchess wore one of these stringings of her pearls for the ball, then it must have been the second necklet, strung in 1892, a 5-strand necklace. None of the newspaper accounts refer to a 5-strand pearl necklace, although her pearls are often mentioned. == The Duchess's Entourage == Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. Four newspapers say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups, all in costume: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. The ''Westminster Gazette'' and the ''Man of Ross'' list the groups but do not mention the number of members of the groups. According to two sources, probably in error, the London ''Daily News''<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} and the Belfast ''News-Letter,''<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} these groups each had four members. The London ''Daily News'' is likely the source (because it was published at 5:00 a.m.<ref>Mitchell, Charles. ''Newspaper Press Directory'', 1895. [Hathi Trust via U Wisconsin Madison.] http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015085486150.</ref>{{rp|55}}) for the Belfast ''News-Letter'', which took part in [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]], like so many other newspapers of the 19th century. ['''check this: which one was published earlier in the day, and on which day?'''] These four sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed: *"The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} *"Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} *"The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli."<ref name=":5" /> *"The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group."<ref name=":9" /> === Details of the Costumes in the Entourage === The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has "receipts" or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following: * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet & Co.|B. Burnet & Co.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Liberty & Co., Ltd.|Liberty & Co., Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Lafayette, Ltd.|Lafayette, Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith]] This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time. The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes. The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below. While the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group contained four members,<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} the invoices and receipts suggest that the newspaper, the single source for this information, was wrong about the number of people in each group. It is theoretically possible, of course, that suppliers other than the ones in the Chatsworth Archive made some of these costumes and that other invoices and receipts must have existed at that time. But the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|Comelli memo, below]], seems definitive: he designed and seems to have overseen the construction of the costumes, which numbered six rather than twelve. '''[Collier discussion?]''' Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer. ==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ==== Attillo Giuseppe Comelli was a designer for opera, ballet and theatre in Europe, the UK and North America.<ref name=":13" /> The receipt in the Chatsworth Archive was sent from Covent Garden. The invoice lists £4 for "Making six costumes," 3''s'' for "Extras" and 12s for "Cab fares for men paid by the request of M. Comelli."<ref>M. Comelli, Covent Garden, to Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 13 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Three other names are on this invoice and receipt: * L. L[?] Collier [?], written under and perhaps as part of the direction to the Duchess of Devonshire * Mr. Strong ("Forwarded to Mr Strong. [sic] by the instructions of M. Comelli," written in the same hand as wrote the majority of the memo) * Floyd [?] Collier [??] ("Received with Thanks," presumably thanking for the payment, in a different hand) ==== B. Burnet & Co. ==== An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet & Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":11">B. Burnet & Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following: * 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 12 1/2 yards of "wht cloth"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 9 yards of "[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Selesia|Selesia]]"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 2 yards of Canvas<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 4 Tan Wool Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 2 Tan Boys Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage. The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists "6 prs Assyrian Buskins." Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been "defensive leggings"<ref>Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.</ref> laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights. The Burnet invoice lists "4 Broad Belts," which may have held "4 Skins Fleshers."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists "8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'" with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the "4 Broad Belts" (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, "8 Doz 'Plaques'" would be far too many for the belts of only the two children. A different hand, probably "[L.??] L. Collier," wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:<blockquote>All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}}</blockquote> This same hand, signing what is possibly "Floyd Collier," also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that "six dresses" were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No "Collier" is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":19">"Servants A-H." ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.</ref> The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers. ==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ==== An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":12">Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage: * 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above] * 4 Large Armlets * 4 Bracelets * 8 Armlets<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste. Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets: * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre pieces The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration. Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers: * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers The "Pearl & Gold Headdresses" were likely the "jewelled diadems" mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The "Fan properties with Feathers" are likely to have been the "long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold" mentioned in the newspaper report.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} At the end of the Millward invoice, a "reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]" of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} ==== Liberty & Co., Ltd. ==== One invoice and receipt from the Chatsworth Archive, dated 12 July, to the Duchess of Devonshire, lists "13 yds S&W Satin[?]," 7 yards of blue and 6 of purple.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Liberty & Co. Ltd. To Her Grace, The Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 July [1897]. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Because the fabric is satin and from Liberty, it is possible that it was not used in the costumes of the people in the entourage but perhaps for the costume of the Duchess herself??? ==== Lafayette, Ltd. ==== The invoice and receipt from Lafayette, Ltd., the photographer that set up a temporary studio in the garden to take portraits of people at the ball in their costumes, may not be related to the ball at all.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Lafayette, Ltd. To His Grace The Duke of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 April 1897; addressed to the Duke, 18 February 1898; receipt and thanks for payment, 7 April 1898. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Three dates are written on the preprinted stationery: # 18/2/98 (18 February 1898), under the direction to "His Grace The Duke of Devonshire" # 4/12/97 (4 December 1897), next to the single item on the invoice for which a charge is listed: "6 [??] £1.10.0" # 7/4/98 (7 April 1898), in a different hand, with "Recd by cheque 7/4/98 Lafayette Ltd pp[?] [??] thanks" At the bottom of the page, in the hand that wrote all of the invoice except the receipt and thanks, is "With Lafayette Ltds Compliments." ==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were "in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for "White Cloth Dresses":<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}} * "2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all" * "2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre" * "2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar" * "4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions" The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 6 yards of "Terra" Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the "terra draperies," or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of "Light Terra Satinette" worn by the children? ==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were "in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men. According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} * 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls?] * "2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]" * "2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front & back" * "4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch" The Millward invoice lists * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations] ==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were "attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} * "Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all" * "2 Top [?] fronts embroidered & round necks" * "4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch"The Millward invoice lists * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 12 yards of "Red Silk Fringe," which perhaps was used to trim the "crimson shawls" or "Crimson draperies," which may have been made from the 5 yards of "Red Satinette." Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes. == Demographics == *Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> === Residences === ==== As Duchess of Manchester ==== *Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire *Manchester House, London ==== As Duchess of Devonshire ==== *Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season) *Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) == Family == *Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> *William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892) #Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934) #Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944) #Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939) #Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908) == Notes and Questions == #As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).<ref>Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.</ref>{{rp|pp. 47–48}} #Deborah (née Mitford), 11th Duchess of Devonshire was photographed wearing the costume made for Louise, 8th Duchess in 1897 on the occasion of her 80th birthday, so perhaps 31 March 2000<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wait-for-me-memoirs-of-the-youngest-mitford-sister-by-deborah-devonshire-zb3q2bk9xdq|title=Wait for Me: Memoirs of the Youngest Mitford Sister, by Deborah Devonshire|last=Athill|first=Review by Diana|access-date=2022-08-20|language=en|issn=0140-0460}} The ''Times'' 11 September 2010. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wait-for-me-memoirs-of-the-youngest-mitford-sister-by-deborah-devonshire-zb3q2bk9xdq.</ref>. She wore it as Dowager Duchess of Devonshire, so she must have worn it between the time of her husband's death (3 May 2004<ref>"Andrew Robert Buxton Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire." "Person Page – 959." ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Aristocracy of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe'' https://www.thepeerage.com/p959.htm#i9590 (accessed 11 August 2022).</ref>) and her own (24 September 2014<ref>"Hon. Deborah Vivien Freeman-Mitford." "Person Page — p960." ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Aristocracy of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe'' https://www.thepeerage.com/p960.htm#i9591 (accessed 11 August 2022).</ref>). == Footnotes == {{reflist}} fp6y3fyg4cic2la4u75zxhpc9g2m9in 0 265013 2417132 2416984 2022-08-22T00:51:37Z U962051 2947541 /* Understanding Volunteer Tourists */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation === Motivation to volunteer === * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish or Selfless. * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation * Motivation at different stages of travel: Pre-trip / Post-trip === Research and 'Voluntourist' models === * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Motivation deep dive == === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism === Altruism === * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism * The dark side of Altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising == Guidelines for Volunteer Tourism == === Operator perspective. Pros and Cons === Practical Help, workforce === Community perspective. Pros and Cons === Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community === Voluntourist perspective. Pros and Cons === Dependent on motivation, altruism, egoism == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * 3gyyqbub7zuon14xsvknsww88r4iprx 2417133 2417132 2022-08-22T00:54:13Z U962051 2947541 /* Motivation deep dive */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation === Motivation to volunteer === * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish or Selfless. * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation * Motivation at different stages of travel: Pre-trip / Post-trip === Research and 'Voluntourist' models === * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism === Altruism === * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism * The dark side of Altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Guidelines for Volunteer Tourism == === Operator perspective. Pros and Cons === Practical Help, workforce === Community perspective. Pros and Cons === Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community === Voluntourist perspective. Pros and Cons === Dependent on motivation, altruism, egoism == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * mr73bec9nucjdij9d6y302ztlnvf848 2417163 2417133 2022-08-22T03:42:00Z U962051 2947541 /* Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation === Motivation to volunteer === * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish or Selfless. * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation * Motivation at different stages of travel: Pre-trip / Post-trip === Research and 'Voluntourist' models === * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism * Are some voluntourists more likely to be autonomously motivated than others? (students for credit vs independent volunteers) === Altruism === * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism * The dark side of Altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Guidelines for Volunteer Tourism == === Operator perspective. Pros and Cons === Practical Help, workforce === Community perspective. Pros and Cons === Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community === Voluntourist perspective. Pros and Cons === Dependent on motivation, altruism, egoism == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * 69x5ktz128qxc1ufgug2dlabklc7mm4 2417330 2417163 2022-08-22T08:17:32Z U962051 2947541 /* Communities and Tourism Operators */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish (personal) or Selfless (interpersonal). * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for trip planning === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism * Are some voluntourists more likely to be autonomously motivated than others? (students for credit vs independent volunteers) === Psychological needs during volunteer tourism experience === * Autonomy, competence, relatedness === Altruism === * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism * The dark side of Altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising == Research and 'Voluntourist' models == * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Guidelines for Volunteer Tourism == === Operator perspective. Pros and Cons === Practical Help, workforce === Community perspective. Pros and Cons === Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community === Voluntourist perspective. Pros and Cons === Dependent on motivation, altruism, egoism == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * 1hlbvewqutgnlrlpurgvteip2ztxhze 2417341 2417330 2022-08-22T08:28:30Z U962051 2947541 /* Communities and Tourism Operators */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? * Pros and Cons of offering Volunteer Tourism * Community perspective. Pros and Cons: Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish (personal) or Selfless (interpersonal). * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for trip planning === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism * Are some voluntourists more likely to be autonomously motivated than others? (students for credit vs independent volunteers) * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism === Psychological needs during volunteer tourism experience === * Autonomy, competence, relatedness == Research and 'Voluntourist' models == * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Ethical considerations == Volunteers: The dark side of altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising Tourism Operators: Exploitation, profiteering, unethical and illegal practices. == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * toq85j9tln1iedjmxifgsqvxclaue2z 2417343 2417341 2022-08-22T08:30:55Z U962051 2947541 /* Research and 'Voluntourist' models */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer tourism motivation<br>What motivates volunteer tourism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ [[File:TEACHING MATH.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Image of a volunteer tourist teaching math in Mali.]] ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is Volunteer Tourism? == The Tourism Industry consists of XYZ and is worth an estimated X to the global economy. Tourism sectors and sub-sectors structure. * Volunteer Tourism sector: history, stats * Stakeholders involved in Volunteer Tourism (Tourism Organisations, Communities, Tourism Agents, Volunteers) == Communities and Tourism Operators == What motivates Communities and TOs to offer/promote VT? * The business of Volunteer Tourism - A marketing gimmick? Labour shortage solution? Green-washing? Economics? Global community harmony? * Pros and Cons of offering Volunteer Tourism * Community perspective. Pros and Cons: Awareness, cross cultural understanding, global community {{tip| Insert case study of Volunteer Tourism operator/Community here }} == Understanding Volunteer Tourists == Demographics of VTs and reasons for participation * Push/pull motivation, eudaimonic motivations. Selfish (personal) or Selfless (interpersonal). * Benefits of volunteerism: Physiological, generosity, morality, globalisation === Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for trip planning === * Explanations, definitions, relevance to volunteer tourism * Are some voluntourists more likely to be autonomously motivated than others? (students for credit vs independent volunteers) * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] types: Reciprocal Altruism, Genetic Altruism, Pure Altruism, Group Selected Altruism === Psychological needs during volunteer tourism experience === * Autonomy, competence, relatedness == Research and 'Voluntourist' models == Might have own section, or be woven into other sections where relevant. * Shallow, Intermediate and Deep (McGehee, Clemmons & Lee, 2009) * Vanguards, Pragmatists and Questers (Callanan & Thomas, 2005) * VOLUNtourists and volunTOURISTS (Daldeniz & Hampton, 2011) * Peace & Justice Motive (Everingham, Young, Wearing & Lyons, 2021; Nadeau & Lord, 2017)) * Warm-Glow Effect (Hartmann, Eisend, Apaolaza & D'Souza, 2017) {{tip|* Why does understanding specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? }} == Ethical considerations == Volunteers: The dark side of altruism: [[wikipedia:Ethnocentrism|Ethnocentrism]], patronising Tourism Operators: Exploitation, profiteering, unethical and illegal practices. == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Altruism|Altruism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:International_volunteering|International Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Travel motivation|Travel motivation: What motivates people to seek out travel experiences?]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?|Volunteering motivation: Altruism or egoism?]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Andereck, K., McGehee, N. G., Lee, S., & Clemmons, D. (2012). Experience Expectations of Prospective Volunteer Tourists. Journal of travel research, 51(2), 130-141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511400610 Daldeniz, B., & Hampton, M. P. (2011). VOLUNtourists versus volunTOURISTS: A true dichotomy or merely a differing perception? In (pp. 54-65). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203854266-12 Everingham, P., Young, T. N., Wearing, S. L., & Lyons, K. (2022). A diverse economies approach for promoting peace and justice in volunteer tourism. Journal of sustainable tourism, 30(2-3), 618-636. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1924179 Gard McGehee, N. (2002). Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of tourism research, 29(1), 124-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00027-5 Hartmann, P., Eisend, M., Apaolaza, V., & D'Souza, C. (2017). Warm glow vs. altruistic values: How important is intrinsic emotional reward in proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 52, 43-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.05.006 }} ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E16iOaAP4SQ Documentary 'The Voluntourist': Is voluntourism doing more harm than good?] (YouTube) == Template Information Below == == Main headings == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * ct1seitt10w9jsw8jtktbgg0dmcnjeu 0 266483 2417342 2223177 2022-08-22T08:28:45Z Sebastian Armstrong 2947157 /* See also */ Added , and . to intext citation. And added 'Fully functioning person' to 'see also' wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Motivation and self-actualisation:<br>What motivates self-actualisation?}} {{MECR3|1=Replace this text with the URL}} __TOC__ ==Overview== What allows people to progress toward advanced stages of self-fulfilment? When a society champions and cultivates individuals growth, this question is increasingly attracting the interest of both employers and psychologists (Ivtzan, Gardner, Bernard, Sekhon & Hart, 2013). The notion that life's highest calling is fulfilling one's own unique potential has been markedly appealing. This chapter investigates the motivational factors that engage people in pursuing the realisation of their full potential. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Important points about this section:''' * Self-actualisation is facilitated by intrinsic motivation and undermined by extrinsic motivation. * The identity crisis that occurs during adolescence is at odds with self-actualising endeavours. Whereas, the preoccupations of adults has been identified as being congruent with self-actualising pursuits. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === What is self-actualisation? === Self-actualisation is the process of achieving one’s own full potential through creativity, autonomy, spontaneity and the establishment of one's goals and values (Tripathi & Moakumla, 2018). Self-actualisation has been defined and described in a variety of ways, according to Maslow (2013) there are key features which makes self-actualisation distinct, such as the expression and acceptance of one's inner core self, minimal presence of ill health or psychopathology (e.g. neurosis, psychosis etc.) A self-actualising person has a free spontaneity, uninhibited expression of his or her inner nature. Maturity in terms of self-actualisation means to transcend deficiency needs with a tendency to fulfil self-fulfilment or 'being-needs' towards "Peak Experience" and self-transcendence. <ref>Maslow, A. H. (2013). Toward a psychology of being. Simon and Schuster. p. 42,151</ref> [[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.jpg|thumb|309x309px|''Figure 1.'' Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ]] === Maslow's hierarchy of needs === * Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is premised on the assumption that motives and values are essential for understanding human behaviour (Maslow 1970, as cited in Tripathi & Moakumla, 2018). * Maslow’s hierarchy makes the assertion that human growth is associated with a decrease in the prepotency of “lower” motives and an increase in the prepotency of “higher” motives (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). === Developmental criteria for self-actualisation === * Developmental psychology accentuates the existence of multiple selves whereby individuals must establish congruence as personality develops (Showers and Zeigler-Hill 2012, as cited in Fabian, 2019). Adolescence is marked by a significant increase in the detection of contradictory self-attributes that lead to conflict and confusion (Harter 2012, as cited in Fabia, 2019). This finding is consistent with Erikson's assertion that adolescence is marked by the identity crisis whereby adolescents strive to refine their values to constitute a consolidated identity. * Contemporary experimental research conducted by Reiss & Havercmp’s (2005) supports the notion that developmental factors impact one’s ability to self actualise. Specifically, it was identified that participants over the age of 36 had a tendency to be concerned with higher motives, and participants&nbsp;under this age with lower motives (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). * Furthermore, the notion of immediate gratification and extrinsic reward is highly pronounced during adolescence. This lack of internal drive or motivation is at odds with self-actualising endeavours (Ivtzan et al., 2013). * Adulthood is marked by a decrease in wishes and fears which are replaced by realistic steps to achieving future goals (Lang & Carstensen, 2002). Thus, the preoccupations of the mature population may be more congruent with self-actualising pursuits. == Theoretical evidence underpinning the process of self-actualisation == === The coalescence of being === * Research evidence pertaining to the underlying mechanisms of self-actualisation has been predominantly inconclusive. Thus, Fabian (2019) aimed to close this gap by asserting that the theory of coalescence was an influential model of self-actualisation. * Coalescence refers to the notion to unite into a whole and is premised on the integration of Self Determination Theory (SDT) and Self Discrepancy Theory (Fabian, 2019). * The central mechanism of coalescence is the strive for congruence between the actual (who one is now)-, ideal (who one aspires to be)- and ought-selves (who one has a duty to be) (Fabian, 2019). === Self-determination theory === * Self-determination and personal expressiveness have been fundamentally attributed to the attainment of wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2017). * Coalescence of being is the catalyst for a range of wellbeing outcomes including positive affect, a sense of meaning and purpose and the nourishment of our basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Fabian, 2019). ===='''SDT posits a spectrum of motivation from intrinsic to extrinsic'''==== The actual-self is characterised by intrinsic motivation to pursue values and undertake behaviours that are inherently attractive (Fabian, 2019). The actual-self may also undertake extrinsically motivated behaviours. However, unless these are being undertaken with the goal of transfiguring them into intrinsically motivated behaviours, this will result in poor mental health (Fabian, 2019). {| class="wikitable" |+Types of Extrinsic Motivation !Type of Extrinsic Motivation !Definition !Example |- |Introjection |A type of motivation driven by the desire to avoid guilt or boost one's self esteem. |“I recycle because I ought to, if I am going to feel good (rather than guilty) about myself.” |- |Identification |A type of motivation that concerns activities that the individual deems valuable but does not necessary pursue for their own sake. |“I recycle because it is important for a cleaner environment.” |} ''Table 1''. Types of Extrinsic Motivation (Reeve, 2018; Fabian, 2019). '''Development of intrinsic motivation:''' * Integration is the point where motivation crosses over from extrinsic to intrinsic (Fabian, 2019). ** Internalisation: The process by which values and behaviours move from being identified to integrated is called internalisation (Ryan and Deci 2017). This process is critical to the “self-creation” element of self-actualisation (Ryan & Deci, 2017, as cited in Fabian, 2019). ===='''Psychological needs'''==== [[File:Venn diagram.pdf|thumb|298x298px|''Figure 2.'' Three Innate Psychological Needs. ]] SDT argues that humans have basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan and Deci, 2017). '''Autonomy:''' * In pursuing those activities for which an individual holds intrinsic motivation, affirming their own values as against external ones, and gradually integrating identified values, the self-actualising individual nourishes their sense of autonomy (Fabian, 2019). '''Competence:''' * Drawing towards intrinsically attractive activities tends to see the individual pursue things they are good at and abandon activities that are excessively challenging. This nourishes their sense of competence (Fabian, 2019). * Self-actualisation is conceptualised as goal pursuit. As the individual adjusts these goals to align with the parameters set by their actual-self they will become more attainable. '''Relatedness:''' * Self-actualisation is marked by an individuals desire to comport with groups that share their values and hence validate and affirm their identity, thus nourishing the individual’s sense of relatedness (Fabian, 2019). == Outcomes associated with self-actualisation == === Wellbeing enhancement === * Self-actualisation is considered an instrument to stimulate people to attain a better quality of life. * This is premised on the notion that a person is always ‘becoming’ and never remains static, therefore, in self-actualisation, a person comes to find a meaning to life that is uniquely important to them (Tripathi & Moaklama, 2018; Frankl, 1965). * Self-actualisation has been found to relate positively to measures of psychological adjustment and negatively to measures of psychopathology (Ivtzan & Conneely, 2009, as cited in Ivtzan et al, 2013). ==== Goal-setting ==== * Goal-setting is an important factor that influences wellbeing. While people with clear goals have been found to have higher levels of wellbeing than those who are not goal-driven or pursue inauthentic goals, goal setting has been found to have only small effects on well-being (Oyserman et al. 2012, as cited in Fabian, 2019). However, achieving self-concordant goals has statistically significant and sustained well-being effects (Sheldon, 2009). That is, wellbeing is derived at its optimum when goals are pursuit intrinsically, as extrinsic goals undermine intrinsic motivation. ** There are two prerequisites for a goal to be self-concordant. It must be autonomously pursued in the sense that the individual is intrinsically motivated towards it (Fabian, 2019; Deci & Ryan, 2017). ** The second is that the goals are associated with “intrinsic pursuits” like personal growth, affiliation and community rather than “extrinsic pursuits” contingent to the activity itself (Sheldon and Kasser, 2008). ** Three basic needs - The achievement of extrinsic pursuits like financial success have relatively minor well-being effects compared to intrinsic pursuits as extrinsic pursuits do not effectively nourish the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (Sheldon & Kasser, 2008). ** These findings accentuate that extrinsic pursuits are contingent to rather than intrinsic to self-actualisation (Sheldon and Kasser, 2008). == Real-life implications of self-actualisation - why is this important? == * Individuals with higher levels of self-actualisation have higher levels of leadership success due to their intellectual flexibility, ability to work in a team, and mature outlook on situations (Pfaffenberger, 2005). This provides a significant implication for organisations who wish to enhance leadership capability, by providing leaders with the autonomy to pursue intrinsic interests/ passions. ==Conclusion== '''Key practical take-home messages:''' * The identity crisis that occurs during adolescence is at odds with self-actualising endeavours. Whereas, the preoccupations of adults has been identified as being congruent with self-actualising pursuits. * The three psychological needs posited by self-determination theory facilitate one's ability to strive towards self-actualisation. * Intrinsic motivation is required for self-actualisation. Evidence indicates that extrinsic motivation undermines self-actualisation. It is important to note, that an individual may engage in extrinsically motivated behaviours, however, unless these are being undertaken with the goal of transfiguring them into intrinsically motivated behaviours, this will result in mental illness (Fabian, 2019). * It has been consistently identified that self actualisation positively predicts wellbeing. This finding is highly applicable to different environments including therapeutic and organisational settings. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fully functioning person|Fully functioning person]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Fabian, M. (2019). The Coalescence of Being: A Model of the Self-Actualisation Process. ''Journal Of Happiness Studies'', ''21''(4), 1487-1508. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00141-7</nowiki> Frankl, V. (1965). ''The doctor and the soul: from psychotherapy to logotherapy''. Penguin Books Ltd. Ivtzan, I., Gardner, H., Bernard, I., Sekhon, M., & Hart, R. (2013). Wellbeing through self-fulfilment: Examining developmental aspects of self-actualization. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', ''41''(2), 119-132. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2012.712076</nowiki> Lang, F., & Carstensen, L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships. ''Psychology And Aging'', ''17''(1), 125-139. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.125</nowiki> Pfaffenberger, A. (2005). Optimal Adult Development: An Inquiry into the Dynamics of Growth. ''Journal Of Humanistic Psychology'', ''45''(3), 279-301. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167804274359</nowiki> Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding Motivation and Emotion, 7th Edition (7th ed., pp. 114). New York: Wiley. Reiss, S., & Havercamp, S. (2005). Motivation in Developmental Context: A New Method for Studying Self-Actualization. ''Journal Of Humanistic Psychology'', ''45''(1), 41-53. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167804269133</nowiki> Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2017). ''Self-Determination Theory Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness''. Guildford. Sheldon, K., & Kasser, T. (2008). Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving. ''Motivation And Emotion'', ''32''(1), 37-45. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9081-5</nowiki> Sheldon, K., Abad, N., Ferguson, Y., Gunz, A., Houser-Marko, L., Nichols, C., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Persistent pursuit of need-satisfying goals leads to increased happiness: A 6-month experimental longitudinal study. ''Motivation And Emotion'', ''34''(1), 39-48. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-009-9153-1</nowiki> Tripathi, N., & Moakumla. (2018). A valuation of Abraham Maslow's theory of self-actualization for the enhancement of quality of life. ''Indian Journal Of Health And Well-Being'', ''9''(3). }} == External links == * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y7E7tLlLa4Q Making the mindful move: A personal account of self actualisation](Youtube Video, TedTalk - 12:16 minutes). [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-actualisation]] f7177135x1pn2aykfijbazolo4ll66f 0 267286 2417068 2416716 2022-08-21T15:05:02Z Ncharamut 2824970 added pdf wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease | pdf = https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/8/80/A_history_of_coronaviruses_WJM.pdf }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} ineu8ek1lrjakg7xvbx7dwpzoybjuo9 2417070 2417068 2022-08-21T15:06:26Z Ncharamut 2824970 fixed pdf link wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease | pdf = https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:A_history_of_coronaviruses_WJM.pdf#file }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} 0pqhd62503s1n64sc8sdh9u44kv38hh 2417071 2417070 2022-08-21T15:06:55Z Ncharamut 2824970 Undo revision 2417070 by [[Special:Contributions/Ncharamut|Ncharamut]] ([[User talk:Ncharamut|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease | pdf = https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/8/80/A_history_of_coronaviruses_WJM.pdf }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} ineu8ek1lrjakg7xvbx7dwpzoybjuo9 2417072 2417071 2022-08-21T15:07:09Z Ncharamut 2824970 Undo revision 2417068 by [[Special:Contributions/Ncharamut|Ncharamut]] ([[User talk:Ncharamut|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} jn4p9tmnpky6anhk6pm87js1zayfp59 2417074 2417072 2022-08-21T15:08:45Z Ncharamut 2824970 added pdf wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease | pdf= chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/4/47/A_history_of_coronaviruses_WJM.pdf }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} 1urstv38eaj52jfw6ca6j605qz9f9tb 2417075 2417074 2022-08-21T15:09:14Z Ncharamut 2824970 fixed pdf link wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Mizoram University, Aizawl, India | correspondence1 = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | affiliations = institutes / affiliations | first2 = | last2 = | first3 = | last3 = | first4 = <!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --> | last4 = | et_al = <!-- if there are >9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --> | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | submitted = 27-08-2020 | license = CC-BY 4.0 | abstract = The history of coronaviruses is an account of the discovery of [[w:coronavirus|coronaviruses]] and the diseases they cause. It starts with a report of a new type of upper-respiratory tract disease among chickens in North Dakota, US, in 1931. The causative agent was identified as a virus in 1933. By 1936, the disease and the virus were recognised as unique from other viral diseases. The virus became known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), but later officially renamed as ''[[w:Avian coronavirus|Avian coronavirus]]''. A new brain disease of mice (murine encephalomyelitis) was discovered in 1947 at Harvard Medical School in Boston. The virus was called JHM (after Harvard pathologist John Howard Mueller). Three years later a new mouse hepatitis was reported from the National Institute for Medical Research in London. The causative virus was identified as mouse hepatitis virus (MHV), later renamed ''[[w:murine coronavirus|Murine coronavirus]]''. In 1961, a virus was obtained from a school boy in Epsom, England, who was suffering from common cold. The sample, designated B814, was confirmed as novel virus in 1965. New common cold viruses (assigned [[w:Human coronavirus 229E|229E]]) collected from medical students at the University of Chicago were also reported in 1966. Structural analyses of IBV, MHV, B18 and 229E using [[w:transmission electron microscopy|transmission electron microscopy]] revealed that they all belong to the same group of viruses. Making a crucial comparison in 1967, [[w:June Almeida|June Almeida]] and [[w:David Tyrrell|David Tyrrell]] invented the collective name coronavirus, as all those viruses were characterised by solar corona-like projections (called spikes) on their surfaces. Other coronaviruses have been discovered from pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats. As of 2022, 52 species are described. Bats are found to be the richest source of different species of coronaviruses. All coronaviruses originated from a common ancestor about 293 million years ago. Zoonotic species such as ''[[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (SARS-CoV), ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' (MERS-CoV) and [[w:severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]] (SARS-CoV-2), a variant of SARS-CoV, emerged during the past two decades and caused the first pandemics of the 21st century. | keywords = Coronavirus, common cold, encephalomyelitis, hepatitis, respiratory disease | pdf= https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/4/47/A_history_of_coronaviruses_WJM.pdf }} == Discovery of chicken coronavirus == {{fig|1|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic images four virions of the species of the first coronavirus discovered, infectious bronchitis virus of chicken (''Avian coronavirus'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}} Arthur Frederick Schalk and Merle C. Fawn at the North Dakota Agricultural College were the first to report what was later identified as coronavirus disease in chickens.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring|date=2020|title=A biography of coronaviruses from IBV to SARS-CoV-2, with their evolutionary paradigms and pharmacological challenges|url=https://pharmascope.org/ijrps/article/view/2701|journal=International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=11|issue=SPL1|pages=208–218|doi=10.26452/ijrps.v11iSPL1.2701|via=|doi-access=free|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref> Their publication in the ''Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association'' in 1931 indicates a report that there was a new [[w:Infectious bronchitis (poultry)|respiratory disease]] that mostly affected 2-day-old to 3-week-old chickens. They described the disease as "an apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Schalk AF, Hawn MC |date=1931|title=An apparently new respiratory disease of baby chicks|url=https://eurekamag.com/research/013/304/013304856.php|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=78|issue=3|pages=413–422|via=}}</ref> The symptoms included severe shortness of breath and physical weakness. The infection was contagious and virulent, easily transmitted through direct contact between chickens or experimental transfer of the bronchial [[w:Exudates|exudates]] from infected to healthy chickens. The maximum mortality due the infection recorded was 90%.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | authors = Fabricant J | title = The early history of infectious bronchitis | journal = Avian Diseases | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 648–50 | date = 1998 | doi = 10.2307/1592697 | jstor = 1592697 | pmid = 9876830 }}</ref> The causative pathogen (Figure 1) could not be identified. Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette at the [[w:New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station|New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station]] in New Brunswick, Canada, put forth a hypothesis in 1932 that a virus could be the cause and introduced the name as "virus of the infectious bronchitis."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hudson CB, Beaudette FR | title = Infection of the Cloaca with the Virus of Infectious Bronchitis | journal = Science | volume = 76 | issue = 1958 | pages = 34 | date = July 1932 | pmid = 17732084 | doi = 10.1126/science.76.1958.34.b | bibcode = 1932Sci....76...34H }}</ref> But this was a misattribution because at the time another related disease, known as [[w:infectious laryngotracheitis|infectious laryngotracheitis]], was reported that exhibited almost similar symptoms but mostly affected adult chickens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=Kholhring | name-list-format = vanc |date=2020|title=The chronicles of coronaviruses: the bronchitis, the hepatitis and the common cold |journal=Science Vision|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=43–53|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.04 }}</ref> As Beaudette later recalled in 1937, the disease he described was infectious laryngotracheitis, saying: "Infectious laryngotracheitis is said to be the correct name for this disease rather than infectious bronchitis… Moreover, the gasping symptom ordinarily accepted as typical of the disease is also a prominent symptom in infectious bronchitis (gasping disease, chick bronchitis)."<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beaudette FR |date=1937|title=Infectious laryngotracheitis |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=103–105|doi=10.3382/ps.0160103}}</ref> The names infectious bronchitis and infectious laryngotracheitis were till then used synonymously and interchangeably. Unaware of the developments, Leland David Bushnell and Carl Alfred Brandly at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station studied a similar case which they called "gasping disease" due to the apparent symptom. They had known the disease since 1928. Their report in 1933 titled "Laryngotracheitis in chicks" published in the ''Poultry Science'' indicated a clear distinction of infectious bronchitis from infectious laryngotracheitis (cause by a [[w:herpesviridae|herpes virus]]) as the main organ affected was the bronchi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|authors = Bushnell LD, Brandly CA |date=1933|title=Laryngotracheitis in chicks|journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=55–60|doi=10.3382/ps.0120055}}</ref> The bronchi infection resulted in severe gasping and swift death due to inability to eat food. It was also found that the pathogens could not be bacteria or protozoans as they passed through membranes ([[w:Berkefeld filter|Berkefeld filter]]) that would normally block those pathogens.<ref name=":0" /> The isolation and identification of the pathogen as a virus were reported as: <blockquote>In several experiments we have reproduced the disease in chicks by the intratracheal, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of Berkefeld filtered material. The chicks developed typical gasping symptoms after various periods of incubation, different groups of chicks first showing symptoms in six, seventeen, nineteen, etc., days after receiving the filtrate... The disease may also be transferred by means of filtrates of spleen, liver, and kidney tissues and by the transfer of bacteriologically sterile blood.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote> This marked the discovery of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), the first coronavirus. But Bushnell and Brandy made an erroneous remark by saying: "The symptoms and lesions in the chicks [caused by IBV] are similar to those seen in so-called laryngotracheitis of adult birds and are probably due to the same agent."<ref name=":2" /> In 1936, Jerry Raymond Beach and Oscar William Schalm at the [[w:University of California, Berkeley|University of California, Berkeley]], reexamined Bushnell and Brady's experiment with a conclusion that infectious laryngotracheitis and infectious bronchitis in symptoms and their causative viruses were different. (In 1931, Beach had discovered the virus of infectious laryngotracheitis, now called [[w:Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1|''Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1'']].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beach JR | title = A Filtrable Virus, the Cause of Infectious Laryngotracheitis of Chickens | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 809–16 | date = November 1931 | pmid = 19869961 | pmc = 2180297 | doi = 10.1084/jem.54.6.809 }}</ref>) They concluded that: <blockquote> *It was found that chickens that recovered from an infection with one of the two strains of virus were refractory to further infection with either strain. It was also found that the sera from chickens that have recovered from an infection with one strain of the virus would neutralize virus of either strain. These results show the identity of the two strains of virus. *Chickens refractory to infection with this virus were shown to be susceptible to the virus of laryngotracheitis. Likewise, chickens refractory to the latter virus were susceptible to the former. These results demonstrate that the two viruses are distinct from one another.<ref>{{Cite journal| authors = Beach JR, Schalm OW |date=1936|title=A filterable virus, distinct from that of laryngotracheitis, the cause of a respiratory disease of chicks |journal=Poultry Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=199–206|doi=10.3382/ps.0150199 }}</ref></blockquote> Hudson and Beaudette later in 1937 were able to culture IBV for the first time using chicken embryos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beaudette|first1=F.R.|last2=Hudson|first2=B.D.|date=1937|title=Cultivation of the virus of infectious bronchitis|url=|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=90|issue=1|pages=51–60|via=}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> This specimen, known as the Beaudette strain, became the first coronavirus to have its genome completely sequenced in 1987.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boursnell|first1=M. E. G.|last2=Brown|first2=T. D. K.|last3=Foulds|first3=I. J.|last4=Green|first4=P. F.|last5=Tomley|first5=F. M.|last6=Binns|first6=M. M.|date=1987|title=Completion of the sequence of the genome of the coronavirus avian infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=68|issue=1|pages=57–77|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-68-1-57|pmid=3027249}}</ref> == Discovery of mouse coronaviruses == In 1949, Francis Sargent Cheevers, Joan B. Daniels, Alwin M. Pappenheimer and Orville T. Bailey investigated the case of brain disease (murine [[w:encephalitis|encephalitis]]) at the Department of Bacteriology and Immunology of Harvard Medical School in Boston. Two laboratory mice (Schwenktker strains) of 17 and 18 days old had flaccid paralysis and died.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A murine virus (JHM) causing disseminated encephalomyelitis with extensive destruction of myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–210 | date = September 1949 | pmid = 18137294 | pmc = 2135905 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.181 }}</ref> It was generally believed that the mice had murine encephalitis. By then it was known that murine encephalitis was caused by a [[w:picornavirus|picornavirus]], called [[w:Theiler's virus|Theiler's virus]], which was discovered by [[w:Max Theiler|Max Theiler]] at the [[w:Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller Foundation]] in New York in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Theiler M | title = Spontaneous Encephalomyelitis of Mice, A New Virus Disease | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 705–19 | date = April 1937 | pmid = 19870629 | pmc = 2133518 | doi = 10.1084/jem.65.5.705 }}</ref> However, the Harvard scientists found that the two mice had unusual symptoms other than brain damage ([[w:demyelination|demyelination]]). The mice had no visible illness or diarrhoea, which usually are associated with murine encephalitis. In addition, the causative virus was isolated from different organs including liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Bailey OT, Pappenheimer AM, Cheever FS, Daniels JB | title = A Murine Virus (JHM) Causing Disseminated Encephalomyelitis with Extensive Destruction of Myelin | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 90 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–212 | date = August 1949 | pmid = 19871701 | pmc = 2135909 | doi = 10.1084/jem.90.3.195 }}</ref> This indicated that brain was not the primary target organ. Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage ([[w:necrosis|necrosis]]), indicating [[w:hepatitis|hepatitis]]. The new virus was named JHM, after the initials of [[w:John Howard Mueller|John Howard Mueller]], a pioneer microbiologist at Harvard.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Pappenheimer AM | title = Pathology of infection with the JHM virus | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 20 | issue = 5 | pages = 879–91 | date = May 1958 | pmid = 13539633 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/20.5.879 }}</ref> In the autumn of 1950, there was a sudden outbreak of fatal hepatitis among laboratory mice (Parkes or P strains) at the [[w:National Institute for Medical Research|National Institute for Medical Research]], Mill Hill, London.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Dick GW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. I. Introductory | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 293–7 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101709 | doi = 10.1159/000160248 }}</ref> Alan Watson Gledhill and [[w:Christopher Howard Andrewes|Christopher Howard Andrewes]] isolated the causative virus, which experimentally was highly infectious to healthy mice. They named the virus as "[[w:mouse hepatitis virus|mouse hepatitis virus]] (MHV)."<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW, Andrewes CH | title = A hepatitis virus of mice | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 32 | issue = 6 | pages = 559–68 | date = December 1951 | pmid = 14895796 | pmc = 2073177 }}</ref> Gledhill called the experiments on the highly infectious nature of the virus as a "bizarre discovery".<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Gledhill AW | title = Virus hepatitis of mice. II. The complex aetiology | journal = Schweizerische Zeitschrift Fur Pathologie und Bakteriologie. Revue Suisse de Pathologie et de Bacteriologie | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 298–301 | date = 1953 | pmid = 13101710 | doi = 10.1159/000160249 }}</ref> In 1959, John A. Morris at the [[w:National Institutes of Health|National Institutes of Health]], Bethesda, discovered a new mouse virus, which he named H747, from samples in Japan. When he compared the virus with JHM and MHV using serological tests, he found that they were both antigenically related, for which he created a common name "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses."<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Morris|first=J. A.|date=1959|title=A new member of hepato-encephalitis group of murine viruses|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=100|issue=4|pages=875–877|doi=10.3181/00379727-100-24810|pmid=13645751|s2cid=33553056}}</ref> In 1961, Robert A. Manaker and his team at the [[w:National Cancer Institute|National Cancer Institute]], Bethesda, reported the discovery of a new virus (designated as MHV-A59) from murine leukemia virus-infected mice, remarking that it was a member of the hepatoencephalitis group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Manaker|first=Robert A.|last2=Piczak|first2=Chester V.|last3=Miller|first3=Alice A.|last4=Stanton|first4=Mearl F.|date=1961|title=A Hepatitis Virus Complicating Studies With Mouse Leukemia|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=27|issue=1|pages=29–51|doi=10.1093/jnci/27.1.29|pmid=13766009}}</ref> The virus primary cause fatal hepatitis and encephalitis.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> Pneumonia-causing rat coronavirus (RCV) discovered in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parker|first=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): a prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4099196|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|volume=31|issue=3|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref> and sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), which infects nasal cavities, lungs, salivary glands and the Harderian gland in rats, discovered in 1972<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bhatt|first=P. N.|last2=Percy|first2=D. H.|last3=Jonas|first3=A. M.|date=1972|title=Characterization of the virus of sialodacryoadenitis of rats: a member of the coronavirus group|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4559849|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=126|issue=2|pages=123–130|doi=10.1093/infdis/126.2.123|pmc=7110018|pmid=4559849}}</ref> were found to be the same kind of hepatoencephalitis viruses.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Hirano|first=Norio|last2=Goto|first2=Naoaki|last3=Ogawa|first3=Tetsuo|last4=Ono|first4=Katsuhiko|last5=Murakami|first5=Toshiaki|last6=Fujiwara|first6=Kosaku|date=1980|title=Hydrocephalus in Suckling Rats Infected Intracerebrally with Mouse Hepatitis Virus, MHV-A59|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|journal=Microbiology and Immunology|volume=24|issue=9|pages=825–834|doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1980.tb02887.x|pmc=168494|pmid=6261095}}</ref> == Discovery of human coronaviruses == Human coronaviruses were discovered as one of the many causative viruses of common cold. Research on the study of common cold originated when the British [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[w:Department of Health and Social Care|Ministry of Health]] established the [[w:Common Cold Unit|Common Cold Research Unit]] (CCRU) at Salisbury, England, in 1946.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = | s2cid = 4112885 | title = Research into the common cold | journal = Nature | volume = 157 | issue = 3996 | pages = 726–727 | date = June 1946 | pmid = 20986431 | doi = 10.1038/157726b0 | bibcode = 1946Natur.157R.726. }}</ref> Directed by Andrewes, the research laboratory discovered several viruses such as [[w:influenza viruses|influenza viruses]], [[w:Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza viruses]] and [[w:rhinoviruses|rhinoviruses]] that cause common cold.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes C | title = Twenty years' work on the common cold | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 59 | issue = 7 | pages = 635–7 | date = July 1966 | pmid = 5939517 | pmc = 1901004 | doi = 10.1177/003591576605900727 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Andrewes CH, Worthington G | title = Some new or little-known respiratory viruses | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 20 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 435–43 | date = 1959 | pmid = 13651924 | pmc = 2537755 }}</ref> [[w:David Arthur John Tyrrell|David Arthur John Tyrrell]] joined CCRU in 1957 and succeeded Andrewes in 1962.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kerr JR, Taylor-Robinson D | s2cid = 73300843 | title = David Arthur John Tyrrell CBE: 19 June 1925 - 2 May 2005 | journal = Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. Royal Society | volume = 53 | pages = 349–63 | date = 2007 | pmid = 18543468 | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2007.0014 }}</ref> He developed a technique for growing rhinoviruses using nasal epithelial cells for the first time in 1960.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML, Hitchcock G, Pereira HG, Andrewes CH | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. I. Experiments employing human volunteers | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 235–7 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840112 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90166-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Hitchcock G, Tyrrell DA | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. II. Virus interference in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 237–9 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 14402042 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90167-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Parsons R | title = Some virus isolations from common colds. III. Cytopathic effects in tissue cultures | journal = The Lancet | volume = 1 | issue = 7118 | pages = 239–42 | date = January 1960 | pmid = 13840115 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(60)90168-9 }}</ref> Based on the technique, his team soon after formulated a concept of broad categorisation of common cold viruses into two groups: one group, called H strain, could be maintained only in human-embryo-kidney cell culture, and another group, designated M strain, could be maintained both in human-embryo-kidney cell culture and monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Some further virus isolations from common colds | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5223 | pages = 393–7 | date = February 1961 | pmid = 13778900 | pmc = 1953283 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5223.393 }}</ref> By then, many common cold viruses could be grown in either of these cell cultures and were accordingly classified as M or H strain.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Taylor-Robinson D, Hucker R, Tyrrell DA | title = Studies on the pathogenicity for tissue cultures of some viruses isolated from common colds | journal = British Journal of Experimental Pathology | volume = 43 | pages = 189–93 | date = April 1962 | pmid = 13920009 | pmc = 2094670 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Buckland FE, Bynoe ML, Hayflick L | title = The cultivation in human-embryo cells of a virus (D.C.) causing colds in man | journal = The Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7251 | pages = 320–2 | date = August 1962 | pmid = 13923371 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(62)90107-1 }}</ref> During 1960-1961, Tyrrell's team collected throat swabs from 170 school boys having common cold at a boarding school in Epsom, Surrey. Among few samples that could not be cultured in any of the culture media available at the time was a specimen designated B814, collected on 17 February 1961, which was particularly infectious among healthy volunteers.<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kendall EJ, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA | title = Virus isolations from common colds occurring in a residential school | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5297 | pages = 82–6 | date = July 1962 | pmid = 14455113 | pmc = 1925312 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5297.82 }}</ref> There was no evidence whether the pathogen in B814 was a bacterium or a virus as all bacterial and viral culture methods showed negative results. In the early 1965, while visiting the University of Lund in Sweden to receive a honorary doctorate, Andrewes learned of Bertil Hoorn who had developed a culture method for viruses using human trachea tissue.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49976916|title=Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common cold|last=Tyrrell|first=D. A. J.|last2=Fielder|first2=Michael|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=|year=|isbn=978-0-19-263285-2|location=Oxford|pages=94–96|oclc=49976916}}</ref> Hoorn had successfully cultured influenza viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|date=1964|title=Respiratory viruses in model experiments|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14146666|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=188|issue=Sup188|pages=138-144|doi=10.3109/00016486409134552|pmid=14146666|via=}}</ref> After learning about these developments from Andrewes, Tyrrell invited Hoorn to visit CCRU. Using the new culture method, they were able to grow many viruses which could not be maintained in other culture methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hoorn|first=B.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A.|date=1965|title=On the growth of certain “newer” respiratory viruses in organ cultures|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14286939|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=46|pages=109–118|pmc=2095265|pmid=14286939|via=}}</ref> Then B814 could be maintained in the new human tracheal culture and experimentally passed on to healthy volunteers by nasal inoculation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monto|first=A. S.|date=1974|title=Medical reviews. Coronaviruses|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=47|issue=4|pages=234–251|pmc=2595130|pmid=4617423}}</ref> It was possible to confirm the nature of the pathogen as a filter-passing virus as it was susceptible to ether treatment (indicating a lipid-enveloped virus), able to induce cold in antibiotic-treated volunteers (indicating it was not a bacterium), and grown in human-embryo-trachea epithelial cell culture. Serological tests ([[w:Antigen-antibody interaction|antigen-antibody reactions]]) further indicated that the virus was not related (not reactive) to antibodies (serotypes) of any known viruses at the time.<ref name=":0" /> Reporting in the 5 June 1965 issue of the ''[[w:BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'', Tyrrell and Malcolm L. Bynoe concluded:<blockquote>After considerable initial doubts we now believe that the B814 strain is a virus virtually unrelated to any other known virus of the human respiratory tract, although, since it is ether-labile, it may be a myxovirus.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | authors = Tyrrell DA, Bynoe ML | title = Cultivation of a Novel Type of Common-cold Virus in Organ Cultures | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 5448 | pages = 1467–70 | date = June 1965 | pmid = 14288084 | pmc = 2166670 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.5448.1467 }}</ref></blockquote>But they contradicted themselves regarding the identity of the virus as they mentioned in the experimental results, saying:<blockquote>It was concluded that B814 did not belong to any of the serotypes of [[w:Orthomyxoviridae|myxovirus]] used, but might be distantly related to influenza C or Sendai viruses.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>In an independent research in US, Dorothy Hamre and John J. Procknow studied respiratory tract infection among medical students at the University of Chicago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|language=en|volume=24|issue=Supplement|pages=S223–S227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> In 1962, they obtained five samples that were associated with very different symptoms, causing mild cold only, and could be cultured only in secondary human kidney tissue in contrast to other cold viruses which could be maintained in monkey-embryo-kidney cell culture. Serological test indicated they were not myxoviruses (''[[w:Orthomyxoviridae|Orthomyxoviridae]]''). They presented their discovery as "A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract" in the ''Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine'' in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=D.|last2=Procknow|first2=J. J.|date=1966|title=A new virus isolated from the human respiratory tract.|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=121|issue=1|pages=190–193|doi=10.3181/00379727-121-30734|pmid=4285768|s2cid=1314901}}</ref> They further studied one sample, designated 229E, grown in human diploid cell culture (Wi-38) and described its developmental stages using transmission electron microscopy which helped established that it was a new type of virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hamre|first1=Dorothy|last2=Kindig|first2=David A.|last3=Mann|first3=Judith|date=1967|title=Growth and intracellular development of a new respiratory virus|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=4|pages=810–816|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.4.810-816.1967|pmc=375356|pmid=4912236}}</ref> == Discovery of the structure == {{fig|2|align=right|image=Coronavirus virion structure.svg|caption=A diagrammatic model of typical coronavirus indicating the structural components.|attribution=[[w:SPQR10|SPQR10]], [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}} Viruses cannot be normally seen with light microscopes. It was only with the development of electron microscopy that viruses could be visualised and structurally elucidated. Reginald L. Reagan, Jean E. Hauser, Mary G. Lillie, and Arthur H. Craige Jr. of the University of Maryland were the first to describe the structure of a coronavirus using transmission electron microscopy. In 1948, they reported in ''The Cornell Veterinarian'' that IBV was spherical in shape and some of them had filamentous projections (as a model shown in Figure 2).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Hauser|first2=J. E.|last3=Lillie|first3=M. G.|last4=Craig Jr.|first4=A. H.|date=1948|title=Electron micrograph of the virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4179373&view=1up&seq=203|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=38|issue=2|pages=190–191|pmid=18863331|via=}}</ref> But the images were difficult to interpret due to poor resolution and low magnification (at × 28,000).<ref name=":0" /> Their subsequent studies did not show any striking properties from other viruses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|last3=Delaplane|first3=J. P.|date=1950|title=Morphological observations by electron microscopy of the viruses of infectious bronchitis of chickens and the chronic respiratory disease of turkeys|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=40|issue=4|pages=384–386|pmid=14792981|hdl=2027/uc1.b4179375?urlappend=%3Bseq=394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=R. L.|last2=Brueckner|first2=A. L.|date=1952|title=Electron microscope studies of four strains of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=13|issue=48|pages=417–418|issn=0002-9645|pmid=12976644}}</ref> An important advancement was made by Charles Henry Domermuth and O.F. Edwards at the University of Kentucky in 1957 when they observed IBVs as "ring or doughnut-shaped structures."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Domermuth|first1=C. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=O. F.|date=1957-01-01|title=An electron microscope study of chorioallantoic membrane infected with the virus of avian infectious bronchitis|url=https://academic.oup.com/jid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=100|issue=1|pages=74–81|doi=10.1093/infdis/100.1.74|pmid=13416637|via=}}</ref> D.M. Berry at the [[w:Glaxo Laboratories|Glaxo Laboratories]], Middlesex, UK, with J.G. Cruickshank, H.P. Chu and R.J.H. Wells at the University of Cambridge published a more comprehensive and better electron microscopic analysis in 1964. Four strains of IBV, including Beaudette strain, were compared with influenza virus, with which they share the most resemblance. In contrast to influenza virus in which the projections were small and straight, all IBV strains had "pear-shaped projections", which were names the "spikes", and described:<blockquote>These “spikes” were often seen over part of the surface only and were less densely packed than those seen in influenza viruses. They varied considerably in shape. Commonly they appeared to be attached to the virus by a very narrow neck and to thicken towards their distal ends, sometimes forming a bulbous mass 90-110 Å in diameter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berry|first1=D.M.|last2=Cruickshank|first2=J.G.|last3=Chu|first3=H.P.|last4=Wells|first4=R.J.H.|date=1964|title=The structure of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Virology|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=403–407|doi=10.1016/0042-6822(64)90263-6|pmid=14194135}}</ref></blockquote>José Francisco David-Ferreira and Robert A. Manaker were the first to study the structure of MHV in 1965. They also observed the surface projections as on IBV, stating, "The outer surface of the particle is covered by 'spicules'."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David-Ferreira|first1=J. F.|last2=Manaker|first2=R. A.|date=1965|title=An electron microscope study of the development of a mouse hepatitis virus in tissue culture cells|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=24|pages=57–78|doi=10.1083/jcb.24.1.57|pmc=2106561|pmid=14286297}}</ref> {{fig|3|align=right|image=Coronaviruses 229E, B814 and IBV.png|caption=Electron microscopic images of human coronaviruses 229E (2) and B814 (3 & 4) from the first comparative study in 1967.|attribution=Tyrrell and Almeida,<ref name=tyrrell67/> [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0 1.0]}} In 1966, Tyrrell sought the help of Anthony Peter Waterson at the [[w:St Thomas's Hospital Medical School|St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] in London who had recruited [[w:June Dalziel Almeida|June Dalziel Almeida]] as an electron microscopist. While working as a technician at the Ontario Cancer Institute, University of Toronto, Canada, Almeida had developed two unique techniques for electron microscopy of viruses: the first was a modified negative staining method using phosphotungstic acid,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J. D.|last2=Howatson|first2=A. F.|date=1963|title=A negative staining method for cell-associated virus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14012223|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=16|pages=616–620|doi=10.1083/jcb.16.3.616|pmc=2106233|pmid=14012223|via=}}</ref> and the next was immunological procedure in which she reacted viruses with antibodies (antigen-antibody complexes).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Almeida|first=J.|last2=Cinader|first2=B.|last3=Howatson|first3=A.|date=1963-09-01|title=The structure of antigen-antibody complexes. A study by electron microscopy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14077994|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=118|pages=327–340|doi=10.1084/jem.118.3.327|pmc=2137656|pmid=14077994|via=}}</ref> Employing these techniques, she had successfully identified IBV and MHV as structurally distinct viruses, but her manuscript was rejected upon a referee's decision that the images were probably of influenza virus, and thus, lacked novelty.<ref name=":10" /> Tyrrell supplied the human virus samples B814 and 229E, which Almeida analysed using transmission electron microscopy. The human viruses showed the same fundamental structures (Figure 3) with that of a chicken virus (IBV). Almeida and Tyrrell published their findings in the April 1967 issue of the ''Journal of General Virology'', in which they concluded: <blockquote>Probably the most interesting finding from these experiments was that two human respiratory viruses, 229 E and B814 are morphologically identical with avian infectious bronchitis. Their biological properties, as far as they are known, are consistent with this. Both the human viruses are ether sensitive as is avian infectious bronchitis 229 E, have a similar size by filtration and multiply in the presence of an inhibitor of DNA synthesis.<ref name=tyrrell67>{{Cite journal|last1=Almeida|first1=J. D.|last2=Tyrrell|first2=D. A. J.|date=1967|title=The morphology of three previously uncharacterized human respiratory viruses that grow in organ culture|journal=Journal of General Virology|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=175–178|doi=10.1099/0022-1317-1-2-175|pmid=4293939}}</ref></blockquote> {{fig|4|align=right|image=TEM of coronavirus OC43.jpg|caption=Electron microscopic image of human coronavirus OC43 (''Betacoronavirus 1'').|attribution=[[w:CDC|CDC/ Dr. Erskine Palmer]], [[w:Public domain|Public domain]]}} In 1967, Kenneth McIntosh and co-workers at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, reported the structure of common cold viruses they collected from fellow workers during 1965-1966. They found six of their samples had common characters with B814.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=McIntosh|first1=K.|last2=Dees|first2=J. H.|last3=Becker|first3=W. B.|last4=Kapikian|first4=A. Z.|last5=Chanock|first5=R. M.|date=1967|title=Recovery in tracheal organ cultures of novel viruses from patients with respiratory disease|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=57|issue=4|pages=933–940|doi=10.1073/pnas.57.4.933|pmc=224637|pmid=5231356}}</ref> Two samples (designated OC38 and OC43, as the number of specimen in organ culture<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=McIntosh|first=Kenneth | name-list-format = vanc | chapter = Coronaviruses: A Comparative Review|date=1974 | title =Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology / Ergebnisse der Mikrobiologie und Immunitätsforschung|pages=85–129| veditors = Arber W, Haas R, Henle W, Hofschneider PH |place=Berlin, Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-65775-7_3|isbn=978-3-642-65777-1}}</ref>) were particularly virulent and caused encephalitis in experimental mice. They compared the structure of one of their samples numbered 501 (OC43, shown in Figure 4) with those of 229E, IBV and influenza virus. It was so identical to IBV that they called the human viruses as "IBV-like viruses". They made a definitive description: <blockquote>All "IBV-like" viruses, 229E, and IBV itself show the following characteristics: (1) an over-all diameter of 160 mμ with a variation of ± 440 mμ; (2) a moderate [[w:Pleomorphism (cytology)|pleomorphism]] with resultant elliptical, round, or tear-drop shapes but no filamentous or "tailed" forms; and (3) characteristic spikes 20 mμ long, usually club- or pear-shaped narrow at the base and 10 mμ wide at the outer edge, spaced widely apart and distributed fairly uniformly about the circumference of the particle.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> == Invention of the name and history of the taxonomy == By mid-1967 it was recognised that IBV, MHV, B814 and 229E were structurally and biologically similar so as to consider them a distinct group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A. J.|last2=Almeida|first2=June D.|date=1967|title=Direct electron-microscopy of organ cultures for the detection and characterization of viruses|journal=Archiv für die Gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=22|issue=3–4|pages=417–425|doi=10.1007/BF01242962|pmid=4300621|s2cid=21295037}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becker|first1=W. B.|last2=McIntosh|first2=K.|last3=Dees|first3=J. H.|last4=Chanock|first4=R. M.|date=1967|title=Morphogenesis of avian infectious bronchitis virus and a related human virus (strain 229E)|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=1|issue=5|pages=1019–1027|doi=10.1128/JVI.1.5.1019-1027.1967|pmc=375381|pmid=5630226}}</ref> Tyrrell met Waterson and Almeida in London to decide on the name of the viruses. Almeida had earlier suggested the term "influenza-like" because of their resemblance, but Tyrrell thought it inappropriate.<ref name=":10" /> Almeida came up with a novel name "coronavirus".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=Ronnie|date=2020|title=Etymologia: Coronavirus|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=26|issue=5|pages=1027|doi=10.3201/eid2605.ET2605|pmc=7181939}}</ref> Tyrrell wrote of his recollection in ''Cold Wars: The Fight Against the Common Cold'' in 2002: <blockquote>Even though we could only base our judgement on the electron microscope images we were quite certain that we had identified a previously unrecognised group of viruses. So what should we call them? 'Influenza-like' seem a bit feeble, somewhat vague, and probably misleading. We looked more closely at the appearance of the new viruses and noticed that they had a kind of halo surrounding them. Recourse to a dictionary produced the Latin equivalent, corona, and so the name coronavirus was born.<ref name=":10" /></blockquote> Proposal of the new name was submitted to and accepted by the [[w:International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses|International Committee for the Nomenclature of Viruses]] (ICNV, which was established in 1966).<ref name=":0" /> The 16 November 1968 issue of ''Nature'' reported the justification by Almeida, Berry, C.H. Cunningham, Hamre, M.S. Hofstad, L. Mallucci, McIntosh and Tyrrell: <blockquote>Particles [of IBV] are more or less rounded in profile; although there is a certain amount of polymorphism, there is also a characteristic "fringe" of projections 200 Å long, which are rounded or petal shaped, rather than sharp or pointed, as in the myxoviruses. This appearance, recalling the solar corona, is shared by mouse hepatitis virus and several viruses recently recovered from man, namely strain B814, 229E and several others... In the opinion of the eight virologists these viruses are members of a previously unrecognized group which they suggest should be called the coronaviruses, to recall the characteristic appearance by which these viruses are identified in the electron microscope.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=1968|title=Virology: Coronaviruses|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=220|issue=5168|pages=650|doi=10.1038/220650b0|pmc=7086490}}</ref></blockquote> ''Coronavirus'' (formal scientific name in italics) was accepted as a genus name by ICNV in its first report in 1971.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildy|first=Peter|date=1971|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. First report of the International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses.|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%201st%20Report.pdf|journal=Monographs in Virology|volume=5|pages=27–73|via=}}</ref> IBV was then officially designated the type species as ''Avian infectious bronchitis virus'' (but renamed to ''Avian coronavirus'' in 2009).<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Avian coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901880|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The so-called "hepatoencephalitis group of murine viruses"<ref name=":16" /> were grouped into a single species named ''Mouse hepatitis virus,'' as approved in 1971. The species was merged with ''Rat coronavirus'' (discovered in 1970<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=J. C.|last2=Cross|first2=S. S.|last3=Rowe|first3=W. P.|date=1970|title=Rat coronavirus (RCV): A prevalent, naturally occurring pneumotropic virus of rats|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=293–302|doi=10.1007/BF01253764|pmc=7086756|pmid=4099196}}</ref>) and ''Puffinosis coronavirus'' (discovered in 1982<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nuttall|first=P. A.|last2=Harrap|first2=K. A.|date=1982|title=Isolation of a coronavirus during studies on puffinosis, a disease of the Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7125912|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=73|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1007/BF01341722|pmc=7086650|pmid=7125912}}</ref>) as ''Murine coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Murine coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140897|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were collectively named ''Human respiratory virus'' but merged as ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-229E) in 2009''.''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901852|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> The first discovered human coronavirus B814 was antigenically different from 229E and OC43,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bradburne|first=A. F.|date=1970|title=Antigenic relationships amongst coronaviruses|journal=Archiv für die gesamte Virusforschung|language=en|volume=31|issue=3–4|pages=352–364|doi=10.1007/BF01253769|pmc=7086994|pmid=4321451}}</ref> but it could not be propagated in culture and was exhausted during experiments in 1968,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tyrrell|first1=D. A.|last2=Bynoe|first2=M. L.|last3=Hoorn|first3=B.|date=1968|title=Cultivation of 'difficult' viruses from patients with common colds.|journal=British Medical Journal|language=en|volume=1|issue=5592|pages=606–610|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.5592.606|pmc=1985339|pmid=4295363}}</ref> thus, was excluded in taxonomy. ''Coroniviridae'' was adopted as the family name in the ICNV (soon after renamed [[w:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]], ICTV) second report in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenner|first=Frank|date=1976|title=Classification and nomenclature of viruses. Second report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/149938|journal=Intervirology|language=en|volume=7|issue=1–2|pages=1–115|doi=10.1159/000149938|pmid=826499|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Coronaviridae|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901846|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> 229E and OC43 were together named ''Human respiratory virus'' in the ICNV first report. The species was split into ''Human coronavirus 229E'' (HCoV-OC229E) and ''[[w:Human coronavirus OC43|Human coronavirus OC43]]'' (HCoV-OC43) in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Human coronavirus 229E|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140887|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> While HCoV-OC229E is retained as a valid species, HCoV-OC43 was merged with ''Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus'' (discovered in 1962<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greig|first1=A. S.|last2=Mitchell|first2=D.|last3=Corner|first3=A. H.|last4=Bannister|first4=G. L.|last5=Meads|first5=E. B.|last6=Julian|first6=R. J.|date=1962|title=A hemagglutinating virus producing encephalomyelitis in baby pigs|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=26|issue=3|pages=49–56|pmc=1583410|pmid=17649356}}</ref>), ''Bovine coronavirus'' (discovered in 1973<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mebus|first1=C. A.|last2=Stair|first2=E. L.|last3=Rhodes|first3=M. B.|last4=Twiehaus|first4=M. J.|date=1973|title=Pathology of neonatal calf diarrhea induced by a coronavirus-like agent|journal=Veterinary Pathology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=45–64|doi=10.1177/030098587301000105|pmid=4584109|s2cid=40365985}}</ref>), ''Human enteric coronavirus'' (discovered in 1975<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Caul|first1=E. O.|last2=Clarke|first2=S. K.|date=1975|title=Coronavirus propagated from patient with non-bacterial gastroenteritis|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=7942|pages=953–954|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(75)90363-3|pmc=7135454|pmid=53434}}</ref>), ''Equine coronavirus'' (discovered in 2000<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guy|first1=J. S.|last2=Breslin|first2=J. J.|last3=Breuhaus|first3=B.|last4=Vivrette|first4=S.|last5=Smith|first5=L. G.|date=2000|title=Characterization of a coronavirus isolated from a diarrheic foal|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=38|issue=12|pages=4523–4526|doi=10.1128/JCM.38.12.4523-4526.2000|pmc=87631|pmid=11101590}}</ref>) and ''Canine respiratory coronavirus'' (discovered in 2003<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erles|first1=Kerstin|last2=Toomey|first2=Crista|last3=Brooks|first3=Harriet W.|last4=Brownlie|first4=Joe|date=2003|title=Detection of a group 2 coronavirus in dogs with canine infectious respiratory disease|journal=Virology|volume=310|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00160-0|pmc=7126160|pmid=12781709}}</ref>) into a single species, ''[[w:Betacoronavirus 1|Betacoronavirus 1]],'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Betacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20140895|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-21|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> Owing to increasing number and diversity of new species discovered, ICTV split the genus ''Coronavirus'' in 2009 into four genera, ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Huang|first3=Yi|last4=Yuen|first4=Kwok-Yung|date=2009|title=Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping|journal=Experimental Biology and Medicine|language=en|volume=234|issue=10|pages=1117–1127|doi=10.3181/0903-MR-94|pmid=19546349|s2cid=21900893}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carstens|first=E. B.|date=2010|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2009)|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=155|issue=1|pages=133–146|doi=10.1007/s00705-009-0547-x|pmc=7086975|pmid=19960211}}</ref> As of 2022, there are 52 species of coronaviruses in the subfamily ''Orthocoronavirinae'' under the family ''Coronaviridae,''<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses-2011/w/posrna_viruses/223/coronaviridae-figures|title=ICTV 9th Report (2011): Coronaviridae (Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release)|date=2021|website=talk.ictvonline.org|access-date=2021-12-18}}</ref> of which seven are of humans while 45 are those of other animals such as pigs, dogs, cats, rodents, cows, horses, camels, Beluga whales, birds and bats.<ref name=":1" /> There are also 35 reported species which are yet to be assigned official names.<ref name=":21" /> == Other human coronaviruses == === ''Human coronavirus NL63'' (HCoV-NL63) === [[w:Human coronavirus NL63|HCoV-NL63]] was discovered in January 2003 from a seven-month-old baby in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoek|first1=Lia|last2=Pyrc|first2=Krzysztof|last3=Jebbink|first3=Maarten F.|last4=Vermeulen-Oost|first4=Wilma|last5=Berkhout|first5=Ron J. M.|last6=Wolthers|first6=Katja C.|last7=Wertheim-van Dillen|first7=Pauline M. E.|last8=Kaandorp|first8=Jos|last9=Spaargaren|first9=Joke|last10=Berkhout|first10=Ben|date=2004|title=Identification of a new human coronavirus|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=10|issue=4|pages=368–373|doi=10.1038/nm1024|pmc=7095789|pmid=15034574}}</ref> The baby was suffering from [[w:bronchiolitis|bronchiolitis]], [[w:coryza|coryza]], [[w:conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]] and fever.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kahn|first1=Jeffrey S.|last2=McIntosh|first2=Kenneth|date=2005|title=History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=24|issue=11 Suppl|pages=223–227|doi=10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60|pmid=16378050|s2cid=10654941}}</ref> A year later, a comprehensive analysis of nasal swab samples was done from where it was found that a sample from an eight-month-old boy diagnosed in 1988 with pneumonia had a similar virus (HCoV-NL).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fouchier|first1=Ron A. M.|last2=Hartwig|first2=Nico G.|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Niemeyer|first4=Berend|last5=de Jong|first5=Jan C.|last6=Simon|first6=James H.|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|date=2004|title=A previously undescribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in humans|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=101|issue=16|pages=6212–6216|doi=10.1073/pnas.0400762101|pmc=395948|pmid=15073334}}</ref> The virus was independently described in 2005 as HCoV-NH following a discovery among a group of children having respiratory infection in New Haven, Connecticut, US.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|date=2005|title=Evidence of a novel human coronavirus that is associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=191|issue=4|pages=492–498|doi=10.1086/428138|pmc=7199485|pmid=15655770}}</ref> The origin of the virus remains a mystery, but it is closely related to [[w:tricolored bat|tricolored bat]] (''Perimyotis subflavus'') coronavirus and can survive in bat cell lines, suggesting that it is derived from animals (zoonotic).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huynh|first1=Jeremy|last2=Li|first2=Shimena|last3=Yount|first3=Boyd|last4=Smith|first4=Alexander|last5=Sturges|first5=Leslie|last6=Olsen|first6=John C.|last7=Nagel|first7=Juliet|last8=Johnson|first8=Joshua B.|last9=Agnihothram|first9=Sudhakar|last10=Gates|first10=J. Edward|last11=Frieman|first11=Matthew B.|date=2012|title=Evidence supporting a zoonotic origin of human coronavirus strain NL63|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=23|pages=12816–12825|doi=10.1128/JVI.00906-12|pmc=3497669|pmid=22993147}}</ref> === ''Human coronavirus HKU1'' (HCoV-HKU1) === [[w:Human coronavirus HKU1|HCoV-HKU1]] was discovered from a 71-year-old man in Hong Kong, China, who was suffering from pneumonia in January 2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woo|first1=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Chu|first3=Chung-ming|last4=Chan|first4=Kwok-hung|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Huang|first6=Yi|last7=Wong|first7=Beatrice H. L.|last8=Poon|first8=Rosana W. S.|last9=Cai|first9=James J.|last10=Luk|first10=Wei-kwang|last11=Poon|first11=Leo L. M.|date=2005|title=Characterization and complete genome sequence of a novel coronavirus, coronavirus HKU1, from patients with pneumonia|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=79|issue=2|pages=884–895|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.2.884-895.2005|pmc=538593|pmid=15613317}}</ref> When samples (nasopharyngeal aspirates from pneumonia patients) collected between April 2004 to March 2005 were analysed in 2006, it was found that 13 individuals had HCoV-HKU1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Yip|first3=Cyril C. Y.|last4=Tse|first4=Herman|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-wah|last6=Cheng|first6=Vincent C. C.|last7=Lee|first7=Paul|last8=Tang|first8=Bone S. F.|last9=Cheung|first9=Chris H. Y.|last10=Lee|first10=Rodney A.|last11=So|first11=Lok-yee|date=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 and other coronavirus infections in Hong Kong|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=44|issue=6|pages=2063–2071|doi=10.1128/JCM.02614-05|pmc=1489438|pmid=16757599}}</ref> The same year, the virus was subsequently reported from Australia,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sloots|first1=T|last2=McErlean|first2=P|last3=Speicher|first3=D|last4=Arden|first4=K|last5=Nissen|first5=M|last6=MacKay|first6=I|year=2006|title=Evidence of human coronavirus HKU1 and human bocavirus in Australian children|journal=Journal of Clinical Virology|volume=35|issue=1|pages=99–102|doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2005.09.008|pmid=16257260|pmc=7108338|doi-access=free}}</ref> Europe,<ref name=":12">{{cite journal|last1=Vabret|first1=A.|last2=Dina|first2=J.|last3=Gouarin|first3=S.|last4=Petitjean|first4=J.|last5=Corbet|first5=S.|last6=Freymuth|first6=F.|year=2006|title=Detection of the New Human Coronavirus HKU1: A Report of 6 Cases|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=42|issue=5|pages=634–9|doi=10.1086/500136|pmid=16447108|pmc=7107802|doi-access=free}}</ref> and US.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Esper|first1=Frank|last2=Weibel|first2=Carla|last3=Ferguson|first3=David|last4=Landry|first4=Marie L.|last5=Kahn|first5=Jeffrey S.|year=2006|title=Coronavirus HKU1 Infection in the United States|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/529443_1|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=12|issue=5|pages=775–9|doi=10.3201/eid1205.051316|pmc=3374449|pmid=16704837}}</ref> === Zoonotic coronaviruses === Coronaviruses that are transmitted from animals ([[w:Zoonoses|zoonoses]]) are clinically the most important human coronaviruses as they are responsible for a series of global epidemics. There are two species of such coronaviruses: ==== 1. ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== Two distinct viruses are known under this species, namely [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus|SARS-CoV]] and [[w:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|SARS-CoV-2]]. SARS-CoV emerged as an acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong Province, southern China, during 16 November 2002 to 28 February 2003.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)|date=2003|title=Update: Outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome - worldwide, 2003|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5212a1.htm|journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|volume=52|issue=12|pages=241–246, 248|pmid=12680518|via=}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Peng|first1=Guo-wen|last2=He|first2=Jian-feng|last3=Lin|first3=Jin-yan|last4=Zhou|first4=Duan-hua|last5=Yu|first5=De-wen|last6=Liang|first6=Wen-jia|last7=Li|first7=Ling-hui|last8=Guo|first8=Ru-ning|last9=Luo|first9=Hui-ming|last10=Xu|first10=Rui-heng|date=2003|title=Epidemiological study on severe acute respiratory syndrome in Guangdong province|journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi|volume=24|issue=5|pages=350–352|pmid=12820925}}</ref> The syndrome was accompanied by pneumonia that was fatal in many cases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhong|first1=N. S.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=Li|first3=Y. M.|last4=Poon|first4=null|last5=Xie|first5=Z. H.|last6=Chan|first6=K. H.|last7=Li|first7=P. H.|last8=Tan|first8=S. Y.|last9=Chang|first9=Q.|last10=Xie|first10=J. P.|last11=Liu|first11=X. Q.|date=2003|title=Epidemiology and cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in Guangdong, People's Republic of China, in February, 2003|journal=The Lancet|volume=362|issue=9393|pages=1353–1358|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14630-2|pmc=7112415|pmid=14585636}}</ref> The infection was believed to have been contained in China, but an infected individual carried it to Hong Kong on 21 February and spread it in the hotel and hospital.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Cherry|first=James D.|date=2004|title=The chronology of the 2002-2003 SARS mini pandemic|journal=Paediatric Respiratory Reviews|volume=5|issue=4|pages=262–269|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2004.07.009|pmc=7106085|pmid=15531249}}</ref> The first clinical case outside China was reported on 26 February 2003 in Hanoi, Vietnam. It rapidly spread to Southeast Asia, North America and Europe. The [[w:World Health Organization|World Health Organization]] (WHO) notified an epidemic alert on 6 March 2003, referring to the disease as severe acute respiratory syndrome.<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|date=16 March 2003|title=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=WHO}}</ref> The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus from Hong Kong in April,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peiris|first1=J. S. M.|last2=Lai|first2=S. T.|last3=Poon|first3=L. L. M.|last4=Guan|first4=Y.|last5=Yam|first5=L. Y. C.|last6=Lim|first6=W.|last7=Nicholls|first7=J.|last8=Yee|first8=W. K. S.|last9=Yan|first9=W. W.|last10=Cheung|first10=M. T.|last11=Cheng|first11=V. C. C.|date=2003|title=Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The Lancet|volume=361|issue=9366|pages=1319–1325|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13077-2|pmc=7112372|pmid=12711465}}</ref> from Toronto in May,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poutanen|first1=Susan M.|last2=Low|first2=Donald E.|last3=Henry|first3=Bonnie|last4=Finkelstein|first4=Sandy|last5=Rose|first5=David|last6=Green|first6=Karen|last7=Tellier|first7=Raymond|last8=Draker|first8=Ryan|last9=Adachi|first9=Dena|last10=Ayers|first10=Melissa|last11=Chan|first11=Adrienne K.|date=2003|title=Identification of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Canada|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1995–2005|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030634|pmid=12671061}}</ref> and at the US [[w:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) in May.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ksiazek|first1=Thomas G.|last2=Erdman|first2=Dean|last3=Goldsmith|first3=Cynthia S.|last4=Zaki|first4=Sherif R.|last5=Peret|first5=Teresa|last6=Emery|first6=Shannon|last7=Tong|first7=Suxiang|last8=Urbani|first8=Carlo|last9=Comer|first9=James A.|last10=Lim|first10=Wilina|last11=Rollin|first11=Pierre E.|date=2003|title=A novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=20|pages=1953–1966|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa030781|pmid=12690092}}</ref> In October, the samples from Guangdong were established as the prototype specimens, and the name SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV) was introduced.<ref name=":8" /> ICTV approved it as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus'' in 2004, and renamed it ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=20181868|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-22|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> By mid-July 2003, the infection subsided, and by then it had spread to 28 countries infecting 8,096 people and causing 774 deaths.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vijayanand|first1=Pandurangan|last2=Wilkins|first2=Ed|last3=Woodhead|first3=Mark|date=2004|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a review|journal=Clinical Medicine|volume=4|issue=2|pages=152–160|doi=10.7861/clinmedicine.4-2-152|pmc=4954004|pmid=15139736}}</ref> In October, in an attempt to identify the source of infection, it was found that the virus was present in [[w:masked palm civets|masked palm civets]] (''Paguma larvata''), [[w:Chinese ferret-badgers|Chinese ferret-badgers]] (''Melogale moschata'') and [[w:Raccoon dogs|raccoon dogs]] (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), which were sold at a live-animal market in Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guan|first1=Y.|last2=Zheng|first2=B. J.|last3=He|first3=Y. Q.|last4=Liu|first4=X. L.|last5=Zhuang|first5=Z. X.|last6=Cheung|first6=C. L.|last7=Luo|first7=S. W.|last8=Li|first8=P. H.|last9=Zhang|first9=L. J.|date=2003|title=Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China|journal=Science|volume=302|issue=5643|pages=276–278|doi=10.1126/science.1087139|pmid=12958366|last10=Guan|first10=Y. J.|last11=Butt|first11=K. M.|s2cid=10608627}}</ref> Further studies in 2005 showed that civets were the intermediate reservoirs of the virus, and [[w:horseshoe bat|horseshoe bats]] (''Rhinilophus'' species) were the natural hosts.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> [[w:COVID-19|Infection with SARS-CoV-2]] was known from cases of atypical pneumonia in Wuhan city, China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amodio|first1=Emanuele|last2=Vitale|first2=Francesco|last3=Cimino|first3=Livia|last4=Casuccio|first4=Alessandra|last5=Tramuto|first5=Fabio|date=2020|title=Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions|journal=Healthcare|volume=8|issue=1|page=51|doi=10.3390/healthcare8010051|pmc=7151147|pmid=32120965}}</ref> The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported 27 individuals having "viral pneumonia" on 31 December 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=Timeline of WHO's response to COVID-19|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/29-06-2020-covidtimeline|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> The first known case was recorded on 12 December.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Zhangkai J.|last2=Shan|first2=Jing|date=2020|title=2019 Novel coronavirus: where we are and what we know|journal=Infection|volume=48|issue=2|pages=155–163|doi=10.1007/s15010-020-01401-y|pmc=7095345|pmid=32072569}}</ref> The first case outside China was in Thailand on 13 January.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gralinski|first1=Lisa E.|last2=Menachery|first2=Vineet D.|date=2020-01-24|title=Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=12|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.3390/v12020135|pmc=7077245|pmid=31991541}}</ref> WHO adopted the name of the disease as "coronavirus disease 2019" ([[COVID-19]]) on 11 February 2020, and used "2019 novel coronavirus" or "2019-nCoV" for the name of the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-2019)-and-the-virus-that-causes-it|access-date=2020-08-22|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref> On 2 March 2020, ICTV published the formal description and gave the official name as ''Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'';<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gorbalenya et al. (Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses)|date=2020|title=The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2|journal=Nature Microbiology|volume=5|issue=4|pages=536–544|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z|pmc=7095448|pmid=32123347}}</ref> thereby rendering the new virus as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), while the former 2003 virus as SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Doremalen|first=Neeltje|last2=Bushmaker|first2=Trenton|last3=Morris|first3=Dylan H.|last4=Holbrook|first4=Myndi G.|last5=Gamble|first5=Amandine|last6=Williamson|first6=Brandi N.|last7=Tamin|first7=Azaibi|last8=Harcourt|first8=Jennifer L.|last9=Thornburg|first9=Natalie J.|date=2020|title=Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32182409/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=382|issue=16|pages=1564–1567|doi=10.1056/NEJMc2004973|pmc=7121658|pmid=32182409}}</ref> WHO declared the infection as pandemic on 11 March,<ref name=":14" /> and since then has spread to all recognised countries except five, affecting over [[w:COVID-19 pandemic cases|54 million people]] and resulting resulting in more than [[w:COVID-19 pandemic deaths|6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University|url=https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6|url-status=live|access-date=2020-08-25|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://covid19.who.int/|title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard|website=covid19.who.int|publisher=WHO Health Emergency Dashboard|language=en|access-date=2022-06-29}}</ref> The source of the virus is not known. Genetic evidences show that the virus bears 93% nucleotide similarity with a novel coronavirus of [[w:Malayan horseshoe bat|Malayan horseshoe bat]] (''Rhinolophus malayanus''),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Hong|last2=Chen|first2=Xing|last3=Hu|first3=Tao|last4=Li|first4=Juan|last5=Song|first5=Hao|last6=Liu|first6=Yanran|last7=Wang|first7=Peihan|last8=Liu|first8=Di|last9=Yang|first9=Jing|date=2020|title=A novel bat coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2 contains natural Insertions at the S1/S2 cleavage site of the spike protein|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32416074|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=11|pages=2196–2203|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.023|pmc=7211627|pmid=32416074|via=|last10=Holmes|first10=Edward C.|last11=Hughes|first11=Alice C.}}</ref> and 96% identity with Bat SARS-like coronavirus RaTG13 of [[w:intermediate horseshoe bat|intermediate horseshoe bat]] (''R. affinis'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhou|first=Peng|last2=Yang|first2=Xing-Lou|last3=Wang|first3=Xian-Guang|last4=Hu|first4=Ben|last5=Zhang|first5=Lei|last6=Zhang|first6=Wei|last7=Si|first7=Hao-Rui|last8=Zhu|first8=Yan|last9=Li|first9=Bei|date=2020|title=A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32015507|journal=Nature|volume=579|issue=7798|pages=270–273|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7|pmc=7095418|pmid=32015507|via=|last10=Huang|first10=Chao-Lin|last11=Chen|first11=Hui-Dong}}</ref> These data indicate that the virus most probably originated in bats.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Andersen|first=Kristian G.|last2=Rambaut|first2=Andrew|last3=Lipkin|first3=W. Ian|last4=Holmes|first4=Edward C.|last5=Garry|first5=Robert F.|date=2020|title=The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32284615|journal=Nature Medicine|volume=26|issue=4|pages=450–452|doi=10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9|pmc=7095063|pmid=32284615|via=}}</ref> Given the differences between human and bat viruses, it is speculated that bat viruses were acquired through carrier [[w:Intermediate hosts|intermediate hosts]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leitner|first=Thomas|last2=Kumar|first2=Sudhir|date=2020|title=Where did SARS-CoV-2 come from?|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa162|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=37|issue=9|pages=2463–2464|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa162}}</ref> which is especially fostered by the evidence that different mammals can be infected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abdel-Moneim|first=Ahmed S.|last2=Abdelwhab|first2=Elsayed M.|date=2020|title=Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Animal Hosts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32629960/|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=7|pages=E529|doi=10.3390/pathogens9070529|pmc=7400078|pmid=32629960}}</ref> Several animals have been investigated and are proven to be negative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deng|first=Junhua|last2=Jin|first2=Yipeng|last3=Liu|first3=Yuxiu|last4=Sun|first4=Jie|last5=Hao|first5=Liying|last6=Bai|first6=Jingjing|last7=Huang|first7=Tian|last8=Lin|first8=Degui|last9=Jin|first9=Yaping|date=2020|title=Serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 for experimental, domestic, companion and wild animals excludes intermediate hosts of 35 different species of animals|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/tbed.13577|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=1745–1749|doi=10.1111/tbed.13577|pmc=7264586|pmid=32303108}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Boni|first=Maciej F.|last2=Lemey|first2=Philippe|last3=Jiang|first3=Xiaowei|last4=Lam|first4=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last5=Perry|first5=Blair W.|last6=Castoe|first6=Todd A.|last7=Rambaut|first7=Andrew|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2020|title=Evolutionary origins of the SARS-CoV-2 sarbecovirus lineage responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-020-0771-4|journal=Nature Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1408–1417|doi=10.1038/s41564-020-0771-4|pmid=32724171|via=}}</ref> Among the possible carriers are [[w:Sunda pangolin|Malayan pangolins]] (''Manis javanica'') which are available in the live-animal market in Wuhan city and whose coronavirus is genetically related to the SARS-CoV-2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Tao|last2=Wu|first2=Qunfu|last3=Zhang|first3=Zhigang|date=2020|title=Probable pangolin origin of SARS-CoV-2 associated with the COVID-19 outbreak|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32197085|journal=Current Biology|volume=30|issue=7|pages=1346–1351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.022|pmc=7156161|pmid=32197085|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xiao|first=Kangpeng|last2=Zhai|first2=Junqiong|last3=Feng|first3=Yaoyu|last4=Zhou|first4=Niu|last5=Zhang|first5=Xu|last6=Zou|first6=Jie-Jian|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Guo|first8=Yaqiong|last9=Li|first9=Xiaobing|last10=Shen|first10=Xuejuan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhipeng|date=2020|title=Isolation of SARS-CoV-2-related coronavirus from Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32380510|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=286–289|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2313-x|issn=1476-4687|pmid=32380510|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Tommy Tsan-Yuk|last2=Jia|first2=Na|last3=Zhang|first3=Ya-Wei|last4=Shum|first4=Marcus Ho-Hin|last5=Jiang|first5=Jia-Fu|last6=Zhu|first6=Hua-Chen|last7=Tong|first7=Yi-Gang|last8=Shi|first8=Yong-Xia|last9=Ni|first9=Xue-Bing|last10=Liao|first10=Yun-Shi|last11=Li|first11=Wen-Juan|date=2020|title=Identifying SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32218527|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7815|pages=282–285|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0|pmid=32218527|via=}}</ref> Rodents are also suspected as they are susceptible the viral infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bao|first=Linlin|last2=Deng|first2=Wei|last3=Huang|first3=Baoying|last4=Gao|first4=Hong|last5=Liu|first5=Jiangning|last6=Ren|first6=Lili|last7=Wei|first7=Qiang|last8=Yu|first8=Pin|last9=Xu|first9=Yanfeng|date=2020|title=The pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 in hACE2 transgenic mice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32380511/|journal=Nature|volume=583|issue=7818|pages=830–833|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2312-y|pmid=32380511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jasper Fuk-Woo|last2=Zhang|first2=Anna Jinxia|last3=Yuan|first3=Shuofeng|last4=Poon|first4=Vincent Kwok-Man|last5=Chan|first5=Chris Chung-Sing|last6=Lee|first6=Andrew Chak-Yiu|last7=Chan|first7=Wan-Mui|last8=Fan|first8=Zhimeng|last9=Tsoi|first9=Hoi-Wah|date=2020|title=Simulation of the Clinical and Pathological Manifestations of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in a Golden Syrian Hamster Model: Implications for Disease Pathogenesis and Transmissibility|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32215622/|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=71|issue=9|pages=2428–2446|doi=10.1093/cid/ciaa325|pmc=7184405|pmid=32215622}}</ref> However, no animal is so far established as an intermediate host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yuan|first=Shu|last2=Jiang|first2=Si-Cong|last3=Li|first3=Zi-Lin|date=2020|title=Analysis of Possible Intermediate Hosts of the New Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7297130/|journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science|volume=7|pages=379|doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00379|pmc=7297130|pmid=32582786}}</ref> ==== 2. ''Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus'' ==== In April 2012, the Ministry of Health, Jordan, reported an [[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome|outbreak of acute respiratory illness]] affecting 11 people at a hospital in Zarqa.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Hijawi|first=B.|last2=Abdallat|first2=M.|last3=Sayaydeh|first3=A.|last4=Alqasrawi|first4=S.|last5=Haddadin|first5=A.|last6=Jaarour|first6=N.|last7=Alsheikh|first7=S.|last8=Alsanouri|first8=T.|date=2013|title=Novel coronavirus infections in Jordan, April 2012: epidemiological findings from a retrospective investigation|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23888790|journal=Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal|volume=19 |issue=Suppl 1|pages=S12–18|pmid=23888790|via=|doi=10.26719/2013.19.supp1.S12}}</ref> On 13 June 2012, a 60-year-old man having the symptoms was admitted to Dr. Soliman Fakeeh Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was diagnosed with acute pneumonia and died on 24 June due to progressive respiratory and renal failure. His sputum sample showed the presence of coronavirus very similar to bat coronaviruses HKU4 and HKU5. The virus was named HCoV-EMC (after [[w:Erasmus Medical Center|Erasmus Medical Center]] in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, where it was identified).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zaki|first=Ali M.|last2=van Boheemen|first2=Sander|last3=Bestebroer|first3=Theo M.|last4=Osterhaus|first4=Albert D. M. E.|last5=Fouchier|first5=Ron A. M.|date=2012|title=Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075143|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=367|issue=19|pages=1814-1820|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1211721|pmid=23075143|via=}}</ref> Retrospective study of samples from the Jordan hospital revealed that the diseases and the virus were similar.<ref name=":15" /> WHO referred to the virus as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on 23 May 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|last=WHO|first=|date=23 May 2013|title=Novel coronavirus infection - update (Middle East respiratory syndrome- coronavirus)|url=https://www.who.int/csr/don/2013_05_23_ncov/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-23|website=WHO}}</ref> which the ICTV adopted on 15 May 2013<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Groot|first=Raoul J.|last2=Baker|first2=Susan C.|last3=Baric|first3=Ralph S.|last4=Brown|first4=Caroline S.|last5=Drosten|first5=Christian|last6=Enjuanes|first6=Luis|last7=Fouchier|first7=Ron A. M.|last8=Galiano|first8=Monica|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|last10=Memish|first10=Ziad A.|last11=Perlman|first11=Stanley|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23678167|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=14|pages=7790–7792|doi=10.1128/JVI.01244-13|issn=1098-5514|pmc=3700179|pmid=23678167|via=}}</ref> (but modified it to ''[[w:Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus|Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus]]'' in 2016<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams|first=Michael J.|last2=Lefkowitz|first2=Elliot J.|last3=King|first3=Andrew M. Q.|last4=Harrach|first4=Balázs|last5=Harrison|first5=Robert L.|last6=Knowles|first6=Nick J.|last7=Kropinski|first7=Andrew M.|last8=Krupovic|first8=Mart|last9=Kuhn|first9=Jens H.|date=2016|title=Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2016)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|journal=Archives of Virology|language=en|volume=161|issue=10|pages=2921–2949|doi=10.1007/s00705-016-2977-6|pmc=7086986|pmid=27424026}}</ref>). In 2013, a study revealed that the virus was 100% genetically identical to the coronavirus of the [[w:Egyptian tomb bat|Egyptian tomb bat]] (''Taphozous perforatus coronavirus HKU4'') from Bisha, Saudi Arabia,<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Mishra|first2=Nischay|last3=Olival|first3=Kevin J.|last4=Fagbo|first4=Shamsudeen F.|last5=Kapoor|first5=Vishal|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Alhakeem|first7=Rafat|last8=Durosinloun|first8=Abdulkareem|last9=Al Asmari|first9=Mushabab|date=2013|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206838|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=19|issue=11|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.3201/eid1911.131172|pmc=3837665|pmid=24206838|via=|last10=Islam|first10=Ariful|last11=Kapoor|first11=Amit}}</ref> indicating its original source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qihui|last2=Qi|first2=Jianxun|last3=Yuan|first3=Yuan|last4=Xuan|first4=Yifang|last5=Han|first5=Pengcheng|last6=Wan|first6=Yuhua|last7=Ji|first7=Wei|last8=Li|first8=Yan|last9=Wu|first9=Ying|date=2014|title=Bat Origins of MERS-CoV Supported by Bat Coronavirus HKU4 Usage of Human Receptor CD26|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7104937/|journal=Cell Host & Microbe|volume=16|issue=3|pages=328–337|doi=10.1016/j.chom.2014.08.009|pmc=7104937|pmid=25211075}}</ref> In 2014, it was established that the virus was transmitted to humans by dromedary camels, which act as the intermediate hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madani|first=Tariq A.|last2=Azhar|first2=Esam I.|last3=Hashem|first3=Anwar M.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271614|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=370|issue=14|pages=2499-2505|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271614|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drosten|first=Christian|last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2014|title=Evidence for camel-to-human transmission of MERS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25271615|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1359–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJMc1409847|pmid=25271615|via=}}</ref> By December 2019, the infection was confirmed in 2,499 individuals with 858 deaths (34·3% mortality) from 27 countries covering all continents.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Memish|first=Ziad A.|last2=Perlman|first2=Stanley|last3=Van Kerkhove|first3=Maria D.|last4=Zumla|first4=Alimuddin|date=2020|title=Middle East respiratory syndrome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32145185|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10229|pages=1063–1077|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)33221-0|pmc=7155742|pmid=32145185|via=}}</ref> == Other animal coronaviruses == === ''Alphacoronavirus 1'' === A viral infection in pigs, called [[w:transmissible gastroenteritis|transmissible gastroenteritis]], which was characterised mainly by diarrhoea and vomiting and associated with high mortality, was first recognised by Leo Philip Doyle and Leslie Morton Hutchings of the Purdue University in Indiana, US, in 1946.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=L. P.|last2=Hutchings|first2=L. M.|date=1946|title=A transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=108|pages=257–259|pmid=21020443}}</ref> Arlan W. McClurkin at the National Animal Disease Center, US Department of Agriculture in Iowa, isolated and identified the virus in 1965.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mcclurkin|first=A. W.|date=1965|title=Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine I. The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science|volume=29|pages=46–53|pmc=1494364|pmid=14290945}}</ref> The virus was named ''Transmissible gastro-enteritis virus of swine'' in the ICNV first report in 1971, and changed to ''Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus'' (PTGV) in the second report in 1976.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Alphacoronavirus 1|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901849|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-19|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 1963, Jean Holzworth at the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital in Boston described a new intestinal disease of cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holzworth|first=J.|date=1963|title=Some important disorders of cats|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3779838&view=1up&seq=141|journal=The Cornell Veterinarian|volume=53|pages=157–160|pmid=13961523}}</ref> In 1966, it was shown to cause inflammation of the abdomen in cats and was referred to as feline infectious peritonitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wolfe|first1=L.G.|last2=Griesemer|first2=R.A.|date=1966|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–270|doi=10.1177/030098586600300309|pmid=5958991|s2cid=12930790}}</ref> Its causative virus was identified in 1968.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zook|first1=B. C.|last2=King|first2=N. W.|last3=Robison|first3=R. L.|last4=McCombs|first4=H. L.|date=1968|title=Ultrastructural evidence for the viral etiology of feline infectious peritonitis|journal=Pathologia Veterinaria|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=91–95|doi=10.1177/030098586800500112|s2cid=73331347}}</ref> Another cat coronavirus, feline enteric coronavirus, was reported in 1981 as closely related to feline infectious peritonitis virus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pedersen|first=N. C.|last2=Boyle|first2=J. F.|last3=Floyd|first3=K.|last4=Fudge|first4=A.|last5=Barker|first5=J.|date=1981|title=An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://europepmc.org/article/med/6267960|journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=42|issue=3|pages=368–377|pmid=6267960}}</ref> and was subsequently found to be more common, more innocuous and principally responsible for diarrhoea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dea|first=S.|last2=Roy|first2=R. S.|last3=Elazhary|first3=M. A. S. Y.|date=1982|title=Coronavirus-like Particles in the Feces of a Cat with Diarrhea|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1790106/|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=23|issue=5|pages=153–155|pmc=1790106|pmid=17422139}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1991, ICTV gave the name ''Feline infectious peritonitis virus'' (FIPV) to include both the viruses.''<ref name=":7" />'' It was generally assumed that the two viruses were distinct types; but in 1998, it was shown that feline infectious peritonitis virus arises from feline enteric virus by spontaneous mutation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vennema|first=H.|last2=Poland|first2=A.|last3=Foley|first3=J.|last4=Pedersen|first4=N. C.|date=1998|title=Feline infectious peritonitis viruses arise by mutation from endemic feline enteric coronaviruses|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9527924/|journal=Virology|volume=243|issue=1|pages=150–157|doi=10.1006/viro.1998.9045|pmc=7131759|pmid=9527924}}</ref> A common name, [[w:Feline coronavirus|Feline coronavirus]] (FCoV) was then widely used.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Hartmann|first=Katrin|date=2005|title=Feline infectious peritonitis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15627627|journal=The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=39–79|doi=10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011|pmc=7114919|pmid=15627627}}</ref> In 1974, a new coronavirus was discovered from US military dogs,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Binn|first1=L. N.|last2=Lazar|first2=E. C.|last3=Keenan|first3=K. P.|last4=Huxsoll|first4=D. L.|last5=Marchwicki|first5=R. H.|last6=Strano|first6=A. J.|date=1974|title=Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea|journal=Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association|volume=|issue=78|pages=359–366|pmid=4377955}}</ref> and was named by ICTV in 1991 as ''[[w:Canine coronavirus|Canine coronavirus]].'' PTGV, FIPV, and dog virus were shown to have apparent relatedness by the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|chapter=Canine Coronavirus Infection in Cats; A Possible Role in Feline Infectious Peritonitis|last=McArdle|first=F.|last2=Bennett|first2=M.|last3=Gaskell|first3=R. M.|last4=Tennant|first4=B.|last5=Kelly|first5=D. F.|last6=Gaskell|first6=C. J.|date=1990|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4684-5825-1|editor-last=Cavanagh|editor-first=David|volume=276|location=Boston, MA|pages=475–479|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-5823-7_66|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=T. David K.|title=Coronaviruses and their Diseases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Olsen|first=Christopher W.|date=1993|title=A review of feline infectious peritonitis virus: molecular biology, immunopathogenesis, clinical aspects, and vaccination|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811359390126R|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(93)90126-R}}</ref> In 1998, a study revealed that FCoV originates from genetic recombination with ''Canine coronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herrewegh|first=A. A.|last2=Smeenk|first2=I.|last3=Horzinek|first3=M. C.|last4=Rottier|first4=P. J.|last5=de Groot|first5=R. J.|date=1998|title=Feline coronavirus type II strains 79-1683 and 79-1146 originate from a double recombination between feline coronavirus type I and canine coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9557750|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=72|issue=5|pages=4508–4514|doi=10.1128/JVI.72.5.4508-4514.1998|pmc=109693|pmid=9557750}}</ref> Based on the molecular and antigenic relationship of the viruses,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jacobs|first1=L.|last2=de Groot|first2=R.|last3=van der Zeijst|first3=B. A.|last4=Horzinek|first4=M. C.|last5=Spaan|first5=W.|date=1987|title=The nucleotide sequence of the peplomer gene of porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV): comparison with the sequence of the peplomer protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV)|journal=Virus Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=363–371|doi=10.1016/0168-1702(87)90008-6|pmc=7134191|pmid=2829461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hohdatsu|first1=T.|last2=Okada|first2=S.|last3=Koyama|first3=H.|date=1991|title=Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis virus type II and antigenic relationship between feline, porcine, and canine coronaviruses|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=117|issue=1–2|pages=85–95|doi=10.1007/BF01310494|pmc=7086586|pmid=1706593}}</ref> the viruses of pigs, cats and dogs were merged into a single species and was renamed ''[[w:Alphacoronavirus 1|Alphacoronavirus 1]]'' in 2009''.<ref name=":7" />''<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Feline infectious peritonitis virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=19980734&taxa_name=Feline%20infectious%20peritonitis%20virus|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-18|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> === ''Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus'' === [[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhoea|An acute infectious diarrhoea]] was first known in England in 1971 and was specifically among fattening pigs and sows. It was referred to as TOO (for "the other one") or TGE2 (for "transmissible gastroenteritis type 2") as the symptoms were similar to transmissible gastroenteritis. Other than causing rapid and acute diarrhoea, it was not a fatal disease. The case was first reported by John Godfrey Oldham in a letter to the editor of ''Pig Farming'' in 1972 using the title "Epidemic diarrhoea – How it all began."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=J|date=1972|title=Letter to the editor|url=|journal=Pig Farming|volume=72|issue=October Suppl|pages=72–73|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=Maurice B.|last2=Martelli|first2=Paolo|date=2016|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea: A retrospect from Europe and matters of debate|journal=Virus Research|volume=226|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2016.05.030|pmc=7132433|pmid=27317168}}</ref> It was similar in symptoms to those of PTGV infection, but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Changhee|date=2015|title=Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus: An emerging and re-emerging epizootic swine virus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26689811|journal=Virology Journal|volume=12|pages=193|doi=10.1186/s12985-015-0421-2|pmc=4687282|pmid=26689811}}</ref>. A second outbreak occurred in 1976, and was called "porcine epidemic diarrhoea."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wood|first=E.|date=1977|title=An apparently new syndrome of porcine epidemic diarrhoea|journal=Veterinary Record|language=en|volume=100|issue=12|pages=243–244|doi=10.1136/vr.100.12.243|pmid=888300|s2cid=45192183}}</ref> It eventually spread throughout Europe. M. B. Pensaert and P. de Bouck at the University of Gent, Belgium isolated and identified the new coronavirus in 1978, and designated it CV777.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pensaert|first1=M. B.|last2=de Bouck|first2=P.|date=1978|title=A new coronavirus-like particle associated with diarrhea in swine|journal=Archives of Virology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=243–247|doi=10.1007/BF01317606|pmc=7086830|pmid=83132}}</ref> ICTV officially renamed the virus ''[[w:Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus]]'' in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICTV Taxonomy history: Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus|url=https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901857|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-20|website=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)|language=en}}</ref> In 2010, an epidemic broke out from China and spread throughout the world. A virulent strain emerged in US between 2013 and 2015. It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in Germany in 2014 that spread to other European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Antas|first1=Marta|last2=Woźniakowski|first2=Grzegorz|date=2019|title=Current status of porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) in European pigs|journal=Journal of Veterinary Research|volume=63|issue=4|pages=465–470|doi=10.2478/jvetres-2019-0064|pmc=6950429|pmid=31934654}}</ref> === Bat coronaviruses === Reagan and his colleagues at the University of Maryland were the first to investigate bats as a potential source of coronavirus. In 1956, they experimentally inoculated 44 [[w:little brown bats|cave bats or little brown bats]] (''Myotis lucifugus'') with IBV and found that all of them developed the symptoms of infectious bronchitis. Their report reads: <blockquote>50 percent of the bats exposed to the infectious bronchitis virus showed symptoms or death in the intracerebral, intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracardiac and intraocular groups; 75 percent in the intranasal and intrarectal groups; 100 percent in the intraoral group; and 25 percent intralingual and intramuscular group, whereas the controls appeared normal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reagan|first1=Reginald L.|last2=Porter|first2=J. R.|last3=Guemlek|first3=Mary|last4=Brueckner|first4=A. L.|date=1956|title=Response of the cave bat (Myotis lucifugus) to the Wachtel IBV strain of infectious bronchitis virus|journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society|volume=75|issue=3|pages=322|doi=10.2307/3223962|jstor=3223962}}</ref></blockquote> But nothing was known of the real nature of bats as reservoirs of coronaviruses until the epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome of humans in 2002/2003. Since the identification of SARS-CoV in the early 2003,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marra|first1=Marco A.|last2=Jones|first2=Steven J. M.|last3=Astell|first3=Caroline R.|last4=Holt|first4=Robert A.|last5=Brooks-Wilson|first5=Angela|last6=Butterfield|first6=Yaron S. N.|last7=Khattra|first7=Jaswinder|last8=Asano|first8=Jennifer K.|last9=Barber|first9=Sarah A.|last10=Chan|first10=Susanna Y.|last11=Cloutier|first11=Alison|date=2003-05-30|title=The genome sequence of the SARS-associated coronavirus|journal=Science|volume=300|issue=5624|pages=1399–1404|doi=10.1126/science.1085953|pmid=12730501|s2cid=5491256}}</ref> and horseshoe bats as their natural hosts in 2005,<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Wendong|last2=Shi|first2=Zhengli|last3=Yu|first3=Meng|last4=Ren|first4=Wuze|last5=Smith|first5=Craig|last6=Epstein|first6=Jonathan H.|last7=Wang|first7=Hanzhong|last8=Crameri|first8=Gary|last9=Hu|first9=Zhihong|last10=Zhang|first10=Huajun|last11=Zhang|first11=Jianhong|date=2005|title=Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses|journal=Science|volume=310|issue=5748|pages=676–679|doi=10.1126/science.1118391|pmid=16195424|s2cid=2971923|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3949088}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Lau|first1=Susanna K. P.|last2=Woo|first2=Patrick C. Y.|last3=Li|first3=Kenneth S. M.|last4=Huang|first4=Yi|last5=Tsoi|first5=Hoi-Wah|last6=Wong|first6=Beatrice H. L.|last7=Wong|first7=Samson S. Y.|last8=Leung|first8=Suet-Yi|last9=Chan|first9=Kwok-Hung|last10=Yuen|first10=Kwok-Yung|date=2005|title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=102|issue=39|pages=14040–14045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0506735102|pmc=1236580|pmid=16169905}}</ref> bats have been extensively studied. Among all coronavirus hosts, bats are known to harbour the most variety, with more than 30 species identified.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Yi|last2=Zhao|first2=Kai|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Zhou|first4=Peng|date=2019|title=Bat coronaviruses in China|journal=Viruses|volume=11|issue=3|page=210|doi=10.3390/v11030210|pmc=6466186|pmid=30832341}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Antonio|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Lau|first3=Susanna|last4=Woo|first4=Patrick|date=2019|title=Global epidemiology of bat coronaviruses|journal=Viruses|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=174|doi=10.3390/v11020174|pmc=6409556|pmid=30791586}}</ref> According to a diversity estimate, there may be 3,200 species of coronaviruses in bats.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Simon J.|last2=Johnson|first2=Christine K.|last3=Greig|first3=Denise J.|last4=Kramer|first4=Sarah|last5=Che|first5=Xiaoyu|last6=Wells|first6=Heather|last7=Hicks|first7=Allison L.|last8=Joly|first8=Damien O.|last9=Wolfe|first9=Nathan D.|last10=Daszak|first10=Peter|last11=Karesh|first11=William|date=2017|title=Global patterns in coronavirus diversity|journal=Virus Evolution|volume=3|issue=1|pages=vex012|doi=10.1093/ve/vex012|pmc=5467638|pmid=28630747}}</ref> == Evolutionary history == It is not known with certainty when all coronaviruses evolved from the [[w:most recent common ancestor|most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA). It is suggested that divergences of coronaviruses were the results of sequential [[w:Genetic recombination|genetic recombination]] in the ancestral species that confer an ability to infect animals other that their original hosts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forni|first=Diego|last2=Cagliani|first2=Rachele|last3=Clerici|first3=Mario|last4=Sironi|first4=Manuela|date=2017|title=Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27743750/|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=25|issue=1|pages=35–48|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001|pmc=7111218|pmid=27743750}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rohaim|first=Mohammed A.|last2=El Naggar|first2=Rania F.|last3=Abdelsabour|first3=Mohammed A.|last4=Mohamed|first4=Mahmoud H. A.|last5=El-Sabagh|first5=Ibrahim M.|last6=Munir|first6=Muhammad|date=2020|title=Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32486006|journal=Genes|volume=11|issue=6|pages=E605|doi=10.3390/genes11060605|pmc=7348897|pmid=32486006}}</ref> The principal genetic target of recombination is the ''S'' gene that codes for the spike (S) protein essential for binding to the host's tissue, as well as ''orf8'' that encodes an accessory protein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luk|first=Hayes K. H.|last2=Li|first2=Xin|last3=Fung|first3=Joshua|last4=Lau|first4=Susanna K. P.|last5=Woo|first5=Patrick C. Y.|date=2019|title=Molecular epidemiology, evolution and phylogeny of SARS coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844511|journal=Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases|volume=71|pages=21–30|doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2019.03.001|pmc=7106202|pmid=30844511}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cui|first=Jie|last2=Li|first2=Fang|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|date=2019|title=Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097006/|journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology|volume=17|issue=3|pages=181–192|doi=10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9|pmc=7097006|pmid=30531947}}</ref> Phylogenetic analyses present contrasting estimates varying from thousands to million years. A study in 2012 suggested that the MRCA lived around 8,100 years ago. The four known genera ''Alphacoronavirus'', ''Betacoronavirus'', ''Gammacoronavirus'', and ''Deltacoronavirus'' split up around 2,400 to 3,300 years ago into bat and avian coronavirus ancestors. Bat coronavirus gave rise to the species of ''Alphacoronavirus'' and ''Betacoronavirus'' that infect mammals, while avian coronavirus produced those of ''Gammacoronavirus'' and ''Deltacoronavirus'' that infect birds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Woo|first=Patrick C. Y.|last2=Lau|first2=Susanna K. P.|last3=Lam|first3=Carol S. F.|last4=Lau|first4=Candy C. Y.|last5=Tsang|first5=Alan K. L.|last6=Lau|first6=John H. N.|last7=Bai|first7=Ru|last8=Teng|first8=Jade L. L.|last9=Tsang|first9=Chris C. C.|last10=Wang|first10=Ming|last11=Zheng|first11=Bo-Jian|date=2012|title=Discovery of seven novel Mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of alphacoronavirus and betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of gammacoronavirus and deltacoronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22278237|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=86|issue=7|pages=3995–4008|doi=10.1128/JVI.06540-11|pmc=3302495|pmid=22278237|via=}}</ref> However, a revised analysis indicates that the MRCA that could have lived around 190 to 489 (with a mean of 293) million years ago, and separation into new groups started a few million years after.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wertheim|first=Joel O.|last2=Chu|first2=Daniel K. W.|last3=Peiris|first3=Joseph S. M.|last4=Kosakovsky Pond|first4=Sergei L.|last5=Poon|first5=Leo L. M.|date=2013|title=A case for the ancient origin of coronaviruses|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23596293|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=87|issue=12|pages=7039–7045|doi=10.1128/JVI.03273-12|pmc=3676139|pmid=23596293|via=}}</ref> It is also not yet clear how coronaviruses jump from bats and birds to other animals. Some genetic evidences indicate that animal coronaviruses switch hosts from one mammal to another. For example, the coronaviruses of dog (''Canine respiratory coronavirus''), cattle (Bovine coronavirus), and human (HCoV-OC43) share over 98% similarities, suggesting their common origin from a single host.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaneshima|first=Takashi|last2=Hohdatsu|first2=Tsutomu|last3=Hagino|first3=Ryoko|last4=Hosoya|first4=Sakiko|last5=Nojiri|first5=Yui|last6=Murata|first6=Michiko|last7=Takano|first7=Tomomi|last8=Tanabe|first8=Maki|last9=Tsunemitsu|first9=Hiroshi|date=2007|title=The infectivity and pathogenicity of a group 2 bovine coronavirus in pups|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17409649/|journal=The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science|volume=69|issue=3|pages=301–303|doi=10.1292/jvms.69.301|pmid=17409649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erles|first=Kerstin|last2=Shiu|first2=Kai-Biu|last3=Brownlie|first3=Joe|date=2007|title=Isolation and sequence analysis of canine respiratory coronavirus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17092595/|journal=Virus Research|volume=124|issue=1-2|pages=78–87|doi=10.1016/j.virusres.2006.10.004|pmc=7114246|pmid=17092595}}</ref> There is an evidence that HCoV-OC43 came from cattle around 1890, which makes it likely the first zoonotic coronavirus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vijgen|first=Leen|last2=Keyaerts|first2=Els|last3=Moës|first3=Elien|last4=Thoelen|first4=Inge|last5=Wollants|first5=Elke|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Vandamme|first7=Anne-Mieke|last8=Van Ranst|first8=Marc|date=2005|title=Complete Genomic Sequence of Human Coronavirus OC43: Molecular Clock Analysis Suggests a Relatively Recent Zoonotic Coronavirus Transmission Event|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=79|issue=3|pages=1595–1604|doi=10.1128/JVI.79.3.1595-1604.2005|pmc=544107|pmid=15650185}}</ref> Although no details are yet available, but it is generally believed that MERS-CoV originated from bat coronavirus<ref name=":19" /> and specifically suggested to have evolved from the common ancestor of BtCoV-HKU4 and BtCoV-HKU5, under the genus ''Betacoronavirus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=van Boheemen|first=Sander|last2=de Graaf|first2=Miranda|last3=Lauber|first3=Chris|last4=Bestebroer|first4=Theo M.|last5=Raj|first5=V. Stalin|last6=Zaki|first6=Ali Moh|last7=Osterhaus|first7=Albert D. M. E.|last8=Haagmans|first8=Bart L.|last9=Gorbalenya|first9=Alexander E.|date=2012|title=Genomic Characterization of a Newly Discovered Coronavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Humans|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/mBio.00473-12|journal=mBio|language=en|volume=3|issue=6|pages=Online (00473-12)|doi=10.1128/mBio.00473-12|pmc=3509437|pmid=23170002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohd|first=Hamzah A.|last2=Al-Tawfiq|first2=Jaffar A.|last3=Memish|first3=Ziad A.|date=2016|title=Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) origin and animal reservoir|url=http://virologyj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|journal=Virology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87|doi=10.1186/s12985-016-0544-0|pmc=4891877|pmid=27255185}}</ref> Genetic estimate indicates that SARS-CoV-2 evolved from bat coronavirus in around 1948.<ref name=":18" /> Another estimate suggests SARS-CoV-2 shares a common ancestor with bat coronavirus RmYN02 in about 1976.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MacLean|first=Oscar A.|last2=Lytras|first2=Spyros|last3=Weaver|first3=Steven|last4=Singer|first4=Joshua B.|last5=Boni|first5=Maciej F.|last6=Lemey|first6=Philippe|last7=Kosakovsky Pond|first7=Sergei L.|last8=Robertson|first8=David L.|date=2021|title=Natural selection in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in bats created a generalist virus and highly capable human pathogen|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33711012|journal=PLoS Biology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=e3001115|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3001115|pmc=7990310|pmid=33711012}}</ref> SARS-CoV also possibly originated in around 1962 from the same horseshoe bats that harbours SARS-like coronaviruses.<ref name=":18" /> It was transmitted humans in around 1998 (4.08 years prior to the outbreak in 2003).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hon|first=Chung-Chau|last2=Lam|first2=Tsan-Yuk|last3=Shi|first3=Zheng-Li|last4=Drummond|first4=Alexei J.|last5=Yip|first5=Chi-Wai|last6=Zeng|first6=Fanya|last7=Lam|first7=Pui-Yi|last8=Leung|first8=Frederick Chi-Ching|date=2008|title=Evidence of the recombinant origin of a bat severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus and its implications on the direct ancestor of SARS coronavirus|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18057240|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=82|issue=4|pages=1819–1826|doi=10.1128/JVI.01926-07|pmc=2258724|pmid=18057240|via=}}</ref> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Journal access were courtesy of the [[w:Wikipedia Library|Wikipedia Library]] of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. === Competing interests === The author has no competing interest. === Funding === None. === Ethics statement === Not applicable as it is an encyclopaedic review of literature. == References == {{reflist|35em}} 339sgoppbb76b0syxmtm8jj6h1f5jqo 0 269289 2417039 2417033 2022-08-21T12:04:26Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* Disorders of Sex Development */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T) which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref>This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} o2x2ga306kch186e4o2f8oqcdt2ufv3 2417040 2417039 2022-08-21T12:05:18Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* Disorders of Sex Development */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T) which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} qya23gkwo91lwlgfi3lxchnob0j1b1w 2417041 2417040 2022-08-21T12:14:26Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} ebtr3hyn2f4von71s6000broz5d1ica 2417042 2417041 2022-08-21T12:26:16Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} adei3gk12bn2e0klkruxp9kw7lpfing 2417043 2417042 2022-08-21T12:51:56Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* Future Directions */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency == The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge. The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} 2zmzaltlek7xaabe2i3fbawwij8wk84 2417044 2417043 2022-08-21T12:52:09Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* = The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge. The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} mut055lf7iq0fss7k3exucbw40ks8wx 2417045 2417044 2022-08-21T12:57:37Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge. The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control than the traditional indicator 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. 21dF has already been proposed as a better biomarker for CAH diagnosis than 17-OHP,<ref name="pmid31450227"/> but the role of 21dF and 11OHP4 as biomarkers of the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH remain to be studied. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} 36sjus2jf9u483u9s6gwdvd5409ncqy 2417046 2417045 2022-08-21T12:57:57Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge.{{cn}} The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control than the traditional indicator 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. 21dF has already been proposed as a better biomarker for CAH diagnosis than 17-OHP,<ref name="pmid31450227"/> but the role of 21dF and 11OHP4 as biomarkers of the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH remain to be studied. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} m0ihjihse2kbobi96tqt2wuvdrpflal 2417049 2417046 2022-08-21T13:07:13Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge.{{cn}} The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control than the traditional indicator 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. 21dF has already been proposed as a better biomarker for CAH diagnosis than 17-OHP,<ref name="pmid31450227"/> but the role of 21dF and 11OHP4 as biomarkers of the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH remain to be studied. === Probable involvement of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT === There is currently no agreement on whether SRD5A1 alone or also SRD5A2 is involved in backdoor pathway to DHT.<ref name="pmid22170725"/> Some authors<ref name="pmid23073980"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> believe that 5α-reduction of 17-OHP appears to be primarily performed by SRD5A1. They claim that SRD5A2 cannot catalize the reaction, citing a 1971 study by Frederiksen et al. of rat 5α-reductase activity ''in vitro'',<ref name="pmid4396507">{{cite journal |title=Partial characterization of the nuclear reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate: delta 4-3-ketosteroid 5 alpha-oxidoreductase of rat prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=246 |issue=8 |pages=2584–93|year=1971 |pmid=4396507|last1=Frederiksen |first1=D. W. |last2=Wilson |first2=J. D. |doi=10.1016/S0021-9258(18)62328-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and concluding that SRD5A2 does not convert 17-OHP efficiently. However, that 1971 study was not confirmed by later studies, let alone in humans. Quite contrary, a 2017 study by Barnard et al. showed that both human isozymes were very efficient in converting 17-OHP to 17-OH-DHP.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> We can suspect that both isozymes may be expressed in the following fetal tissues of both sexes: adrenal gland, genital skin, and gonads.<ref name="pmid7488021">{{cite journal |title=Expression of the type 1 and 2 steroid 5 alpha-reductases in human fetal tissues |journal=Biochem Biophys Res Commun |year=1995 |volume=215 |issue=2 |pages=774–80 |pmid=7488021 |doi=10.1006/bbrc.1995.2530 |last1=Ellsworth |first1=K. |last2=Harris |first2=G. }}</ref><ref name="pmid17574609">{{cite journal |title=Fetal distribution of 5alpha-reductase 1 and 5alpha-reductase 2, and their input on human prostate development |journal=J Urol |volume=178 |issue=2 |pages=716–21 |year=2007 |pmid=17574609 |doi=10.1016/j.juro.2007.03.089 |last1=Lunacek |first1=A. |last2=Schwentner |first2=C. |last3=Oswald |first3=J. |last4=Fritsch |first4=H. |last5=Sergi |first5=C. |last6=Thomas |first6=L.N. |last7=Rittmaster |first7=R.S. |last8=Klocker |first8=H. |last9=Neuwirt |first9=H. |last10=Bartsch |first10=G. |last11=Radmayr |first11=C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid30763313"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> Therefore, the role of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT should be investigaged. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} p82k5vdgr4wt7sfy3qqga6fap9lw0yo 2417053 2417049 2022-08-21T13:07:56Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* Probable involvement of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge.{{cn}} The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control than the traditional indicator 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. 21dF has already been proposed as a better biomarker for CAH diagnosis than 17-OHP,<ref name="pmid31450227"/> but the role of 21dF and 11OHP4 as biomarkers of the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH remain to be studied. === Probable involvement of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT === There is currently no agreement on whether SRD5A1 alone or also SRD5A2 is involved in backdoor pathway to DHT.<ref name="pmid22170725"/> Some authors<ref name="pmid23073980"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> believe that 5α-reduction of 17-OHP appears to be primarily performed by SRD5A1. They claim that SRD5A2 cannot catalize the reaction, citing a 1971 study by Frederiksen et al. of rat 5α-reductase activity ''in vitro'',<ref name="pmid4396507">{{cite journal |title=Partial characterization of the nuclear reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate: delta 4-3-ketosteroid 5 alpha-oxidoreductase of rat prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=246 |issue=8 |pages=2584–93|year=1971 |pmid=4396507|last1=Frederiksen |first1=D. W. |last2=Wilson |first2=J. D. |doi=10.1016/S0021-9258(18)62328-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and concluding that SRD5A2 does not convert 17-OHP efficiently. However, that 1971 study was not confirmed by later studies, let alone in humans. Quite contrary, a 2017 study by Barnard et al. showed that both human isozymes were very efficient in converting 17-OHP to 17-OH-DHP.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> Studies predict that both isozymes may be expressed in the following fetal tissues of both sexes: adrenal gland, genital skin, and gonads.<ref name="pmid7488021">{{cite journal |title=Expression of the type 1 and 2 steroid 5 alpha-reductases in human fetal tissues |journal=Biochem Biophys Res Commun |year=1995 |volume=215 |issue=2 |pages=774–80 |pmid=7488021 |doi=10.1006/bbrc.1995.2530 |last1=Ellsworth |first1=K. |last2=Harris |first2=G. }}</ref><ref name="pmid17574609">{{cite journal |title=Fetal distribution of 5alpha-reductase 1 and 5alpha-reductase 2, and their input on human prostate development |journal=J Urol |volume=178 |issue=2 |pages=716–21 |year=2007 |pmid=17574609 |doi=10.1016/j.juro.2007.03.089 |last1=Lunacek |first1=A. |last2=Schwentner |first2=C. |last3=Oswald |first3=J. |last4=Fritsch |first4=H. |last5=Sergi |first5=C. |last6=Thomas |first6=L.N. |last7=Rittmaster |first7=R.S. |last8=Klocker |first8=H. |last9=Neuwirt |first9=H. |last10=Bartsch |first10=G. |last11=Radmayr |first11=C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid30763313"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> Therefore, the role of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT should be investigated. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} 3fk1ssirq0qra4dxvnc38tu1nblb7pf 2417055 2417053 2022-08-21T13:10:44Z Maxim Masiutin 2902665 /* Disorders of Sex Development */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Maxim G | last1 = Masiutin | orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500 | correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com | first2 = Maneesh K | last2 = Yadav | orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606 | submitted = 4/22/2022 | contributors = | et_al = <!-- * The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway * No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 * When I added the "w1" attribute to the "Article info" box, the "et al." appears. The "et_al = false" attribute does not seem to work. There should be no "et al.". I have not found any way to remove the "et al." rather than removing the "w1" attribute. * Only when I remove both the "w1" attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the "et al." disappears. | et_al = false | w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway --> | correspondence = | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | license = | abstract = The term "backdoor pathway" is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients. | keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism }} ==Introduction== The classical androgen pathway is composed of the steroidogenic adrenal and gonadal metabolic pathways that transform cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which is then transformed into the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) that is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.<ref name="pmid12089231">{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}</ref> In 2003, a "backdoor" androgen pathway to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.<ref name="pmid12538619">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}</ref> Shortly after this study, the pathway was further characterized and its potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis in humans was proposed.<ref name="pmid15519890">{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}</ref> In the years following, other "backdoor" pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens were discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> The relatively recent presence of these "alternative androgen pathways" in the literature can confound the search for clinical information in cases where androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism. While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,<ref name="pmid30736318">{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}</ref> understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension. ==History== === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid3828389">{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}</ref> While "androstanediol" was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use "3α-diol" to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT. Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.<ref name="pmid11035809" /> While 3α-diol's AR binding affinity is 5 orders of magnitude lower than DHT and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.<ref name="pmid9183566">{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}</ref> Shaw et al. showed in 2000 that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.<ref name="pmid11035809">{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:<ref name="pmid12538619" />{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C₁₉ steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors. In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:<ref name="pmid15249131">{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)</small>}} The term "backdoor pathway" was coined by Auchus in 2004<ref name="pmid15519890" /> where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|<small>17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.<ref name="pmid22170725">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative "backdoor" pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}</ref> === 5α-Dione Pathway === In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:<ref name="pmid21795608">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{unbulleted list|<small>androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</small>}} While this pathway was described as the "5α-dione pathway" in a 2012 review,<ref name="pmid22064602">{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}</ref> the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.<ref name="pmid18471780">{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}</ref> A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2. === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === 11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The 11-oxygenated C₁₉ steroids 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal and were understood as inactivated forms of androgen precursors. Their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.<ref name="pmid27519632">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Arlt|first2=Wiebke|last3=Storbeck|first3=Karl-Heinz|year=2017|title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf|journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol|volume=441|pages=76–85|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|pmid=27519632|s2cid=4079662}}</ref> Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.<ref name="pmid23386646">{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}</ref> In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.<ref name="pmid23856005">{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46 |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}</ref> The authors indicated that A4 is converted to 11OHA4 which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.<ref name="pmid23856005" /> Full dose responses for 11KT and 11KDHT were characterized in a study by Pretorius et al. in 2016 that that showed 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.<ref name="pmid27442248">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were later confirmed in 2021<ref name="pmid34990809">{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}</ref> and 2022.<ref name="pmid35046557">{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}</ref> Bloem et al. in 2015<ref name="pmid25869556">{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}</ref> demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as "backdoor" pathways,<ref name="pmid25869556" /> which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.<ref name="pmid28774496">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277707">{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}</ref><ref name="pmid32007561">{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}</ref> A diagram of the 11-oxygenated androgen pathways is shown in Figure 4. ==Definition== We suggest the term "alternative androgen pathway" to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the [[#History|previous section]]. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to the classical androgen pathway<ref name="pmid30763313">{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}</ref><ref name="pmid31900912">{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277 | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}</ref> must be considered. ==Nomenclature and Background== Complex naming rules for organic chemistry result in the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches<ref name="google-pregnan17diol" /><ref name="google-pregnane17ol" />, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names. Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions" /> The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β<ref name="pmid2606099-rs">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}</ref> denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention<ref name="norc-rs">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}</ref> of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges. The molecule "11-deoxycortisol" is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence "deoxy") attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).<ref name="norc-deoxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms. As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}</ref> The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids<ref name="pmid2606099-numbering">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}</ref> that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1). [[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]] Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.<ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene 5α-Cholest-6-ene 5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene 5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol Notes 1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation. [...] 3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ⁵-steroids’}}</ref> This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ⁴-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ⁴-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. "Δ⁴-" or "4-ene" means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding "dihydro-" prefix,<ref name="norc">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology ‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}</ref> i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ⁵-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ⁴ steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.<ref name="pmid21051590">{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151 |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2606099-unsaturation"/> Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ⁵ pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ⁴ pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like "P4" and "A4" are used for convenience to designate them as Δ⁴-steroids, while "P5" and "A5" - as Δ⁵-steroids, respectively. The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the "5α-" prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence "3α,17α-diol" suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the "20-one" suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione"<ref name="google-pregnan17diol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione". According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal "e" in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).<ref name="pmid2606099-parent-elisions">{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 3S-4.0. General Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups. [...] Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}</ref> This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing "e" is removed from that name. An example of such removal is "5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione", where the last "e" of "pregnane" is dropped due to the vowel ("o") at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal "e" where it should be kept, or vice versa.<ref name="google-pregnane17ol">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for "5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione" that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}</ref> The term "11-oxygenated" refers to the presence of an oxygen atom as an oxo group (=O) in a ketone, or a hydroxy group in an alcohol at carbon 11. "Oxygenated" is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids<ref name="chemster">{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}</ref> since as early as 1950s.<ref name="pmid13167092">{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}</ref> Some studies use the term "11-oxyandrogens"<ref name="11oxyhs">{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}</ref><ref name="pmid35611324" /> potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.<ref name="pmid32203405">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}</ref><ref name="pmid33539964">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}</ref> However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix "oxy" refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-),<ref name="norc-oxy">{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=Appendix 2|quote-page=1112|quote=oxy* –O– P-15.3.1.2.1.1; P-63.2.2.1.1}}</ref> therefore, using the part "oxy" for a steroid may be misleading. Even though "keto" in a standard prefix in organic chemistry, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix "keto" for steroid names, and favor the prefix "oxo" (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because "keto" includes the carbon that is part of the steroid nucleus and the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.<ref name="pmid2606099-keto">{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}</ref> == Biochemistry == A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway (introduced in the {{section link||History}}) is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the unambiguous standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full names are not shown in the text since the steroid names that are being used are already unwieldy, but they can be found in the {{section link||Abbreviations}}. === Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone === While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in the classical androgen pathway, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the 5α-dione pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b₅, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]] ====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ==== [[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]] The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.<ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)<ref name="pmid30763313" /><ref name="pmid21802064">{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}</ref> or HSD17B6, that also has 3α-reduction activity.<ref name="pmid9188497">{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66 |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22114194">{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}</ref> 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone. 5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C₂₁ steroid (a pregnane) to C₁₉ steroid (an androstane or androgen). AST is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by HSD17B3 or AKR1C3.<ref name="pmid31900912" /> The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,<ref name="pmid12604227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}</ref> HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.<ref name="pmid31611378"/> This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} ====Progesterone Pathway==== The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. Placental P4 in the male fetus is the feedstock for the backdoor pathway found operating in multiple non-gonadal tissues.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 or AKR1C4. AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as the 17α-hydroxyprogesterone pathway described the [[#17α-Hydroxyprogesterone_Pathway|previous subsection]]. The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}} === 5α-Dione Pathway === 5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRD5A1 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans, it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.<ref name="pmid21795608"/> 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either be converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).<ref name="pmid21795608"/><ref name="Nishiyama2011">{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}</ref> This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT}} === 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways === [[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ⁵ compounds that are transformed to Δ⁴ compounds are also omitted for clarity.]] Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ⁴ steroid entry points (P4,<ref name="pmid30825506">{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}</ref> 17OHP, A4<ref name="pmid25869556" /><ref name="pmid27442248" /> and T) and can then proceed through a number of transformation sequences that can be organized in a lattice-like structure. The reachability a particular steroid in the lattice depends on the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to, which in turn can depend on the health status of the individual. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group or an oxo group covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT. The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does,<ref name="pmid30753518">{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}</ref><ref name="pmid32498089">{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}</ref> though some evidence suggests that 11KT does decline.<ref name="pmid31390028">{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}</ref> While 11KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of 11KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1-mediated transformation of 11KT to 11KDHT does not seem be significant.<ref name="pmid30472582">{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}</ref><ref name="pmid32629108">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}</ref> The steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as having minimal androgen activity,<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid23856005"/><ref name="pmid26581480">{{cite journal |title=Development of a novel cell based androgen screening model |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=156 |pages=17–22 |pmid=26581480 |pmc=4748855 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.11.005 |year=2016|last1=Campana |first1=Carmela |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Turcu |first3=Adina F. |last4=Pezzi |first4=Vincenzo |last5=Gomez-Sanchez |first5=Celso E. |last6=Robins |first6=Diane M. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}</ref> but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors. The complex lattice structure seen in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as four Δ⁴ steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations: 1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2, 2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2, 3. reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol.{{Clarify}} These steroids correspond to the "11OH" column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of "11K" steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).<ref name="pmid23856005" /> There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol{{Clarify}} to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17-OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17-OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity. The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4. ==== C₁₉ Steroid Entry Points ==== A4 is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4,<ref name="pmid6970302">{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}</ref><ref name="pmid22101210">{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}</ref><ref name="pmid23685396">{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42 |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}</ref> an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then 11KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}} This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4:{{Citation needed}} {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}} The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT.<ref name="pmid23386646" /><ref name="pmid29936123">{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}</ref> ==== C₂₁ Steroid Entry Points ==== Currently, there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C₂₁ steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section. ==Clinical Significance == === 11-Oxygenated Androgens === Characterizing normal concentrations for 11-oxygenated androgens in humans is essential for any clinical application. Measurements of circulating levels of 11KT in peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T.<ref name="pmid33444228">{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}</ref> The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels. Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body.<ref name="pmid32862221">{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}</ref><ref name="pmid33340399">{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}</ref> The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.<ref name="pmid15994348">{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}</ref><ref name="pmid16159155">{{cite journal |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}</ref> However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.<ref name="MAHESH196351">{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}</ref> Each condition in the following subsections has demonstrated potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens. Special attention should be given to role of the 11β-hydroxylase enzyme in 11-oxygenated androgen biosynthesis. Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).<ref name="pmid22217826">{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35 |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}</ref> Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34324429">{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6 |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation<ref name="pmid23386646"/><ref name="pmid13211802">{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}</ref> that further supports their adrenal origin. However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.<ref name="pmid27428878">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591 |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}</ref> In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ⁴ steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ⁵ steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid23322723">{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}</ref> === Hyperandrogenism === Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.<ref name="pmid32610579">{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}</ref> Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.<ref name="pmid16772149">{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}</ref> Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.<ref name="pmid32610579" /> Despite the prevailing notion that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.<ref name="pmid28234803">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}</ref> Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,<ref name="pmid32912651">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}</ref> it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.<ref name="pmid28234803" /> If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid33415088">{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid29277706">{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}</ref> It had been suggested that 11OHA4 and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications as biomarkers of androgen excess in women.<ref name="pmid1623996">{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}</ref> Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in Cushing's syndrome, hirsutism,<ref name="pmid14417423">{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}</ref> CAH and PCOS.<ref name="pmid3129451">{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}</ref> These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.{{cn}} Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well-known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway from the C₂₁ steroids (P4, 17-OHP) to DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens remain underappreciated. CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis<ref name="pmid28576284">{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}</ref> caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.<ref name="pmid12930931">{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}</ref><ref name="pmid30272171">{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}</ref> This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase<ref name="pmid22170725" /> or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,<ref name="pmid31611378" /><ref name="pmid35793998" /> the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction of 17-OHP. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.<ref name="pmid26038201">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}</ref> Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to DHT synthesis that leads to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.<ref name="pmid31611378" /> P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,<ref name="pmid25850025">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}</ref><ref name="pmid31505456">{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}</ref> leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.<ref name="pmid28188961">{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}</ref> 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> In CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control.<ref name="pmid34867794">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid28472487"/> In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.<ref name="pmid28472487">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}</ref><ref name="pmid34390337">{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}</ref> In a classical form of CAH, characterized by a near-complete loss of CYP21A2 enzyme activity, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were demonstrated to be elevated 3-4 fold in patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid26865584">{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}</ref> The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.<ref name="pmid26865584"/> A 2014 study by Auchus et al. revealed that in adult women with CAH, the ratio of DHT produced in a backdoor pathway to that produced in a conventional pathway increases as control of androgen excess by glucocorticoid therapy deteriorates; the study also found that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, allows for lower glucocorticoid dosing in such patients.<ref name="pmid24780050">{{cite journal |title=Abiraterone acetate to lower androgens in women with classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=99 |issue=8 |pages=2763–70 |year=2014 |pmid=24780050 |pmc=4121028 |doi=10.1210/jc.2014-1258 }}</ref> === Disorders of Sex Development === Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.<ref name="pmid30943210">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}</ref><ref name="pmid35793998">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}</ref> Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4<ref name="pmid21802064"/><ref name="pmid23073980">{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}</ref> lead to underverilization of the male fetus,<ref name="pmid24793988">{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}</ref><ref name="pmid8636249">{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}</ref> as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.<ref name="pmid30763313"/> A case study<ref name="pmid21802064"/> of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, which operate exclusively in the backdoor pathway to DHT. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.<ref name="pmid21802064"/> However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.<ref name="pmid34711511">{{cite journal|year=2022|title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals|journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=36|issue=1|pages=101593|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593|pmid=34711511}}</ref> This case study emphasizes the role of AKR1C2/4 in the alternative androgen pathways. That role can be explained as follows. The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.<ref name="pmid32007561"/> Examples of such steroids are 17-OHP, 17-OH-DHP, 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C₂₁ steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C2/4 before it can be converted to a C₁₉ steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 3α-diol or 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as DHT or 11KDHT, respectively<ref name="pmid31626910"/><ref name="pmid28774496" /> Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b₅, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.<ref name="pmid34711511"/> 11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.<ref name="pmid34171490">{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946 |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}</ref><ref name="pmid34987475">{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31611378">{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.<ref name="pmid34171490"/> === Premature Adrenarche === In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.<ref name="pmid30137510">{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12 | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}</ref> === Polycystic Ovary Syndrome === In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.<ref name="pmid1968168">{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19567518">{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66 |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}</ref> Genes encoding enzymes required for the backdoor pathway (AKR1C2/4, SRD5A1/2, RDH16) are expressed in theca cells, whereas PCOS ovaries show increased expression.<ref name="pmid27471004">{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.<ref name="pmid27901631">{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848 |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}</ref><ref name="pmid32247282">{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1 | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}</ref> In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS and correlate with body mass index.<ref name="pmid30012903">{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}</ref> Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.<ref name="pmid32797203">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}</ref> 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.<ref name="pmid31450227">{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}</ref> Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.<ref name="pmid35611324">{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}</ref> === Prostate Cancer === High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.<ref name="pmid28939401" /> There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.<ref name="pmid34520388" /> Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% decrease of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see {{section link||History}}), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen deprivation therapy. 11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool<ref name="pmid23856005" /><ref name="pmid31900912" /> and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.<ref name="pmid34520388">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid28939401">{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276 |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}</ref> Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.<ref name="pmid33974560">{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11 |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}</ref> === Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome === Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.<ref name="pmid18471780" /> Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH<ref name="pmid18471780" /> and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).<ref name="pmid18308097">{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6 |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}</ref> 11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C₂₁ steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.<ref name="pmid31626910">{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497 | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}</ref> == Future Directions == === The role of non-classical CAH in CP/CPPS === Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease and that non-classical (mild) CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency may be a comorbidity, as described in a study published in 2008 by Dimitrakov et al.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> The non-classical CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.<ref name="pmid28582566">{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}</ref><ref name="pmid20671993">{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}</ref> Given the important role that androgens play in the health of the prostate, the authors hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction.<ref name="pmid18308097" /> However, we noticed that the study had a discrepancy in steroid levels reported for the control subjects.<ref name="urology.2022.07.051">{{Cite journal|last1=Masiutin|first1=Maxim G.|last2=Yadav|first2=Maneesh K.|date=2022-08-17||year=2022|title=Letter to the editor regarding the article "Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome"|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00690-2/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.051|issn=0090-4295}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dimitrakoff|first1=Jordan|last2=Nickel|first2=J. Curtis|date=2022-08-17|year=2022|title=AUTHOR REPLY|url=https://www.goldjournal.net/article/S0090-4295(22)00691-4/abstract|journal=Urology|language=English|doi=10.1016/j.urology.2022.07.049|issn=0090-4295}}</ref> Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS. === The biomarkers of disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency === The disease control in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency still remains a challenge.{{cn}} The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels<ref name="pmid4372245">{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid476971">{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid6090811">{{cite journal |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}</ref><ref name="pmid2986404">{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}</ref><ref name="pmid25850025" /> and 11OPH4 levels<ref name="pmid3546944">{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}</ref><ref name="pmid2537337">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29264476">{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}</ref><ref name="pmid31821037">{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}</ref> are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.<ref name="pmid5845501">{{cite journal |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}</ref><ref name="pmid13271547">{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}</ref> As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.<ref name="pmid3546944" /> Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.<ref name="pmid29277707"/> However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.<ref name="pmid32007561"/><ref name="pmid29277707"/> Some scholars suggested that in CAH patients with poor disease control, 11-oxygenated androgens remain elevated for longer than 17-OHP, thus serving as a better biomarker for the effectiveness of the disease control than the traditional indicator 17-OHP.<ref name="pmid34867794"/><ref name="pmid28472487"/> However, 11-oxygenated androgens are also produced in physiologic conditions (in healthy organisms), mainly from A4 rather than from 11OHP4 and 21dF. Therefore, we hypothesize that 11OHP4 and 21dF, the substrates for 11-oxygenated androgens in pathologic conditions such as CAH rather than 11-oxygenated androgens themselves may serve as better biomarkers for the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH. 21dF has already been proposed as a better biomarker for CAH diagnosis than 17-OHP,<ref name="pmid31450227"/> but the role of 21dF and 11OHP4 as biomarkers of the effectiveness of the disease control in CAH remain to be studied. === Probable involvement of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT === There is currently no agreement on whether SRD5A1 alone or also SRD5A2 is involved in backdoor pathway to DHT.<ref name="pmid22170725"/> Some authors<ref name="pmid23073980"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> believe that 5α-reduction of 17-OHP appears to be primarily performed by SRD5A1. They claim that SRD5A2 cannot catalize the reaction, citing a 1971 study by Frederiksen et al. of rat 5α-reductase activity ''in vitro'',<ref name="pmid4396507">{{cite journal |title=Partial characterization of the nuclear reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate: delta 4-3-ketosteroid 5 alpha-oxidoreductase of rat prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=246 |issue=8 |pages=2584–93|year=1971 |pmid=4396507|last1=Frederiksen |first1=D. W. |last2=Wilson |first2=J. D. |doi=10.1016/S0021-9258(18)62328-2 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and concluding that SRD5A2 does not convert 17-OHP efficiently. However, that 1971 study was not confirmed by later studies, let alone in humans. Quite contrary, a 2017 study by Barnard et al. showed that both human isozymes were very efficient in converting 17-OHP to 17-OH-DHP.<ref name="pmid28774496" /> Studies predict that both isozymes may be expressed in the following fetal tissues of both sexes: adrenal gland, genital skin, and gonads.<ref name="pmid7488021">{{cite journal |title=Expression of the type 1 and 2 steroid 5 alpha-reductases in human fetal tissues |journal=Biochem Biophys Res Commun |year=1995 |volume=215 |issue=2 |pages=774–80 |pmid=7488021 |doi=10.1006/bbrc.1995.2530 |last1=Ellsworth |first1=K. |last2=Harris |first2=G. }}</ref><ref name="pmid17574609">{{cite journal |title=Fetal distribution of 5alpha-reductase 1 and 5alpha-reductase 2, and their input on human prostate development |journal=J Urol |volume=178 |issue=2 |pages=716–21 |year=2007 |pmid=17574609 |doi=10.1016/j.juro.2007.03.089 |last1=Lunacek |first1=A. |last2=Schwentner |first2=C. |last3=Oswald |first3=J. |last4=Fritsch |first4=H. |last5=Sergi |first5=C. |last6=Thomas |first6=L.N. |last7=Rittmaster |first7=R.S. |last8=Klocker |first8=H. |last9=Neuwirt |first9=H. |last10=Bartsch |first10=G. |last11=Radmayr |first11=C. }}</ref><ref name="pmid30763313"/><ref name="pmid31611378"/> Therefore, the role of SRD5A2 in backdoor pathway to DHT should be investigated. ==PubChem CIDs== In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013. == Abbreviations == === Steroids === * '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S) * '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one * '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione) * '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G) * '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone) * '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione) * '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as "5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone" or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone) * '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone) * '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione * '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione * '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione) * '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol * '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione) * '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione) * '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone) * '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one) * '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one) * '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone) * '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one * '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione * '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone * '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone * '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone) * '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone * '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone) * '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone) * '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one) * '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation "5α-Adiol" or "5α-adiol"), also known as 3α-androstanediol * '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol) * '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone * '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione) * '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone) * '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione) * '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol) * '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate * '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone) * '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone) * '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone) * '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one) * '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate * '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one) * '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q) * '''P4''' progesterone * '''P5''' pregnenolone * '''T''' testosterone === Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) === * '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3) * '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) * '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) * '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation "P450scc") * '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase * '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase * '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17) * '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) * '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9 * '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 * '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 * '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 * '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD) * '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 * '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase * '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4) * '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5 * '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1 * '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2 * '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3 === Conditions === * '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia * '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia * '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome * '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer * '''DSD''' disorder of sex development * '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome === Other === * '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone * '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein == Additional Information == === Competing Interests === The authors have no competing interest. === Funding === The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article. === Notes on The Use of Abbreviations === The authors sometimes used "full name – abbreviation" pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following. === Referencing Convention === {{ordered list |When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with "et al.". The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name. |To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., "the prevailing dogma", "not always considered", "canonical androgen steroidogenesis") — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text. |When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}} == References == {{reflist|35em}} mnxujdtojyh4v3s2g75adjgm7l100gn 0 271287 2417076 2416907 2022-08-21T15:10:25Z Ncharamut 2824970 added completion of history of coronaviruses wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__ Tasks for the technical editors can be added at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below') Tech eds can claim tasks by adding their name to the right ([[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process guidelines)]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !item !task !person !time taken !completion !comments |- | |editorial process training |Logan Smith |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Joshua Langfus |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Wilson Jacobs |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Emma Choplin |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Jenna Harmon |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Cody Naccarato |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |create/link author wikidata items |Wilson Jacobs |90 |2021-01-26 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Virtual colony count|Virtual colony count]] |format and upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |Virtual colony count |upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |300 |2021-02-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Evolved human male preferences for female body shape|Evolved human male preferences for female body shape]] |format PDF |Jenna Harmon |150 |2021-01-21 |Complete |- |Evolved human male preferences for female body shape |upload PDF |Jenna Harmon |30 |2021-02-05 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Arabinogalactan-proteins|Arabinogalactan-proteins]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |180 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |60 |2021-02-01 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-03 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-04 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-10 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |process newly submitted article |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-09 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed article ([https://w.wiki/445Z query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci article ([https://w.wiki/445a query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum article ([https://w.wiki/445b query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Authors on this list ([https://w.wiki/4fY2 query], [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/work_item_oauth.php disambiguator]) |Create a wikidata item for each author and disambiguate any of their other publications on wikidata | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4|Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-01-31 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/A broad introduction to RNA-Seq|A broad introduction to RNA-Seq]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-02-17 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |120 |2022-02-11 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed author ([https://w.wiki/4463 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum author ([https://w.wiki/445q query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]]) |''on hold until consensus'' Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs | | | | |- |Update 2021 [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Citation metrics|WikiJMed]] citation metrics |Review the number of articles published in the past 2 years (2019-2021) that cite WikiJMed articles to calculate impact factor | | | | |- |Backfill [[WikiJournal of Science/Citation metrics|citation metrics]] for WikiJSci articles from 2019-2021 |Similar to the update for WikiJMed citation metrics, this one will also need to calculate impact factors for 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |Calculate citation metrics for WikiJHum articles from 2018-2021 |Similar to the other citation metrics tasks, this one will need to create a page from scratch for WikiJHum and calculate impact factors for 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“It’s all about people skills”: Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from rural North America]] |Using [[:File:Soc license forestry NA Annotated text and reviewers comments - Ian Thomson.pdf|reviewer's annotated PDF]], extract the original text from the file and transfer onto the bare wiki page. |Emma Chiu |180 |2022-06-20 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin|History of penicillin]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Phage Therapy|Phage Therapy]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |95 |2022-05-06 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]] |upload WikiJMed and WikiJSci [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]] |Crystal Au | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Parenting_stress|Parenting stress]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Melioidosis|Melioidosis]] | Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Emma Chiu | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/A history of coronaviruses|A history of coronaviruses]] |Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Natalie Charamut |200 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |Using [[:File:Kunu and wistar rates after review tracked changes.pdf|updated manuscript's PDF]], copy the text from the file and transfer onto the wiki page |Peter Agan | | | |- |Crossref reference deposit (see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Talk:WikiJournal User Group|discussion]]) |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|Submit metadata with references for published articles onto Crossref platform]] |Michelle Fong | | |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Ellen Sussman |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Andrew Neil |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Natalie Charamut |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Emma Chiu |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Crystal Au |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Michelle Fong |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]] |format PDF and upload | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |Create Wikidata entry | | | | |} djzkzzsrxfz8l6pn9a585oh1axsh91d 2417077 2417076 2022-08-21T15:13:34Z Ncharamut 2824970 fixed time spent wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__ Tasks for the technical editors can be added at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below') Tech eds can claim tasks by adding their name to the right ([[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process guidelines)]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !item !task !person !time taken !completion !comments |- | |editorial process training |Logan Smith |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Joshua Langfus |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Wilson Jacobs |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Emma Choplin |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Jenna Harmon |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Cody Naccarato |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |create/link author wikidata items |Wilson Jacobs |90 |2021-01-26 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Virtual colony count|Virtual colony count]] |format and upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |Virtual colony count |upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |300 |2021-02-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Evolved human male preferences for female body shape|Evolved human male preferences for female body shape]] |format PDF |Jenna Harmon |150 |2021-01-21 |Complete |- |Evolved human male preferences for female body shape |upload PDF |Jenna Harmon |30 |2021-02-05 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Arabinogalactan-proteins|Arabinogalactan-proteins]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |180 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |60 |2021-02-01 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-03 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-04 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-10 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |process newly submitted article |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-09 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed article ([https://w.wiki/445Z query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci article ([https://w.wiki/445a query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum article ([https://w.wiki/445b query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Authors on this list ([https://w.wiki/4fY2 query], [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/work_item_oauth.php disambiguator]) |Create a wikidata item for each author and disambiguate any of their other publications on wikidata | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4|Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-01-31 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/A broad introduction to RNA-Seq|A broad introduction to RNA-Seq]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-02-17 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |120 |2022-02-11 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed author ([https://w.wiki/4463 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum author ([https://w.wiki/445q query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]]) |''on hold until consensus'' Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs | | | | |- |Update 2021 [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Citation metrics|WikiJMed]] citation metrics |Review the number of articles published in the past 2 years (2019-2021) that cite WikiJMed articles to calculate impact factor | | | | |- |Backfill [[WikiJournal of Science/Citation metrics|citation metrics]] for WikiJSci articles from 2019-2021 |Similar to the update for WikiJMed citation metrics, this one will also need to calculate impact factors for 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |Calculate citation metrics for WikiJHum articles from 2018-2021 |Similar to the other citation metrics tasks, this one will need to create a page from scratch for WikiJHum and calculate impact factors for 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“It’s all about people skills”: Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from rural North America]] |Using [[:File:Soc license forestry NA Annotated text and reviewers comments - Ian Thomson.pdf|reviewer's annotated PDF]], extract the original text from the file and transfer onto the bare wiki page. |Emma Chiu |180 |2022-06-20 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin|History of penicillin]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Phage Therapy|Phage Therapy]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |95 |2022-05-06 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]] |upload WikiJMed and WikiJSci [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]] |Crystal Au | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Parenting_stress|Parenting stress]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Melioidosis|Melioidosis]] | Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Emma Chiu | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/A history of coronaviruses|A history of coronaviruses]] |Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Natalie Charamut |210 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |Using [[:File:Kunu and wistar rates after review tracked changes.pdf|updated manuscript's PDF]], copy the text from the file and transfer onto the wiki page |Peter Agan | | | |- |Crossref reference deposit (see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Talk:WikiJournal User Group|discussion]]) |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|Submit metadata with references for published articles onto Crossref platform]] |Michelle Fong | | |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Ellen Sussman |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Andrew Neil |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Natalie Charamut |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Emma Chiu |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Crystal Au |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Michelle Fong |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]] |format PDF and upload | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |Create Wikidata entry | | | | |} c7d0b55o9pepeugagxnzdis2aous12p 2417101 2417077 2022-08-21T21:10:43Z Ncharamut 2824970 added completion of parenting stress wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__ Tasks for the technical editors can be added at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below') Tech eds can claim tasks by adding their name to the right ([[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process guidelines)]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !item !task !person !time taken !completion !comments |- | |editorial process training |Logan Smith |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Joshua Langfus |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Wilson Jacobs |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Emma Choplin |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Jenna Harmon |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Cody Naccarato |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |create/link author wikidata items |Wilson Jacobs |90 |2021-01-26 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Virtual colony count|Virtual colony count]] |format and upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |Virtual colony count |upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |300 |2021-02-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Evolved human male preferences for female body shape|Evolved human male preferences for female body shape]] |format PDF |Jenna Harmon |150 |2021-01-21 |Complete |- |Evolved human male preferences for female body shape |upload PDF |Jenna Harmon |30 |2021-02-05 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Arabinogalactan-proteins|Arabinogalactan-proteins]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |180 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |60 |2021-02-01 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-03 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-04 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-10 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |process newly submitted article |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-09 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed article ([https://w.wiki/445Z query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci article ([https://w.wiki/445a query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum article ([https://w.wiki/445b query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Authors on this list ([https://w.wiki/4fY2 query], [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/work_item_oauth.php disambiguator]) |Create a wikidata item for each author and disambiguate any of their other publications on wikidata | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4|Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-01-31 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/A broad introduction to RNA-Seq|A broad introduction to RNA-Seq]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-02-17 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |120 |2022-02-11 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed author ([https://w.wiki/4463 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum author ([https://w.wiki/445q query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]]) |''on hold until consensus'' Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs | | | | |- |Update 2021 [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Citation metrics|WikiJMed]] citation metrics |Review the number of articles published in the past 2 years (2019-2021) that cite WikiJMed articles to calculate impact factor | | | | |- |Backfill [[WikiJournal of Science/Citation metrics|citation metrics]] for WikiJSci articles from 2019-2021 |Similar to the update for WikiJMed citation metrics, this one will also need to calculate impact factors for 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |Calculate citation metrics for WikiJHum articles from 2018-2021 |Similar to the other citation metrics tasks, this one will need to create a page from scratch for WikiJHum and calculate impact factors for 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“It’s all about people skills”: Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from rural North America]] |Using [[:File:Soc license forestry NA Annotated text and reviewers comments - Ian Thomson.pdf|reviewer's annotated PDF]], extract the original text from the file and transfer onto the bare wiki page. |Emma Chiu |180 |2022-06-20 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin|History of penicillin]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Phage Therapy|Phage Therapy]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |95 |2022-05-06 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]] |upload WikiJMed and WikiJSci [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]] |Crystal Au | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Parenting_stress|Parenting stress]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut |95 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Melioidosis|Melioidosis]] | Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Emma Chiu | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/A history of coronaviruses|A history of coronaviruses]] |Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Natalie Charamut |210 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |Using [[:File:Kunu and wistar rates after review tracked changes.pdf|updated manuscript's PDF]], copy the text from the file and transfer onto the wiki page |Peter Agan | | | |- |Crossref reference deposit (see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Talk:WikiJournal User Group|discussion]]) |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|Submit metadata with references for published articles onto Crossref platform]] |Michelle Fong | | |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Ellen Sussman |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Andrew Neil |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Natalie Charamut |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Emma Chiu |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Crystal Au |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Michelle Fong |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]] |format PDF and upload | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |Create Wikidata entry | | | | |} 86nnui09yv1900jtuebpw0hhsdhh5s7 2417102 2417101 2022-08-21T21:11:44Z Ncharamut 2824970 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__ Tasks for the technical editors can be added at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below') Tech eds can claim tasks by adding their name to the right ([[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process guidelines)]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !item !task !person !time taken !completion !comments |- | |editorial process training |Logan Smith |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Joshua Langfus |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Wilson Jacobs |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Emma Choplin |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Jenna Harmon |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Cody Naccarato |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |create/link author wikidata items |Wilson Jacobs |90 |2021-01-26 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Virtual colony count|Virtual colony count]] |format and upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |Virtual colony count |upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |300 |2021-02-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Evolved human male preferences for female body shape|Evolved human male preferences for female body shape]] |format PDF |Jenna Harmon |150 |2021-01-21 |Complete |- |Evolved human male preferences for female body shape |upload PDF |Jenna Harmon |30 |2021-02-05 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Arabinogalactan-proteins|Arabinogalactan-proteins]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |180 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |60 |2021-02-01 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-03 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-04 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-10 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |process newly submitted article |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-09 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed article ([https://w.wiki/445Z query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci article ([https://w.wiki/445a query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum article ([https://w.wiki/445b query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Authors on this list ([https://w.wiki/4fY2 query], [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/work_item_oauth.php disambiguator]) |Create a wikidata item for each author and disambiguate any of their other publications on wikidata | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4|Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-01-31 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/A broad introduction to RNA-Seq|A broad introduction to RNA-Seq]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-02-17 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |120 |2022-02-11 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed author ([https://w.wiki/4463 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum author ([https://w.wiki/445q query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]]) |''on hold until consensus'' Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs | | | | |- |Update 2021 [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Citation metrics|WikiJMed]] citation metrics |Review the number of articles published in the past 2 years (2019-2021) that cite WikiJMed articles to calculate impact factor | | | | |- |Backfill [[WikiJournal of Science/Citation metrics|citation metrics]] for WikiJSci articles from 2019-2021 |Similar to the update for WikiJMed citation metrics, this one will also need to calculate impact factors for 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |Calculate citation metrics for WikiJHum articles from 2018-2021 |Similar to the other citation metrics tasks, this one will need to create a page from scratch for WikiJHum and calculate impact factors for 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“It’s all about people skills”: Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from rural North America]] |Using [[:File:Soc license forestry NA Annotated text and reviewers comments - Ian Thomson.pdf|reviewer's annotated PDF]], extract the original text from the file and transfer onto the bare wiki page. |Emma Chiu |180 |2022-06-20 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin|History of penicillin]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Phage Therapy|Phage Therapy]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |95 |2022-05-06 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]] |upload WikiJMed and WikiJSci [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]] |Crystal Au | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Parenting_stress|Parenting stress]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut |90 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Melioidosis|Melioidosis]] | Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Emma Chiu | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/A history of coronaviruses|A history of coronaviruses]] |Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Natalie Charamut |210 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |Using [[:File:Kunu and wistar rates after review tracked changes.pdf|updated manuscript's PDF]], copy the text from the file and transfer onto the wiki page |Peter Agan | | | |- |Crossref reference deposit (see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Talk:WikiJournal User Group|discussion]]) |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|Submit metadata with references for published articles onto Crossref platform]] |Michelle Fong | | |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Ellen Sussman |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Andrew Neil |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Natalie Charamut |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Emma Chiu |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Crystal Au |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Michelle Fong |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]] |format PDF and upload | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |Create Wikidata entry | | | | |} 5jpezejklvvwxlbx71066snk4hbbd98 2417103 2417102 2022-08-21T21:14:19Z Ncharamut 2824970 claimed new task wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__ Tasks for the technical editors can be added at the bottom of the table ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_User_Group/Technical_editors/tasks?veaction=edit activate editing mode], click bottom row, click chevron that appears on the left, select 'insert below') Tech eds can claim tasks by adding their name to the right ([[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines/Technical editor summary|process guidelines)]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !item !task !person !time taken !completion !comments |- | |editorial process training |Logan Smith |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Joshua Langfus |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Wilson Jacobs |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Emma Choplin |120 |2021-01-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Jenna Harmon |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- | |editorial process training |Cody Naccarato |120 |2021-01-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |create/link author wikidata items |Wilson Jacobs |90 |2021-01-26 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Virtual colony count|Virtual colony count]] |format and upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |Virtual colony count |upload PDF |Wilson Jacobs |300 |2021-02-14 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Evolved human male preferences for female body shape|Evolved human male preferences for female body shape]] |format PDF |Jenna Harmon |150 |2021-01-21 |Complete |- |Evolved human male preferences for female body shape |upload PDF |Jenna Harmon |30 |2021-02-05 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Arabinogalactan-proteins|Arabinogalactan-proteins]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |180 |2021-02-13 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |60 |2021-02-01 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol|Does the packaging of health information affect the assessment of its reliability? A randomized controlled trial protocol]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-03 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-04 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Affine symmetric group|Affine symmetric group]] |peer-review processing |Logan Smith |30 |2021-02-10 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |process newly submitted article |Wilson Jacobs |150 |2021-02-09 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed article ([https://w.wiki/445Z query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci article ([https://w.wiki/445a query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum article ([https://w.wiki/445b query]; [[wikidata:Q96317242#P50|example]]) |add email address to corresponding author | | | | |- |Authors on this list ([https://w.wiki/4fY2 query], [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/work_item_oauth.php disambiguator]) |Create a wikidata item for each author and disambiguate any of their other publications on wikidata | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4|Structural Model of Bacteriophage T4]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-01-31 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/A broad introduction to RNA-Seq|A broad introduction to RNA-Seq]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |130 |2022-02-17 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |120 |2022-02-11 |Complete |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed author ([https://w.wiki/4463 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci author ([https://w.wiki/4462 query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum author ([https://w.wiki/445q query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all authors | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJMed reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445v query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJSci reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445x query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Wikidata items of each WikiJHum reviewer ([https://w.wiki/445u query]) |add [[wikidata:Property:P101|fields of work]], employers, orcid, and official website for all peer reviewers | | | | |- |Edit all titles to sentence case ([[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Article title format - Why no consistency?|discussion]]) |''on hold until consensus'' Pagemove the articles, update wikidata, update the PDFs | | | | |- |Update 2021 [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Citation metrics|WikiJMed]] citation metrics |Review the number of articles published in the past 2 years (2019-2021) that cite WikiJMed articles to calculate impact factor | | | | |- |Backfill [[WikiJournal of Science/Citation metrics|citation metrics]] for WikiJSci articles from 2019-2021 |Similar to the update for WikiJMed citation metrics, this one will also need to calculate impact factors for 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |Calculate citation metrics for WikiJHum articles from 2018-2021 |Similar to the other citation metrics tasks, this one will need to create a page from scratch for WikiJHum and calculate impact factors for 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021 | | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/“It’s all about people skills”: Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from rural North America]] |Using [[:File:Soc license forestry NA Annotated text and reviewers comments - Ian Thomson.pdf|reviewer's annotated PDF]], extract the original text from the file and transfer onto the bare wiki page. |Emma Chiu |180 |2022-06-20 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin|History of penicillin]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Medicine/Phage Therapy|Phage Therapy]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics|“Collect, acquire, analyze, report, and disseminate statistical data related to the science and engineering enterprise…”: The National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics]] |format PDF and upload |Jenna Harmon |95 |2022-05-06 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|DOAJ]] |upload WikiJMed and WikiJSci [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Registering article in DOAJ|article metadata to DOAJ]] |Crystal Au | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The Kivu Ebola epidemic|Kivu Ebola epidemic]] |format PDF and upload |Ellen Sussman | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Parenting_stress|Parenting stress]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut |90 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Leptospirosis|Leptospirosis]] |format PDF and upload |Andrew Neil | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Melioidosis|Melioidosis]] | Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Emma Chiu | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/A history of coronaviruses|A history of coronaviruses]] |Accepted, update article page, generate DOI and PDF please |Natalie Charamut |210 |2022-08-21 |complete |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats|The effect of local millet drink (Kunu) on the testis and epididymis of adult male wistar rats]] |Using [[:File:Kunu and wistar rates after review tracked changes.pdf|updated manuscript's PDF]], copy the text from the file and transfer onto the wiki page |Peter Agan | | | |- |Crossref reference deposit (see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Talk:WikiJournal User Group|discussion]]) |[[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|Submit metadata with references for published articles onto Crossref platform]] |Michelle Fong | | |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Ellen Sussman |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Andrew Neil |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Natalie Charamut |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Emma Chiu |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Crystal Au |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- | |editorial process training 1 & 2 |Michelle Fong |120 |2022-07-11 |Complete |- |[[WikiJournal of Science/E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne|E-extension in Nepal: brief overview in Nepalese agriculture/ne]] |format PDF and upload |Natalie Charamut | | | |- |[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |Create Wikidata entry | | | | |} p8k9vphqvupvo6sunji3tfnvfj5bnw6 0 271346 2417190 2324070 2022-08-22T04:21:50Z 110.33.75.245 Fixed the grammar in one of the paragraphs so sentence makes sense. wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Summarising social contributions}} ==Overview== '''Social contributions''' are assessed by reviewing the summaries provided on Wikiversity user pages in a section titled "Social contributions". The better the link and summary of each contribution, the more likely it is that the marker can find and reward your contributions. No marks will be awarded if: * there is no summary of the contribution on the user page or * the summary does not link to direct evidence of the contribution ==Examples== {{Anchor|Socialcontributionexamples}}Examples of user pages which provide effective summaries of each user's social contributions: # [[User:U3083764#Social contributions]] # [[User:U3096454!#Social contributions]] # [[User:Ccgmjb#Social contributions]] # [[User:Uu3148421#Social contributions]] # [[User:Jbboys#Social contributions]] # [[User:U3100481#Social contributions]] ==How to add direct links to contributions== Although there is no standard format, here is a suggested way of summarising each contribution: # Use a numbered list #Provide date/time #Briefly summarise the contribution #Provide a direct link that shows the actual changes (or the exact discussion post or {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} tweet)<br>e.g., [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2013%2FHealth_behaviours&diff=1072876&oldid=1068635 13:40, 18 October 2013: Added a new section and wrote a paragraph about the Theory of Planned Behavior and Theory of Reasoned Action to the health behaviour chapter]. This way, the marker can quickly understand when and what kind of contribution was made and, with a single click, see exactly what changes were made. How to do this: ## Go to the page you edited and click "View history" (towards top-right) ## Select the left radio button (for the version of the page before you edited) and the right radio button (for the version of the page after you edited) ## Click "Compare selected revisions" ## Copy the website address from the browser's address bar ## Go to your user page. Click "Edit". Insert an external link in the "Social contributions" sections, pasting the website address. This link will provide direct access to the comparison between the page before and after your contribution. This also works for contributions to discuss pages. ==Types== Types of social contributions might include: # Feedback added to chapter discussion pages (e.g., especially about chapter plans and/or drafts) # Direct editing to improve chapter pages (e.g., adding new info/content, fixing errors, improving layout/formatting) - changes could be to current year chapters and/or chapters developed in previous years - [[User:U932794|examples]]. # {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts related to book chapters # Tweets about book chapters using the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} hashtag etc. ==Rubric== {| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = "background:transparent; width:90%" ! Grade ! Description |- | style="width:140px; vertical-align:top;" | '''Bonus marks''' | Up to 5 bonus marks are available in exceptional circumstances where wiki contributions to the book are above and beyond those required for HD-level. Such contributions could include very substantial contributions across multiple chapters. This could include extensive copyediting, regular feedback, and support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion and/or Twitter {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} hashtag. |- | style="width:140px; vertical-align:top;" | '''HD (High Distinction)''' | Very significant contributions are made to development of other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor clearly embraced the collaborative nature of the online book task. This is indicated primarily by the user's edit history on Wikiversity which shows significant and regular contributions to the development of at least several chapters via discussion page comments and probably also chapter edits. Such contributions are likely to have occurred across at least half of the semester. It is also quite likely that contributions extend across more than one channel of electronically logged communication (e.g., wiki contributions, {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion, and/or twitter hashtag contributions). Helping to significantly improve at least four other chapters is likely to be worth a HD. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''DI (Distinction)''' | Significant contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced online collaboration as indicated by the user's wiki edit history. Notable contributions are made to the development of several chapters via discussion pages and chapter edits. Contributions are spread over at least a month. Contributions are likely to have extended across more than one publicly logged electronic communication channels (e.g., wiki contributions, {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion, and the twitter hashtag). Helping to significantly improve at least three others chapters is likely to be worth a DI. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''CR (Credit)''' | Moderate contributions to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced some aspects of online collaboration by providing many wiki edits beyond the contributor's target chapter, {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts and/or use of the twitter hashtag. These contributions are made over a period of at least a couple of weeks and in sufficient time for other authors to incorporate the feedback into the final drafting process. As a guide, helping to significantly improve at least two other chapters is likely to be worth a CR. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''P (Pass)''' | Basic contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). For example, at least one other chapter in the book is significantly enhanced because of the user's contributions. This might involve some helpful comments on several occasions about at least one other book chapter - or perhaps a single, substantial proofread with several useful comments about a full draft could be sufficient for a Pass. |- | style="vertical-align:top;" | '''F (Fail)''' | Either no contributions are made or contributions were limited. A lack of collaborative effort is evident, as indicated by minimal, if any, wiki contributions beyond one's primary chapter, {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} forum, and/or twitter hashtag. For example: # comments lacked detail and/or depth; # comments were not timely (e.g., were provided very late in the drafting process) |} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] kq3dhk9dad9vv6liyhqj4tcqmpizz9p 0 274639 2417224 2399146 2022-08-22T05:05:08Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy.svg|thumb|right|250px|The flux of cosmic-ray particles is a function of their energy. Credit: Sven Lafebre, after Swordy.<ref name="Swordy">{{cite journal |author=S. Swordy |title=The energy spectra and anisotropies of cosmic rays |month= |year=2001 |journal=Space Science Reviews |issue= |volume=99 |pages=85–94 }}</ref>{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Cosmic rays''' are energetic charged [[w:Subatomic particles|subatomic particles]], originating in [[w:Outer space|outer space]]. At right is an image indicating the range of cosmic-ray energies. The flux for the lowest energies (yellow zone) is mainly attributed to solar cosmic rays, intermediate energies (blue) to galactic cosmic rays, and highest energies (purple) to extragalactic cosmic rays.<ref name="Swordy"/> “'''Cosmic ray astronomy''' attempts to identify and study the sources of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays. It is unique in its reliance on charged particles as the information carriers.”<ref name="Sommers">{{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astronomy}} "Astronomy based on cosmic rays with the highest energies [above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts] opens a new window on the nearby universe."<ref name="Abraham">{{cite journal |author=J Abraham |author2=P Abreu |author3=M Aglietta |author4=C Aguirre |author5=D Allard |author6=The Pierre Auger Collaboration |title=Correlation of the highest-energy cosmic rays with nearby extragalactic objects |journal=Science |month=November 9, |year=2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=938-43 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/318/5852/938.short |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1126/science.1151124 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Cosmic rays== "Cosmic rays arise from galactic source accelerators."<ref name="Lee">{{cite book |author=S. Y. Lee |title=Accelerator physics, Second Edition |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. |location=Singapore |date=2004 |editor= |pages=575 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=981-256-182-X |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> Cosmic rays may be upwards of a ZeV (10²¹ eV). About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei of alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that originate from astrophysical sources are called '''primary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' low energy cosmic rays associated with solar flares are called '''solar cosmic rays'''. Cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. The positive ions are # free protons, # alpha particles (helium nuclei), # lithium nuclei, # beryllium nuclei, and # boron nuclei. '''Def.''' a [[wikt:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]] in which a [[wikt:nucleus|nucleus]] [[wikt:fragment|fragment]]s into many [[wikt:nucleon|nucleon]]s is called '''spallation'''. Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle (e.g. a [[w:proton|proton]]) impacts with [[w:matter|matter]], including other cosmic rays. The result of the collision is the expulsion of large numbers of [[w:nucleons|nucleons]] (protons and neutrons) from the object hit. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. ==Planetary sciences== {{main|Planetary sciences}} "Production rates of ²²Na (T_1/2 = 2.6 years) from aluminium by the action of cosmic rays are measured at the Mont Blanc (altitude 4600 m), the Aiguille du Midi (3840 m), and the Col du Lautaret (2070 m). They are 2.3±0.5, 1.8±0.3, and 0. 77±0.18 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, in good agreement with the calculated production rates, 2.4, 1.7 and 0.6 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, at the three stations."<ref name="Yokoyama">{{cite journal |author=Y Yokoyama |author2=JL Reyss |author3=F Guichard |title=Production of radionuclides by cosmic rays at mountain altitudes |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |month=August |year=1977 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44-50 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0012821X77901868 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Colors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Colors}} "[B]roadband optical photometry of Centaurs and Kuiper Belt objects from the Keck 10 m, the University of Hawaii 2.2 m, and the Cerro Tololo InterAmerican (CTIO) 1.5 m telescopes [shows] a wide dispersion in the optical colors of the objects, indicating nonuniform surface properties. The color dispersion [may] be understood in the context of the expected steady reddening due to bombardment by the ubiquitous flux of cosmic rays."<ref name="Luu">{{cite journal |author=Jane Luu |author2=David Jewitt |title=Color Diversity among the Centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects |journal=The Astronomical Journal |month=November |year=1996 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=2310-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996AJ....112.2310L |arxiv= |bibcode=1996AJ....112.2310L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Larmor radius== The '''Larmor radius''' is the radius of the circular motion of a charged particle] in the presence of a uniform magnetic field. “[F]or a particle of energy ''E'' in EeV and charge ''Z'' in a magnetic field ''B'' in µG [the Larmor radius (''R''_L)] is roughly”<ref name="Sommers"/> :<math>R_L = 1 kpc \frac{E}{Z B}</math> where :*<math>R_L \ </math> is the Larmor radius, :*<math>E\ </math> is the energy of the particle in EeV :*<math>Z \ </math> is the charge of the particle, and :*<math>B \ </math> is the constant magnetic field. ==Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limits== '''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''. Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance. :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon. ==Askaryan effects== The '''Askaryan effect''' is the phenomenon whereby a particle traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in a dense [[w:dielectric|dielectric]] (such as salt, ice or the lunar [[w:regolith|regolith]]) produces a shower of secondary charged particles which contain a charge [[w:anisotropy|anisotropy]] and thus emits a cone of [[w:Coherence (physics)|coherent]] radiation in the [[w:radio frequency|radio]] or [[w:microwave|microwave]] part of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectrum]]. It is similar to the [[w:Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov effect]]. So far the effect has been observed in [[w:silicon dioxide|silica]] [[w:sand|sand]],<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0011001 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Silica Sand]</ref> rock salt,<ref>[http://lanl.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0412128 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Rock Salt]</ref> and ice<ref name="Gorham">{{cite journal |author=P. W. Gorham |author2=S. W. Barwick |author3=J. J. Beatty |author4=D. Z. Besson |author5=W. R. Binns |author6=C. Chen |author7=P. Chen |author8=J. M. Clem |author9=A. Connolly |author10=P. F. Dowkontt |author11=M. A. DuVernois |author12=R. C. Field |author13=D. Goldstein |author14=A. Goodhue |author15=C. Hast |author16=C. L. Hebert |author17=S. Hoover |author18=M. H. Israel |author19=J. Kowalski |author20=J. G. Learned |author21=K. M. Liewer |author22=J. T. Link |author23=E. Lusczek |author24=S. Matsuno |author25=B. Mercurio |author26=C. Miki |author27=P. Miocinovic |author28=J. Nam |author29=C. J. Naudet |author30=J. Ng |author31=R. Nichol |author32=K. Palladino |author33=K. Reil |author34=A. Romero-Wolf |author35=M. Rosen |author36=D. Saltzberg |author37=D. Seckel |author38=G. S. Varner |author39=D. Walz |author40=F. Wu |title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October 25, |year=2007 |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=5 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?arXiv:hep-ex/0611008 |arxiv=hep-ex/0611008 |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref>.<ref name="Lehtinen">{{cite journal |author=Nikolai G. Lehtinen |author2=Peter W. Gorham |author3=Abram R. Jacobson |author4=Robert A. Roussel-Dupre ́ |title=FORTE satellite constraints on ultrahigh energy cosmic particle fluxes |journal=Physical Review D |month=January |year=2004 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=013008-1 to 14 |url=http://ees.lanl.gov/ees2/pdfs/Lehtinen_2004.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.69.013008 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-09-02 }}</ref> ==Galactic cosmic rays== [[Image:NeutronMonitor.GIF|right|thumb|400px|Cosmic Ray Intensity (blue) and Sunspot Number (green) is shown from 1951 to 2006. Credit: University of New Hampshire.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "effect of time-variations in galactic cosmic rays on the rate of production of neutrons in the atmosphere [was studied using] a series of balloon and airplane observations of the [fast neutron] flux and spectrum of 1-10 MeV neutrons, in flights at high geomagnetic latitude, during [quiet times as well as during Forbush decreases, which are rapid decreases in the observed galactic cosmic rays following a coronal mass ejection (CME), and solar particle events for] the period of increasing solar modulation, 1965-1969. It also included latitude surveys in 1964-1965 and in 1968."<ref name=Merker>{{ cite book |author=M. Merker |author2=E. S. Light |author3=R. B. Mendell |author4=S. A. Korff |title=The flux of fast neutrons in the atmosphere. 1. The effect of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays, In: ''Solar Cosmic Rays, Modulation of Galactic Radiation, Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Effects'' |volume=2 |publisher=International Conference on Cosmic Rays |location=Budapest |date=1970 |editor=A. Somogyi |pages=739 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ICRC....2..739M |arxiv= |bibcode=1970ICRC....2..739M |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-08-15 }}</ref> In the image on the right for Forbush decreases, data include GOES-15 X-rays, energetic particles, and magnetometer. Cosmic Rays from the Moscow station show a Forbush Decrease. The graph on the right shows an inverse correlation between sunspot numbers (solar activity) and neutron production from galactic cosmic rays. '''Notation''': let the symbol '''Z''' stand for '''atomic number'''. ::: let the symbol '''PeV''' stand for '''10¹⁵ electron volts'''. "The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 − 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle flux consists of these elements."<ref name=Horandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R Hörandel |author2=N N Kalmykov |author3=A V Timokhin |title=The end of the galactic cosmic-ray energy spectrum-a phenomenological view |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |month=April |year=2006 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=132-41 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/47/1/017 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/47/1/017 |pmid= |pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0508015 |accessdate=2011-12-31 }}</ref> In the graph on the right, the black line is cosmic-ray data and the red line is temperature. ''Ulysses'' data is included. {{clear}} ==Ultra-high energy cosmic rays== [[Image:Absolute flux of cosmic–ray elements at 1 TeV-nucleus versus nuclear charge.png|right|thumb|300px|Absolute flux Φ⁰_Z of cosmic–ray elements at ''E''₀ = 1 TeV/nucleus is plotted versus nuclear charge. Credit: Jörg R. Hörandel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The '''Oh-My-God particle''' was observed on the evening of 15 October 1991 over [[w:Dugway Proving Ground|Dugway Proving Ground]], Utah. Its observation was a shock to [[w:astrophysics|astrophysicists]], who estimated its energy to be approximately {{val|3|e=20|u=eV}}<ref name="Baez">[http://www.desy.de/user/projects/Physics/General/open_questions.html Open Questions in Physics.] German Electron-Synchrotron. A Research Centre of the Helmholtz Association. Updated March 2006 by JCB. Original by John Baez.</ref>(50&nbsp;[[w:joule|joule]]s)&mdash;in other words, a [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic particle]] with kinetic energy equal to that of a [[w:baseball (object)|baseball]] (142&nbsp;g or 5&nbsp;oz) traveling at 100&nbsp;km/h (60&nbsp;mph). It was most probably a [[w:proton|proton]] with a speed very close to the [[w:speed of light|speed of light]] (approximately 0.9999999999999999999999951c), so close that in a year-long race between light and the cosmic ray, the ray would fall behind only 46 nanometers (5 x 10^-24 light-years), or 0.15 femtoseconds (1.5 x 10^-16 s).<ref name="Walker">{{cite book | author=J. Walker | date=January 4, 1994 | title=The Oh-My-God Particle | url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/OhMyGodParticle/ | publisher=Fourmilab |accessdate= }}</ref> “The energy spectrum of cosmic rays extends to ~10²⁰ eV (and smoothly to 10¹⁹).”<ref name="Hillas">{{cite journal |author=A. M. Hillas |title=The Origin of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1984 |volume=22 |issue= |pages=425-44 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1984ARA&A..22..425H |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002233 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Secondary cosmic rays== Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Minerals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Minerals}} [[Image:Cosmo03.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a diagram of muon target minerals. Credit: Derek Fabel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Bombardment by protostellar cosmic rays may make the rock precursors of [Calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions] CAIs and chondrules radioactive, producing radionuclides found in meteorites that are difficult to obtain with other mechanisms."<ref name="Lee1998">{{cite journal |author=Typhoon Lee |author2=Frank H. Shu |author3=Hsien Shang |author4=Alfred E. Glassgold |author5=K. E. Rehm |title=Protostellar cosmic rays and extinct radioactivities in meteorites |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=October 20, |year=1998 |volume=506 |issue=2 |pages=898-912 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/506/2/898 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/306284 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> "The Earth is continually being bombarded by high-energy cosmic rays that originate predominantly from super nova explosions within our galaxy. Interactions between these high energy cosmic rays and the Earth's atmosphere creates secondary and tertiary cosmic rays, including neutrons and muons."<ref name=Fabel>{{ cite book |author=Derek Fabel |title=In-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides |publisher=University of Glasgow |location= |date=December 18, 2008 |url=http://web2.ges.gla.ac.uk/~dfabel/CN_intro.html |accessdate=2014-03-21 }}</ref> "When reaching the Earth's surface these high energy particles can penetrate meters into rock and sediment."<ref name=Fabel/> "Nuclear interactions between neutrons and muons and minerals [as in the diagram at the right] such as quartz, calcite, K-feldspar, and olivine, produce long-lived radionuclides such as Be-10, Al-26 and Cl-36."<ref name=Fabel/> "The production rates of these "in-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides" are almost unimaginably small - a few atoms per gram of rock per year, however using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) we can detect and count cosmogenic nuclides down to levels of a few thousand atoms per gram (parts per million of parts per billion!)."<ref name=Fabel/> "The build-up of cosmogenic nuclides through time provides us with a way to measure exposure ages for rock surfaces such as fault scarps, lava flows and glacial pavements.Where surfaces are gradually evolving, cosmogenic nuclide measurements allow us to calculate erosion or soil accumulation rates.Where previously exposed rock or sediment is re-buried the relative decay between different cosmogenic nuclides can be used to date the burial time."<ref name=Fabel/> {{clear}} ==Theoretical cosmic-ray astronomy== "The phenomenology of cosmic ray cascades ... reflects in an essential way processes governed by the strong force."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Full multiple scattering theory must take account of the angular dependence of hadron-nucleon scattering, which affects the degree of screening."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Sources== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Sources}} "Violent activity and Supernovae generate cosmic ray (suprathermal) particles. The speeds of individual particles may be ~ c, and their energy density, if they diffused uniformly through the universe, could well exceed 100 eV per baryon. Subrelativistic particles would be slowed down, and would transmit their energy to the thermal component. However, the relativistic particles could themselves exert a pressure if they were coupled (e.g. via magnetic fields) so that they constituted, with the thermal gas, a composite fluid, to which they contributed most of the pressure. Although there is here even less problem in fulfilling the energy density requirement than there is for ultraviolet radiation, there is uncertainty about how uniformly it can spread. If the cosmic-ray energy remains concentrated around the sources, it is irrelevant in the present context [of the cold dark matter cosmogony]; at the other extreme, if the particles diffuse too freely, they do not couple well enough to protogalactic gas for their pressure gradients to oppose gravitational collapse."<ref name="Rees">{{cite journal |author=Martin J. Rees |title=Is the Universe flat? |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |month=December |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=331-48 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02714464 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-18 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Objects== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Objects|Object astronomy}} "Comparison with the chemical composition of various astrophysical objects, such as the Sun, the [[interstellar medium]], supernovae or neutron stars, can give clues about the site at which cosmic rays are injected into the acceleration process."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Strong forces== {{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}} "In field theory it is known that coupling constants “run”. This means that the values of the [[coupling constant]]s that one measures depend on the energy at which the measurement is performed. [...] the three different coupling constants [one each for the strong force, electromagnetic force, and the weak force] of the standard model seem to converge to the same value at an energy scale of about 10¹⁶ GeV [...] This suggests that there is only one coupling constant at high energies and most likely only one symmetry group. [...] The current belief [is] that the electromagnetic, weak and strong forces [are] unified at about 10¹⁶ GeV [as such] one has to rely on [the] particle physics interactions which can lead to electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays".<ref name="Vachaspati">{{cite journal |author=Tanmay Vachaspati |title=Topological defects in the cosmos and lab |journal=Contemporary Physics |month= |year=1998 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=225-37 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/001075198181928 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1080/001075198181928 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Weak forces== "The feature that makes deep inelastic lepton scattering and e⁺e^- annihilation tractable is that these processes proceed via the electromagnetic and weak interactions."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Continua== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Continua}} Continuum "radiation ... diffuse gamma rays with energies above 10 MeV. In the galaxy these are produced primarily by bremsstrahlung from cosmic ray electrons and from decay in flight of π⁰'s produced by interactions of cosmic ray protons."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} "The attenuation of photons in the microwave background ''via'' the process :<math>\gamma + \gamma (3^o K) \rightarrow e^+ e^-</math> is strongly energy dependent, with a minimum attenuation length of ≈ 7 kpc around 2.5 PeV, as determined by the threshold for e⁺e^- production (Gould and Schreder, 1966; Jelley, 1966)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation/Meteors}} [[Image:Micrometeorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a micrometeorite collected from the antarctic snow. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he carbonaceous material [is] known from observation to dominate the terrestrial [micrometeorite (MM)] flux."<ref name="Taylor"/> "Ureilites occur about half as often as eucrites (Krot et al. 2003), are relatively friable, have less a wide range of cosmic-ray exposure ages including two less than 1 Myr, and, like the dominant group of MM precursors, contain carbon."<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |author=Susan Taylor |author2=Gregory F. Herzog |author3=Jeremy S. Delaney |title=Crumbs from the crust of Vesta: Achondritic cosmic spherules from the South Pole water well |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |month= |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=223-33 |url= |bibcode=2007M&PS...42..223T |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00229.x |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Hadrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Hadrons}} [[Image:Differential hadron energy spectrum.png|right|thumb|300px|Differential energy spectrum shows the differential vertical hadron intensity versus hadron energy in GeV. Credit: F. Ashton, A. Nasri, & I. A. Ward.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "problems plaguing (3 + 1)- dimensional quantum gravity quantization programs are solved by virtue of the fact that spacetime is dimensionally-reduced. Indeed, effective models of quantum gravity are plentiful in (2 + 1) and even (1 + 1) dimensions [11–13]. Similarly, the cosmological constant problem may be explained as a Casimir-type energy between two adjacent “foliations” of three-dimensional space as the scale size L > L4 opens up a fourth space dimension."<ref name=Mureika>{{ cite journal |author=Jonas Mureika |author2=Dejan Stojkovic |title=Detecting Vanishing Dimensions Via Primordial Gravitational Wave Astronomy |journal=Physical review letters |date=8 March 2011 |volume=106 |issue=10-11 |pages=101101 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1102.3434.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.101101 |pmid= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "What makes this proposal of evolving dimensions very attractive is that some evidence of the lower dimensional structure of our space-time at a TeV scale may already exist. Namely, alignment of the main energy fluxes in a target (transverse) plane has been observed in families of cosmic ray particles [18–20]. The fraction of events with alignment is statistically significant for families with energies higher than TeV and large number of hadrons. This can be interpreted as evidence for coplanar scattering of secondary hadrons produced in the early stages of the atmospheric cascade development."<ref name=Mureika/> In the image on the right, the "energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level has been measured over the energy range 600 GeV - 8 TeV. The spectrum is found to be well represented in differential form by N(E)dE = AE^-𝛄dE where 𝛄 = 2.74 ± 0.16 with no suggested anomalous behaviour over the whole energy range."<ref name=Ashton>{{ cite book |author=F. Ashton |author2=A. Nasri |author3=I. A. Ward |title=The energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level, In: ''International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |volume=7 |publisher=Sofia, B'lgarska Akademiia na Naukite |location=Plovdiv, Bulgaria |date=26 August 1977 |editor= |pages=458-463 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1977ICRC....7..458A/G000458.000.html |arxiv= |bibcode=1977ICRC....7..458A |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "Incident hadrons either interact in the lead (15 cm thick) or iron (15 cm thick) targets and the resulting cascade traverses the plastic scintillators [...] which are both 5 cm thick. Using a burst of size > 400 equivalent muons traversing either scintillator as a master trigger a high voltage pulse was applied to the flash tubes, which are photographed, after a time delay of 330 𝛍s. From the resulting photograph the projected angle of incidence of the incident hadron could be determined and a decision taken a to whether is was in the acceptance geometry as defined [...]. [...] In converting the burst spectrum measurements to an estimate of the incident hadron spectrum the hadrons have been assumed to be nucleons. If charged pions are assumed the energies shown in [the image on the right] should be reduced by 0.8."<ref name=Ashton/> {{clear}} ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons|}} [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name="Choy">{{cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name="Choy"/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei. The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays, which propagate for interstellar distances. "Proton astronomy [since protons are also most cosmic rays] should be possible; it may also provide indirect information on inter-galactic magnetic fields."<ref name="Halzen">{{cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=July |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-78 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0204527 |arxiv= |bibcode=2002RPPh...65.1025H |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Antiprotons have been detected in cosmic rays for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray protons with nuclei in the [[interstellar medium]], via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name="Kennedy">{{cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> Kosmos 60 measured the gamma-ray background flux density to be 1.7×10⁴ quanta/(m²·s). As was seen by Ranger 3 and Lunas 10 & 12, the spectrum fell sharply up to 1.5 MeV and was flat for higher energies. Several peaks were observed in the spectra which were attributed to the inelastic interaction of cosmic protons with the materials in the satellite body. {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1% of cosmic rays. "The conventional procedure of delta-ray counting to measure charge (Powell, Fowler, and Perkins 1959), which was limited to resolution sigma_z = 1-2 because of uncertainties of the criterion of delta-ray ranges, has been significantly improved by the application of delta-ray range distribution measurements for ¹⁶O and ³²S data of 200 GeV per nucleon (Takahashi 1988; Parnell ''et al.'' 1989)."<ref name="Burnett">{{cite journal |author=T. H. Burnett |author2=''et al.'' |author3=The JACEE Collaboration |title=Energy spectra of cosmic rays above 1 TeV per nucleon |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=January |year=1990 |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=L25-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=GIF&db_key=AST |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B |doi=10.1086/185642 |pmid= |pdf=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> Here, the delta-ray tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for "[d]irect measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei above 1 TeV/nucleon ... in a series of balloon-borne experiments".<ref name="Burnett"/> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:509305main GBM positron event 300dpi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Observation of positrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash is performed by the Fermi gamma ray telescope. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.{{tlx|free media}}]] A few antiprotons and positrons are in primary cosmic rays. "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name="Ting">{{cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> A High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) has been developed and tested in the mid 1990s to measure the positron fraction in cosmic rays.<ref name="Barwick"/> There is an "unexpected rise of the positron fraction, observed by HEAT and PAMELA experiments, for energies larger than a few GeVs."<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite journal |author=Roberto Alfredo Lineros Rodriguez |title=Positrons from cosmic rays interactions and dark matter annihilations |journal=Rivista Del Nuovo Cimento |month= |year=2010 |volume=125B |issue= |pages=1053-70 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010arXiv1002.0671A |arxiv=1002.0671 |bibcode=2010arXiv1002.0671A |doi=10.1393/ncb/i2010-10910-7 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-17 }}</ref> "[T]he HEAT balloon experiment [30] ... has mildly indicated a possible positron excess at energies larger than 10 GeV ... In October 2008, the latest results of PAMELA experiment [36] have confirmed and extended this feature [37]."<ref name="Rodriguez"/> Earlier measurements indicate that "the positron fraction, [f = ] e⁺/(e^- + e⁺), increases with energy at energies above 10 GeV. Such an increase would require either the appearance of a new source of positrons or a depletion of primary electrons."<ref name="Barwick">{{cite journal |author=S. W. Barwick |author2=J. J. Beatty |author3=A. Bhattacharyya |author4=C. R. Bower |author5=C. J. Chaput |author6=S. Coutu |author7=G. A. de Nolfo |author8=J. Knapp |author9=D. M. Lowder |author10=S. McKee |author11=D. Müller |author12=J. A. Musser |author13=S. L. Nutter |author14=E. Schneider |author15=S. P. Swordy |author16=G. Tarlé |author17=A. D. Tomasch |author18=E. Torbet |title=Measurements of the Cosmic-Ray Positron Fraction from 1 to 50 GeV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=June 20, |year=1997 |volume=482 |issue=2 |pages=L191-4 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/482/2/L191/pdf/1538-4357_482_2_L191.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode=1997ApJ...482L.191B |doi=10.1086/310706 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-13 }}</ref> All results taken together suggest a slight decrease with increasing energy from about 1 GeV to 10 GeV, but overall the fraction may be constant, per Figure 2.<ref name="Barwick"/> {{clear}} ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy}} [[Image:Moons shodow in muons.gif|thumb|right|250px|The Moon's cosmic ray shadow. Credit: J. H. Cobb et al. (The Soudan 2 Collaboration).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] At right is an image of the Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the [[w:Soudan II|Soudan II]] detector. The shadow is the result of approximately 120 muons missing from a total of 33 million detected in Soudan 2 over its 10 years of operation. The cross denotes the actual location of the Moon. The shadow of the Moon is slightly offset from this location because cosmic rays are electrically charged particles and were slightly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field on their journey to the upper atmosphere. The shadow is produced due to the shielding effect the Moon has on galactic and cosmic rays, which stream in from all directions. "To reduce the background of ordinary cosmic ray showers, several large air shower experiments emphasize measurement of the muon content of the shower. Ironically, early indications are that the signal seems to have the same muon content as the background."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}} Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of [[w:radioactive decay|radioactive decay]], or [[w:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]]s, or when [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s hit atoms. Cosmic "ray neutrinos of local origin are also the background for neutrino astronomy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} "Over the last few years, the cold dark matter cosmogony has become a fiducial model for the formation of structure. [...] The problem with detecting dark matter using annihilation radiation gamma rays has been that the expected signal is comparable to the background (Stecker 1988) and it would be difficult to separate a "cosmic-ray halo" from a dark halo."<ref name="Lake">{{cite journal |author=George Lake |title=High Dark Matter Densities and the Formation of Extreme Dwarf Galaxies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June 20, |year=1990 |volume=356 |issue=06 |pages=L43-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990ApJ...356L..43L |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...356L..43L |doi=10.1086/185746 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-20 }}</ref> In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background. ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} Some "of the possible sources of the ultra-high energy cosmic rays, such as very young supernova remnants and X-ray binaries, are associated with relatively dense concentrations of matter and would therefore be likely point sources of secondary photons and neutrinos."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Opticals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}} "An accelerator in this particular supernova [TeV range] could hardly be this powerful without having altered the behavior of the optical light curve, which was very successfully explained as being powered by the radioactive decay chain of ⁵⁶Ni synthesized in the explosion (Pinto & Woosley, 1988)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Cygnus X-3 is obscured by the disk of the galaxy and is not visible in the optical. It is therefore impossible to determine unambiguously by what means it is powered."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} "The Broad LAteral Non-imaging Cherenkov Array (BLANCA) takes advantage of the CASA-MIA particle array installation by augmenting it with 144 angle-integrating Cherenkov detectors. Located in Dugway, Utah at an atmospheric depth of 870 g cm⁻², BLANCA uses the CASA trigger to collect Cherenkov light and records the Cherenkov lateral distribution from cosmic ray events in the energy range of the knee. The CASA trigger threshold imposes an energy threshold of ∼ 100 TeV on the Cherenkov array. However, BLANCA analysis uses events with a 200 TeV minimum to avoid composition bias introduced from the CASA trigger."<ref name="Swordy2002"/> "Each BLANCA detector contains a large Winston cone [43] which concentrates the light striking an 880 cm² entrance aperture onto a photomultiplier tube. The concentrator has a nominal half-angle of 12.5° and truncated length of 60 cm. The Winston cones were aligned vertically with ∼ 0.5° accuracy. A two-output preamplifier increases the dynamic range of the detector. The minimum detectable density of a typical BLANCA unit is approximately one blue photon per cm²."<ref name="Swordy2002">{{cite journal |author=S.P. Swordy |author2=L.F. Fortson |author3=J. Hinton |author4=J. Hörandel |author5=J. Knapp |author6=C.L. Pryke |author7=T. Shibata |author8=S.P. Wakely |author9=Z. Cao |author10=M. L. Cherry |author11=S. Coutu |author12=J. Cronin |author13=R. Engel |author14=J.W. Fowler |author15=K.-H. Kampert |author16=J. Kettler |author17=D.B. Kieda |author18=J. Matthews |author19=S. A. Minnick |author20=A. Moiseev |author21=D. Muller |author22=M. Roth |author23=A. Sill |author24=G. Spiczak |title=The Composition of Cosmic Rays at the Knee |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=October |year=2002 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=129-50 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0202159.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00108-1 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens|Green astronomy}} "Babcock, using a Fabry and Perot interferometer, determined very accurately the wave-length of the auroral green line 5577. ... After a careful examination of all the results obtained in these reports, we may only say that the exact nature of the cosmical rays, responsible for the aurora, remains a mystery. ... The origin of the most prominent and interesting line of the auroral spectrum, the line 5577, has hitherto remained unexplained. Vegard* has recently obtained a luminescent band from solid nitrogen, that he supposes, under very special conditions, may coincide with the auroral green line. ... spectra of pure helium and of pure oxygen were taken at different pressures and with various excitations, but no trace of 5577 or of any other new lines was obtained. ... Mixtures of helium, oxygen and nitrogen were excited, and it was found that the line 5577 could be photographed on the same plate with the nitrogen band system, thus reproducing in the laboratory practically the entire auroral spectrum. In ... mixtures of neon and oxygen ... neon enhanced the line 5577 in the same manner as helium. ... From Plate 20 it will be seen that all the lines except 5577 have been identified as ''strong'' lines in the spectrum of helium, hydrogen, oxygen, or mercury. ... It has been shown that this line must be attributed to some hitherto unknown spectrum of oxygen, and that it is not a limiting member of the ordinary band spectrum of oxygen. It has been observed faintly in highly purified oxygen when currents of high density have been used."<ref name="McLennan">{{cite journal |author=J. C. McLennan |author2=G. M. Shrum |title=On the Origin of the Auroral Green Line 5577 Å, and other Spectra Associated with the Aurora Borealis |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences |month= |year=1925 |volume=108 |issue=747 |pages=501-12 |url=http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/108/747/501.full.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1098/rspa.1925.0088 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-24 }}</ref> Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the [[Stars/Sun|sun]] during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} "When magnetic fields "reconnect" in a turbulent magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) plasma, electric fields are generated in which particles can be accelerated (Matthaeus ''et al.'', 1984; Sorrell, 1984)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Berylliums== {{main|Chemicals/Berylliums}} The "presence in ... cosmic radiation [is] of a much greater proportion of "secondary" nuclei, such as lithium, beryllium and boron, than is found generally in the universe."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Carbons== These "are nevertheless present in the cosmic radiation as spallation products of the abundant nuclei of carbon and oxygen (Li,Be,B) and of iron (Sc,Ti,V,Cr,Mn)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Aluminums== {{main|Chemicals/Aluminums}} [[Image:COMPTEL 26Al galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The distribution of ²⁶Al in the [[w:Milky Way|Milky Way]] is shown. Credit: [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/cgro/ the COMPTEL Collaboration].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aluminum26 Map.png|thumb|left|250px|This is the CGRO gamma-ray signal from the Galactic Center region. Credit: COMPTEL Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The dominant reactions for making ²⁶Al by [cosmic-ray] proton and α bombardment of refractory rocks in impulsive flares are ²⁷Al(p, pn)²⁶Al (β=0.92), ²⁶Mg(p, n)²⁶Al (β=1.0), ²⁴Mg(α, pn)²⁶Al (β=2.5 and y_CR = 0.1), ²⁸Si(p, 2pn)²⁶Al (β=0.10), and ²⁸Si(α, αpn)²⁶Al (β=0.41)."<ref name="Lee1998"/> '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. Aluminium-26 also emits gamma rays and X-rays,<ref>{{ cite book | url = http://hpschapters.org/northcarolina/NSDS/26AlPDF.pdf | title = Nuclide Safety Data Sheet Aluminum-26 | publisher = www.nchps.org}}</ref> and is one of the few [[w:radionuclide|radionuclide]]s to emit X-rays. {{clear}} ==Ions== {{main|Plasmas/Ions|Ions}} "Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids."<ref name="Madey">{{cite journal |author=Theodore E. Madey |author2=Robert E. Johnson |author3=Thom M. Orlando |title=Far-out surface science: radiation-induced surface processes in the solar system |journal=Surface Science |month=March |year=2002 |volume=500 |issue=1-3 |pages=838-58 |url=http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/~madey/Publications/Full_Publications/PDF/madey_SS_2002.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0039-6028(01)01556-4 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> ==Atmospheres== {{main|Atmospheric astronomy}} Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|Earth's atmosphere]], creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from the [[w:Tata Institute of Fundamental Research|Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (India), [[w:Osaka City University|Osaka City University]] (Japan) and [[w:Durham University|Durham University]] (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in [[w:Kolar Gold Fields|Kolar Gold Fields]] in India in 1965. "The major problems associated with the balloon borne positron measurements are (i) the unique identification against a vast background of protons, and (ii) corrections for the positrons produced in the residual atmosphere."<ref name="Barbiellini">{{cite journal |author=G. Barbiellini |author2=G. Basini |author3=R. Bellotti |author4=M. Bpcciolini |author5=M. Boezio |author6=F. Massimo Brancaccio |author7=U. Bravar |author8=F. Cafagna |author9=M. Candusso |author10=P. Carlson |author11=M. Casolino |author12=M. Castellano |author13=M. Circella |author14=A. Codino |author15=G. De Cataldo |author16=C. De Marzo |author17=M.P. De Pascale |author18=N. Finetti |author19=T. Francke |author20=N. Giglietto |author21=R.L. Golden |author22=C. Grimani |author23=M. Hof |author24=B. Marangelli |author25=W. Menn |author26=J.W. Mitchell |author27=A. Morselli |author28=J.F. Ormes |author29=P. Papini |author30=a. Perego |author31=S. Piccardi |author32=P. Picozza |author33=M. Ricci |author34=P. Schiavon |author35=M. Simon |author36=R. Sparvoli |author37=P. Spillatini |author38=P. Spinelli |author39=S.A. Stephens |author40=S.J. Stochaj |author41=R.E. Streitmatter |author42=M. Suffert |author43=A. Vacchi |author44=N. Weber |author45=N. Zampa |title=The cosmic-ray positron-to-electron ratio in the energy range 0.85 to 14 GeV |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1996 |volume=309 |issue=05 |pages=L15-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996A&A...309L..15B |arxiv= |bibcode=1996A&A...309L..15B |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-11 }}</ref> "[T]o account for the atmospheric corrections ... first [use] the instrument to determine the negative muon spectrum at float altitude. ... [Use this] spectrum ... to normalize the analytically determined atmospheric electron-positron spectra. ... most of the atmospheric electrons and positrons at small atmospheric depths are produced from muon decay at [the energies from 0.85 to 14 GeV]."<ref name="Barbiellini"/> ==Materials== {{main|Chemicals/Materials}} "The two groups of elements Li, Be, B and Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn are many orders of magnitude more abundant in the cosmic radiation than in solar system material."<ref name="Gaisser">{{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=11 January 2014 }}</ref> ==Meteorites== {{main|Rocks/Meteorites|Meteorites}} [[Image:Allan Hills 81005, lunar meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the lunar meteorite ''Allan Hills 81005''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:NWA 6963 full slice.jpg|thumb|right|250px|NWA 6963 is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/44124348109@N01 Steve Jurvetson].{{tlx|free media}}]] Cosmic ray exposure history established with noble gas measurements have shown that all lunar meteorites were ejected from the Moon in the past 20 million years. Most left the Moon in the past 100,000 years. Imaged at lower right is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite. "The perimeter exhibits a fusion crust from the heat of entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fresh sample of NWA 6963, an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Meteorites are often labeled NWA for North West Africa, not because they land there more often, but because they are easy to spot as peculiar objects in the desert sands. From the geochemistry and presence of various isotopes, the origin and transit time is deduced. The 99 meteorites from Mars exhibit precise elemental and isotopic compositions similar to rocks and atmosphere gases analyzed by spacecraft on Mars, starting with the Viking lander in 1976. Compared to other meteorites, the Martians have younger formation ages, unique oxygen isotopic composition (consistent for Mars and not for Earth), and the presence of aqueous weathering products. A trapped gas analysis concluded that their origin was Mars quite recently, in the year 2000."<ref name="Jurvetson">{{cite book |author=Steve Jurvetson |title=It came from Mars |publisher=flickr from Yahoo! |location= |date=21 December 2012 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/44124348109@N01/8302214803 |accessdate=24 February 2013 }}</ref> "The formation ages of meteorites often come from their cosmic-ray exposure (CRE), measured from the nuclear products of interactions of the meteorite in space with energetic cosmic ray particles. This one is particularly young, having crystallized only 180 million years ago, suggesting that volcanic activity was still present on Mars at that time. Volcanic flows are the youngest part of a planet, and this one happened to be hit by a meteor impact, ejecting" it from the youthful Mars.<ref name="Jurvetson"/> {{clear}} ==Spectrometers== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectrometers}} [[Image:Grsradiation-med.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This diagram depicts the generation of gamma rays by cosmic ray exposure. Credit: JPL, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Using Germanium detectors - a crystal of hyperpure germanium that produces pulses proportional to the captured photon energy; while more sensitive, it has to be cooled to a low temperature, requiring a bulky cryogenic apparatus. When exposed to [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]] (charged particles in space that come from the stars, including our sun), chemical elements in soils and rocks emit uniquely identifiable signatures of energy in the form of gamma rays. The gamma ray spectrometer looks at these signatures, or energies, coming from the elements present in the target soil. By measuring gamma rays coming from the target body, it is possible to calculate the abundance of various elements and how they are distributed around the planet's surface. Gamma rays, emitted from the [[w:atomic nucleus|nuclei]] of [[w:atoms|atoms]], show up as sharp [[w:emission lines|emission lines]] on the instrument's spectrum output. While the energy represented in these emissions determines which elements are present, the intensity of the spectrum reveals the elements concentrations. Spectrometers are expected to add significantly to the growing understanding of the origin and evolution of planets like Mars and the processes shaping them today and in the past. {{clear}} ==Solar cosmic rays== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:SpaceEnvironmentOverview From 19830101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows an overview of the space weather conditions over several solar cycles including the relationship between sunspot numbers and cosmic rays. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Solar magnetic flux.png|left|thumb|300px|Comparison shows the observed (solar irradiance and sunspot number, symbols) and modeled (solid line) total magnetic flux Credit: Luis Eduardo A. Vieira and Sami K. Solanki.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver"/> "For solar cosmic-rays, the apparent lack of proton acceleration in the corona seems justified, in contrast to the electrons, proton bremsstrahlung and gyrosynchrotron emission are negligible. This suggests a transit time anomaly, Δ''T''_''A'', defined as follows: : Δ''T''_''A'' = Δ''T''_onset - 11 min, where Δ''T''_onset is the deduced Sun-Earth transit time for the first arriving relativistic protons and 11 min is the nominal transit time for a ~2 GeV proton traversing a 1.3 AU Archimedes spiral path."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> "The '''solar wind''' is a stream of [[w:charged particle|charged particle]]s ejected from the [[w:stellar atmosphere|upper atmosphere]] of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. It mostly consists of electrons and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 [[w:electronvolt|keV]]. Δ''T''_''A'' may have values from "7-19 min for a small sample of well-connected ... cosmic-ray flares."<ref name="Cliver"/> The transit time anomaly may be explained by a rise time associated with the ground-level events (GLEs). "The average GLE rise time ... for well-connected ... events ... defined to be the time from event onset to maximum as measured by the neutron monitor station showing the largest increase and whose asymptotic cone of acceptance ... includes the nominal direction of the Archimedean spiral path, is 21.3 min."<ref name="Cliver"/> "Data from an extensive air shower detector of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays shows shadowing of the cosmic-ray flux by the Moon and the Sun with significance of 4.9 standard deviations. This is the first observation of such shadowing."<ref name="Alexandreas">{{cite journal |author=D.E. Alexandreas |author2=R.C. Allen |author3=D. Berley |author4=S.D. Biller |author5=R.L. Burman |author6=D.R. Cady |author7=C.Y. Chang |author8=B.L. Dingus |author9=G.M. Dion |author10=R.W. Ellsworth |author11=M.K. Gilra |author12=J.A. Goodman |author13=S. Gupta |author14=T.J. Haines |author15=C.M. Hoffman |author16=D.A. Krakauer |author17=P. Kwok |author18=J. lloyd-Evans |author19=D.E. Nagle |author20=M.E. Potter |author21=V.D. Sandberg |author22=M.J. Stark |author23=R.L. Talaga |author24=P.R. Vishwanath |author25=G.B. Yodh |author26=W. Zhang |title=Observation of shadowing of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays by the moon and the sun |journal=Physical Review, D (Particles Fields) |month=March 1, |year=1991 |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=1735-8 |url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6399949 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> "The ... solar proton flare on 20 April 1998 at W 90° and S 43° (9:38 UT) was measured by the GOES-9-satellite (Solar Geophysical Data 1998), as well as by other experiments on WIND ... and GEOTAIL. Protons were accelerated up to energies > 110 MeV and are therefore able to hit the surface of Mercury."<ref name="Kirsch">{{cite book |author=E. Kirsch |author2=U.A. Mall |author3=B. Wilken |author4=G. Gloeckler |author5=A.B. Galvin |author6=K. Cierpka |title=Detection of Pickup- and Sputter Ions by Experiment SMS on the WIND-S/C After a Mercury Conjunction, In: ''Proceedings of the 26th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) |location=Salt Lake City, Utah, USA |date=August 17, 1999 |editor=D. Kieda |editor2=M. Salamon |editor3=B. Dingus |pages=212-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1999ICRC....6..212K |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> Here's a quote from Bowman's "Radiocarbon Dating" book from 1990, p. 19: "High sunspot activity increases the weak magnetic field that exists between the planets, and at such times there is a greater deflection of cosmic rays and hence ¹⁴C decreases."<ref name=Bowman>{{ cite book |title=Radiocarbon Dating |author=Sheridan Bowman |publisher=British Museum Press |date=1995 |isbn=0-7141-2047-2 |location=London |origyear=1990 }}</ref> "Cosmic rays originate from the Sun as well as from galactic sources."<ref name=Bowen>{{ cite book |author=Robert Bowen |title=Carbon-14 Dating, In: ''Isotopes in the Earth Sciences'' |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |date=1994 |pages=247-263 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |isbn=978-94-010-7678-4 |accessdate=2017-12-05 }}</ref> Here's a quote from Aitken's "Radiocarbon Dating" article from 2000, "Cosmic-ray variations are associated with changes in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field. A weak field allows more cosmic radiation to reach the upper atmosphere, and the production of carbon-14 is consequently enhanced--causing raw radiocarbon ages to be underestimates of calendar ages. The short-term wiggles mentioned above are associated with sunspot activity."<ref name= Ellis>{{ cite book |author=Martin J. Aitken |title=Radiocarbon Dating, In: ''Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Routledge |location= |date=16 December 2000 |editor=Linda Ellis |pages=744 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjOPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&f=false |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-12-04 }}</ref> "Direct observations of cosmic rays within the heliosphere over several decades have revealed a great deal of information about the acceleration and propagation of cosmic radiation through the interstellar space and the heliosphere. We now know that the cosmic radiation incident at the top of the earth’s atmosphere comes to us through several “filters”: # Galactic magnetic fields, # Interstellar magnetic fields, # Solar magnetic plasma within the heliosphere, regulated by solar activity, and finally, # the Terrestrial geomagnetic field."<ref name=Lal2001>{{ cite journal |author=D Lal |author2=A J T Jull |title=In-situ cosmogenic {{chem|14|C}}: Production and examples of its unique applications in studies of terrestrial and extraterrestrial processes |journal=Radiocarbon |year=2001 |volume=43 |issue=28 |pages=731-742 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/download/3905/3330 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2017-12-06 }}</ref> "Additionally, cosmic ray particles are frequently accelerated by the sun, and sometimes in a nearby supernova to make an appreciable difference in the total cosmic ray flux at the earth!"<ref name=Lal2001/> "Since fairly extensive cosmic-ray data on primary and secondary cosmic rays are available for more than the past five decades, covering five solar cycles, it is fairly easy to make reliable calculations of the magnitude of variations in cosmogenic production rates in terrestrial solids due to solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux. This exercise is based on a study of relative changes in the primary cosmic-ray flux at the top of the atmosphere, and flux of low energy neutrons as measured by neutron monitors. Solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux is conveniently described in terms of a modulation potential, ∅, which is a phase-lagged function of solar activity (see Castagnoli and Lal 1980; Lal 1988b, 2000 and references therein). Continuous data are available for several neutron monitors at sea-level and mountain altitudes located at different latitudes, and these data have been analyzed in terms of transfer functions relating changes in the secondary nucleon fluxes in the atmosphere to those in the primary cosmic-ray spectra (cf. Webber and Lockwood 1988; Nagashima et al. 1989). For a recent discussion on changes in cosmic-ray fluxes as measured on spacecrafts and in neutron monitor counting rates, the reader is referred to Lal (2000). The manner in which the primary and secondary cosmic-ray flux changes occur with the march of solar activity is described in detail by Lal and Peters (1967), who also estimate the changes in the isotope production rates as a function of altitude and latitude during 1956 (a period of solar minimum) and 1958 (a period of unusually high solar activity). Using this approach, and using the neutron monitor data available to date, one can improve on the earlier estimates of solar temporal variations in cosmogenic nuclide production rates at sea level and at mountain altitudes. We must mention here that several direct experiments are also being made at present by exposing targets to cosmic radiation at different altitudes and latitudes (cf. Lal 2000)."<ref name=Lal2001/> {{clear}} ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds}} "[C]oronal magnetic bottles, produced by flares, [may] serve as temporary traps for solar cosmic rays ... It is the expansion of these bottles at velocities of 300–500 km/s which allows fast azimuthal propagation of solar cosmic rays independent of energy. A coronagraph on [[w:OSO 7|Os 7]] observed a coronal cloud which was associated with bifurcation of the underlying coronal structure."<ref name="Schatten">{{cite journal |author=K. H. Schatten |author2=D. J. Mullan |title=Fast azimuthal transport of solar cosmic rays via a coronal magnetic bottle |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month=December 1, |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=35 |pages=5609-20 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i035p05609.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i035p05609 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-07 }}</ref> "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> ==Mercury== From the Mariner 10 observations in [[electron astronomy]], it is concluded that "[d]ue to the limited shielding provided by its relatively weak magnetic dipole moment, the surface of Mercury is everywhere subject to bombardment by cosmic rays and solar energetic particles with energies greater than 1 MeV/nucleon."<ref name="Ogilvie">{{cite journal |author=K. W. Ogilvie |author2=J. D. Scudder |author3=V. M. Vasyliunas |title=Observations at the Planet Mercury by the Plasma Electron Experiment: Mariner 10 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=13 |pages=1807-24 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i013p01807.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i013p01807 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Galactic cosmic rays should have very similar fluxes on Mercury and the Moon."<ref name="Langevin">{{cite journal |author=Y Langevin |title=The regolith of Mercury: present knowledge and implications for the Mercury Orbiter mission |journal=Planetary and Space Science |month=January |year=1997 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31-7 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063396000980 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00098-0 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Solar Cosmic Rays which result in the formation of particle tracks also increase by a factor of up to 10 when compared to the Moon. However, surface temperatures reach 700 K, which can result over millions of years in the annealing of irradiation effects."<ref name="Langevin"/> ==Venus== Venus's small [[w:Magnetosphere of Venus|induced magnetosphere]] provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against [[w:cosmic radiation|cosmic radiation]]. This radiation may result in cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges.<ref name="Upadhyay">{{cite journal |author=Upadhyay, H. O. |author2=Singh, R. N. |title=Cosmic ray Ionization of Lower Venus Atmosphere |month=April|year=1995|journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=15|issue=4|pages=99–108 |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(94)00070-H|bibcode = 1995AdSpR..15...99U }}</ref> ==Earth== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The Earth's atmosphere is a relatively bright source of gamma rays produced in interactions of ordinary cosmic ray protons with air atoms. When cosmic rays enter the Earth’s atmosphere they collide with molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, to produce a cascade of billions of lighter particles, a so-called air shower. An air shower is an extensive (many kilometres wide) cascade of ionized particles and electromagnetic radiation produced in the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray (i.e. one of extraterrestrial origin) enters the atmosphere. There is "a decrease in thunderstorms at the time of high cosmic rays and an increase in thunderstorms 2-4 days later."<ref name="Lethbridge">{{cite journal |author=Mae Devoe Lethbridge |title=Thunderstorms, cosmic rays, and solar-lunar influences |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1990 |volume=95 |issue=D9 |pages=13,645-9 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1990/JD095iD09p13645.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JD095iD09p13645 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at lower altitudes are the result of the [[w:beta decay|beta decay]] of [[w:neutrons|neutrons]] created by cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms.<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book | first=Thomas F. | last=Tascione | title=Introduction to the Space Environment, 2nd. Ed. | publisher=Kreiger Publishing CO. | location=Malabar, Florida USA | date=1994 | isbn=0-89464-044-5 }}</ref> The [[w:Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics|PAMELA]] experiment detected orders of magnitude higher levels of [[w:antiproton|antiproton]]s than are expected from normal [[w:particle decay|particle decay]]s while passing through the SAA. This suggests the van Allen belts confine a significant flux of antiprotons produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]].<ref name="Adriani">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29 | title = The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons | year = 2011 | last1 = Adriani | first1 = O. | last2 = Barbarino | first2 = G. C. | last3 = Bazilevskaya | first3 = G. A. | last4 = Bellotti | first4 = R. | last5 = Boezio | first5 = M. | last6 = Bogomolov | first6 = E. A. | last7 = Bongi | first7 = M. | last8 = Bonvicini | first8 = V. | last9 = Borisov | first9 = S. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal Letters | volume = 737 | issue = 2 | pages = L29 | bibcode = 2011ApJ...737L..29A | arxiv=1107.4882v1 }}</ref> The energy of the antiprotons has been measured in the range from 60 - 750 MeV. {{clear}} ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:Moonthorium-med.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image is an elemental map of the Moon using a GRS. Credit: Los Alamos National Laboratory.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] “The lunar surface also lends itself well to cosmic ray astronomy (as it lies outside the Earth's magnetosphere) and other astronomies requiring large, bulky detectors (eg [[gamma-ray astronomy]]).”<ref name="Crawford">{{cite journal |author=IA Crawford |title=The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon |journal=Space Policy |month=May |year=2004 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=91-7 |url=http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/405/01/Binder1.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2004.02.007 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori/> The [[w:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] has imaged the Moon in gamma rays of energy greater than 20 MeV.<ref name="heasarc">{{cite book |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/epo/news/gammoon.html |title=CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon |publisher=Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2011-11-08 }}</ref> These are produced by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]] bombardment of its surface. Gamma-ray spectrometers have been widely used for the elemental and isotopic analysis of airless bodies in the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]], especially the Moon<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite journal | journal = Science | year = 1998 | volume = 281 | issue = 5382 | pages = 1484–1489 | doi = 10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 | title = Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer | author = D. J. Lawrence |author2=W. C. Feldman |author3=B. L. Barraclough |author4=A. B. Binder |author5=R. C. Elphic |author6=S. Maurice |author7=D. R. Thomsen | pmid = 9727970 | bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L }}</ref> These surfaces are subjected to a continual bombardment of high-energy cosmic rays, which excite nuclei in them to emit characteristic gamma-rays which can be detected from orbit. Thus an orbiting instrument can in principle map the surface distribution of the elements for an entire planet. They are able to measure the abundance and distribution of about 20 primary elements of the periodic table, including [[w:silicon|silicon]], [[w:oxygen|oxygen]], [[w:iron|iron]], [[w:magnesium|magnesium]], [[w:potassium|potassium]], [[w:aluminum|aluminum]], [[w:calcium|calcium]], [[w:sulfur|sulfur]], and [[w:carbon|carbon]]. The chemical element [[w:thorium|thorium]] [is] mapped [by a GRS], with higher concentrations shown in yellow/orange/red in the left-hand side image shown on the left. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the [[w:Lunar Prospector|Lunar Prospector]] using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn lose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name="Williams"/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name="Williams"/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:PIA16020.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This graph shows the preliminary results from Curiosity's first radiation measurements on Mars, specifically the flux of radiation detected by Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on Mars over three and a half hours on Aug. 6 PDT (Aug. 7 UTC). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI.{{tlx|free media}}]] "NASA's Curiosity rover ... Radiation Assessment Detector instrument, or RAD, collected data for about 3 1/2 hours on Wednesday (Aug. 8)"<ref name="Wall">{{cite book |author=Mike Wall |title=Mars Rover Curiosity Measures Red Planet Radiation |publisher=news.yahoo.com |location= |date=August 9, 2012 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/mars-rover-curiosity-measures-red-planet-radiation-135649183.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref>. As the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]] was relatively quiet in the direction of Mars, most of the spikes in the collected, unprocessed temporal spectrum are considered to be from galactic cosmic-radiation.<ref name="Hassler">{{cite book |author=Don Hassler |title=Curiosity Takes First Cosmic Ray Sample on Surface |publisher=www.space.com/NASA |location= |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://www.space.com/17004-curiosity-takes-first-cosmic-ray-sample-on-surface-video.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "The data show that the radiation levels measured on Mars during this period of quiet solar activity are reduced from the average radiation detected in space during Curiosity's cruise to Mars. This is explained by the rover being on the planet versus out in space, where it would have more exposure to radiation from all directions. Red arrows point to spikes in the radiation dose rate from heavy ion particles, which would be the most dangerous to astronauts. ... RAD measures 26 kinds of charged particles as well as neutrons and gamma rays."<ref name="Curiosity2">{{cite book |author=NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI |title=Curiosity's First Radiation Measurements on Mars |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/?ImageID=4338 |accessdate=2012-08-19 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Interplanetary medium== {{main|Interplanetary medium}} The interplanetary medium includes interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot plasma from the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. The temperature of the interplanetary medium varies. For dust particles within the asteroid belt, typical temperatures range from 200&nbsp;K (−73 °C) at 2.2&nbsp;AU down to 165&nbsp;K (−108 °C) at 3.2&nbsp;AU<ref name="Low">{{cite journal | author=Low, F. J. |author2=''et al.'' | title=Infrared cirrus&nbsp;– New components of the extended infrared emission | journal=Astrophysical Journal, Part 2&nbsp;– Letters to the Editor | year=1984 | volume=278 | pages=L19–L22 | bibcode=1984ApJ...278L..19L | doi=10.1086/184213 }}</ref> The density of the interplanetary medium is very low, about 5 particles per cubic centimeter in the vicinity of the [[Earth]]; it decreases with increasing distance from the sun, in inverse proportion to the square of the distance. It is variable, and may be affected by magnetic fields and events such as [[w:Coronal mass ejection|coronal mass ejection]]s. It may rise to as high as 100 particles/cm³. ==Uranus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Uranus}} "[F]or the regions of the giant planets, especially Uranus and Neptune, ... ionization is due mainly to cosmic rays."<ref name="Hayashi">{{cite journal |author=Chushiro Hayashi |title=Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Effects of Magnetic and Turbulent Viscosities on the Nebula |journal=Progress Theoretical Physics Supplement |month= |year=1981 |volume= |issue=70 |pages=35-53 |url=http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/70/35/ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1143/PTPS.70.35 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> ==Oort clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds}} Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10⁷ yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} "The sun emits a plasma wind with an embedded magnetic field that tends to exclude low energy galactic cosmic rays from the heliosphere."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "observed cosmic ray flux at Earth is inversely correlated with solar activity. [...] At a period of high solar activity (for example in 1983), the flux below a GeV can be suppressed by as much as an order of magnitude."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "flux of cosmic rays in the heliosphere varies with the eleven year solar cycle".<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} In [[astronomy]], the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [Intergalactic medium] intergalactic space. In astronomy, the [[interstellar medium]] (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic medium. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name="Spitzer">{{cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''. The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Milky Way== {{main|Milky Way}} "As with solar system cosmic rays, it is likely that both extended and point sources play a role in acceleration of particles in the Galaxy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Large Magellanic Cloud== Because neutrinos are only [[Weak interaction|weakly interacting]] with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large in order to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation.<ref name="twsP16">{{cite journal |author= KENNETH CHANG |title= Tiny, Plentiful and Really Hard to Catch |journal=The New York Times |date= April 26, 2005 |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/26/science/26neut.html?pagewanted=print&position= |accessdate= 2011-06-16 }}</ref> ==Active galactic nuclei== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei}} There is "a correlation between the arrival directions of cosmic rays with energy above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts and the positions of active galactic nuclei (AGN) lying within ~75 megaparsecs."<ref name="Abraham"/> Some low energy cosmic rays originate or are associated with solar flares. Even these cosmic rays have too high an energy to originate from the solar photosphere. The [[coronal cloud]] in close proximity to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] may be a source or create them as it bombards the chromosphere from above. "In particular we recognize a first trace of Vela, brightest gamma and radio galactic source, and smeared sources along Galactic Plane and Center [as a source of ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECR)]."<ref name="Fargion">{{cite journal |author=Daniele Fargion |title=UHECR besides ''Cen''_''A'': Hints of galactic sources |journal=Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics |month=April |year=2010 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=363-5 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0146641009001276 |arxiv=0911.4176 |bibcode=2010PrPNP..64..363F |doi=10.1016/j.ppnp.2009.12.049 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-09 }}</ref> "The main correlated map is the 408 MHz one. The first astronomical source that seem to correlate is the main multiplet along ''Cen''_''A''. This AGN source, the nearest extragalactic one, sits in the same direction of a far Centaurus Cluster (part of the Super-Galactic Plane). The blurring by random galactic magnetic field might spread the nearest AGN event along the same Super-Galactic Plane, explaining the AUGER group miss-understanding [3]."<ref name="Fargion"/> ==Locations on Earth== [[w:Ice core|Ice core]]s contain thin nitrate-rich layers that can be analyzed to reconstruct a history of past events [such as solar cosmic ray events] before reliable observations; [this includes] data from Greenland ice cores<ref name="McCracken">{{cite book |url=http://www.stuartclark.com/files/thomas-qa.pdf |title=How do you determine the effects of a solar flare that took place 150 years ago? |publisher=Stuart Clarks Universe |accessdate=May 23, 2012 }}</ref> and others. These show evidence that events of [the magnitude of the [[w:Solar storm of 1859|solar storm of 1859]]—as measured by high-energy proton radiation, not geomagnetic effect—occur approximately once per 500 years, with events at least one-fifth as large occurring several times per century.<ref name="McCracken01">{{cite journal |author=Kenneth G. McCracken |author2=G. A. M. Dreschhoff |author3=E. J. Zeller |author4=D. F. Smart |author5=M. A. Shea |title=Solar cosmic ray events for the period 1561–1994 1. Identification in polar ice, 1561–1950 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=106 |issue=A10 |pages=21,585–21,598 |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2000JA000237 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JA000237.shtml |accessdate=February 16, 2011 |bibcode=2001JGR...10621585M }}</ref> Less severe storms have occurred in 1921 and 1960, when widespread radio disruption was reported. ==Technology== {{main|Technology}} [[Image:Shower detection.png|thumb|right|400px|This diagram depicts an air shower resulting from cosmic rays. Credit: Konrad Bernlöhr.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Penston">{{cite book |author = Margaret J. Penston |date = 14 August 2002 |url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&style=feature |title = The electromagnetic spectrum |publisher = Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council |accessdate = 17 August 2006 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory== [[Image:Multi Mirror Telescope in 1981.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This shows the Multi Mirror Telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in 1981. Credit: [[C:User:Happa|Happa]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory''' is an astronomical [[Astronomical observatories|observatory]] owned and operated by the [[w:Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory]] (SAO) with research activities that include imaging and spectroscopy of extragalactic, stellar, and planetary bodies, as well as [[Gamma-ray astronomy|gamma-ray]] and cosmic-ray astronomy. {{clear}} ==Pierre Auger Observatory== The '''Pierre Auger Observatory''' is an international cosmic ray observatory designed to detect [[w:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|ultra-high-energy cosmic ray]]s: single [[w:sub-atomic particle|sub-atomic particle]]s ([[w:proton|proton]]s or [[w:Atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]) with energies beyond 10²⁰&nbsp;[[w:electronvolt|eV]] (about the energy of a [[w:tennis ball|tennis ball]] traveling at 80&nbsp;km/h). These high energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per km² per century, therefore the Auger Observatory has created a detection area the size of [[w:Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] — over 3,000 km² (1,200 sq mi) — in order to record a large number of these events. It is located in western [[w:Argentina|Argentina]]'s [[w:Mendoza Province|Mendoza Province]], in one of the South American [[w:Pampas|Pampas]]. The basic set-up consists of 1600 water tanks ([[w:Cherenkov detector|water Cherenkov Detectors]], similar to the [[w:Haverah Park experiment|Haverah Park experiment]]) distributed over 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), along with four atmospheric [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] detectors (similar to the [[w:High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector|High Resolution Fly's Eye]]) overseeing the surface array. ==Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes== [[Image:Magicmirror.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is the MAGIC telescope at La Palma, Canary Islands. Credit: [[c:User:Pachango|Pachango]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''MAGIC''' ('''Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes''') is a system of two [[w:IACT|Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov telescope]]s situated at the [[w:Roque de los Muchachos Observatory|Roque de los Muchachos Observatory]] on [[w:La Palma|[La Palma]], one of the [[w:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]], at about 2200 m above sea level. MAGIC detects particle showers released by gamma rays, using the [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], i.e., faint light radiated by the charged particles in the showers. With a diameter of 17 meters for the reflecting surface, it is the largest in the world. MAGIC is sensitive to cosmic gamma rays with energies between 50 [[w:GeV|GeV]] and 30 [[w:TeV|TeV]] due to its large mirror; other ground-based gamma-ray telescopes typically observe gamma energies above 200-300 GeV. Satellite-based detectors detect gamma-rays in the energy range from keV up to several GeV. MAGIC has found pulsed gamma-rays at energies higher than 25 GeV coming from the [[w:Crab Pulsar|Crab Pulsar]].<ref name="ScienceU">"Observation of Pulsed Gamma-Rays Above 25 GeV from the Crab Pulsar with MAGIC", MAGIC collaboration, Science 322 (2008) 1221.</ref> The presence of such high energies indicates that the gamma-ray source is far out in the pulsar's [[w:magnetosphere|magnetosphere]], in contradiction with many models. A much more controversial observation is an energy dependence in the speed of light of cosmic rays coming from a short burst of the [[w:blazar|blazar]] [[w:Markarian 501|Markarian 501]] on July 9, 2005. Photons with energies between 1.2 and 10 TeV arrived 4 minutes after those in a band between .25 and .6 TeV. The average delay was .030±.012 seconds per GeV of energy of the photon. If the relation between the space velocity of a photon and its energy is linear, then this translates into the fractional difference in the speed of light being equal to minus the photon's energy divided by 2 x 10¹⁷ GeV. {{clear}} ==Balloons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Balloons}} The various background effects OSO 1 encountered prompted the flight of similar detectors on a balloon to determine the cosmic-ray effects in the materials surrounding the detectors. Measurements "of the cosmic-ray positron fraction as a function of energy have been made using the High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) balloon-borne instrument."<ref name="Barwick"/> "The first flight took place from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, [on May 3, 1994, with a total time at float altitude of 29.5 hr and a mean atmospheric overburden of 5.7 g cm^-2] ... The second flight [is] from Lynn Lake, Manitoba, [on August 23, 1995, with a total time at float altitude of 26 hr, and a mean atmospheric overburden of 4.8 g cm^-2]"<ref name="Barwick"/>. ==Orbital rocketry== [[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|right|250px|This photograph shows Explorer 11 with its orbital rocket. Credit: HEASARC GSFC NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HEAO-3.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of HEAO 3. Credit: William Mahoney, NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Explorer 11''' (also known as '''S15''') was an American Earth-[[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital]] satellite that carried the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope. This was the earliest beginning of space [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. Launched on April 27, 1961 by a [[w:Juno II|Juno II rocket]] the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission. During the spacecraft's seven month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from cosmic radiation. The HEAO 3 French-Danish C-2 experiment measured the relative composition of the isotopes of the primary cosmic rays between beryllium and iron (Z from 4 to 26) and the elemental abundances up to tin (Z=50). Cerenkov counters and [[w:hodoscope|hodoscope]]s, together with the Earth's magnetic field, formed a spectrometer. They determined charge and mass of cosmic rays to a precision of 10% for the most abundant elements over the momentum range from 2 to 25 GeV/c (c=speed of light). The purpose of the HEAO 3 C-3 experiment was to measure the charge spectrum of cosmic-ray nuclei over the nuclear charge (Z) range from 17 to 120, in the energy interval 0.3 to 10 GeV/nucleon; to characterize cosmic ray sources; processes of nucleosynthesis, and propagation modes. "The [[w:Rigidity (electromagnetism)|rigidity]] dependence of the escape length of cosmic rays in the galaxy has been derived in the framework of the leaky box model from the measured values of the B/C ratio."<ref name=Engelmann/> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name="Engelmann"/> {{clear}} ==Extreme Universe Space Observatory== The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. ==Heliocentric rocketry== [[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|250px|right|A technician stands next to one of the twin Helios spacecraft during testing. Credit: NASA/Max Planck.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Titan 3E Centaur with Helios 1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Shown is Helios 1 sitting atop the [[w:Titan III|Titan IIIE]] / [[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Helios - Trajectory.png|200px|thumb|left|Trajectory of the Helio space probes is diagrammed. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Helios 1''' and '''Helios 2''' are a pair of probes launched into heliocentric orbit for the purpose of studying solar processes. The probes are notable for having set a maximum speed record among spacecraft at 252,792 km/h<ref name="wilkinson2012">{{cite book | author=John Wilkinson | title=New Eyes on the Sun: A Guide to Satellite Images and Amateur Observation | series=Astronomers' Universe Series | publisher=Springer | date=2012 | isbn=3-642-22838-0 | page=37 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud2icgujz0wC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> (157,078 mi/h or 43.63 mi/s or 70.22 km/s or 0.000234c). Helios 2 flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun than Helios 1, achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a record distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers),<ref name="Helios">{{cite book |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Helios_02&Display=ReadMore |title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Helios 2 }}</ref> slightly inside the orbit of Mercury. Helios 2 was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios 1. The probes are no longer functional but still remain in their elliptical orbit around the Sun. On board, each probe carried an instrument for cosmic radiation investigation (the CRI) for measuring protons, electrons, and X-rays to determine the distribution of cosmic rays. {{clear}} ==Exploratory rocketry== [[Image:Pioneer 10 on its kickmotor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pioneer 10 on its kick motor prior to encapsulation before launch. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52a - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The charged particle instrument (CPI) is used to detect cosmic rays in the solar system. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52b - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The cosmic-ray telescope collects data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.png|thumb|left|250px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|250px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the Voyager 1 spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Cosmic Rays at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|The plot shows a dramatic increase in the rate of cosmic ray particle detection by the ''Voyager 1'' spacecraft (October 2012). Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] Pioneer 10 is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter/Keynote lecture|Jupiter]]<ref name="Fimmel">{{cite book |title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY |last=Fimmel |first=R. O., W. Swindell, and E. Burgess |date=1974 |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |isbn= |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]]. Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972 by an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas-Centaur]] expendable vehicle from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 36|Cape Canaveral]], [[w:Florida|Florida]]. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the [[w:Asteroid belt#Exploration|asteroid belt]]. "In 1972, the return of the galactic cosmic rays in the inner solar system to solar minimum conditions and the launch of Pioneer 10 toward Jupiter coincided to make possible the measurements of the low-energy cosmic-ray charge spectra during solar quiet times."<ref name="McDonald">{{cite journal |author=F. B. McDonald |author2=B. J. Teegarden |author3=J. H. Trainor |author4=W. R. Webber |title=The anomalous abundance of cosmic-ray nitrogen and oxygen nuclei at low energies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1. |year=1974 |volume=187 |issue=02 |pages=L105-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1974ApJ...187L.105M |arxiv= |bibcode=1974ApJ...187L.105M |doi=10.1086/181407 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> "Recent measurements using the Goddard-University of New Hampshire cosmic-ray telescope on the ''Pioneer 10'' spacecraft have revealed an anomalous spectrum of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei relative to other nuclei such as He and C, in the energy range 3-30 MeV per nucleon."<ref name="McDonald"/> "To eliminate [the solar cosmic-ray background] a very careful selection of times must be made to assure that solar cosmic rays are not obviously present [by] requiring that the 10-20 MeV proton intensity measured on the same experiment be essentially at background level."<ref name="McDonald"/> The '''International Cometary Explorer''' ('''ICE''') spacecraft was originally known as [the] '''International Sun/Earth Explorer 3''' ('''ISEE-3''') satellite. ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV. The instruments aboard ISEE-3 are designed to detect # protons in the energy range 150 eV - 7 keV and electrons in the 10 eV - 1 keV range (Solar wind plasma experiment), # Low, Medium and High-Energy Cosmic Rays (1-500 MeV/n, Z = 1-28, electrons 2-10 MeV, for Medium Energy; H to Ni, 20-500 MeV/n for High-energy), # H-Fe 30 MeV/n - 15 GeV/n and electrons 5-400 MeV for the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum experiment, # 17 Hz - 100 kHz magnetic and electric field wave levels (Plasma Waves Spectrum Analyzer), # low-energy solar proton acceleration and propagation processes in interplanetary space, Energetic Particle Anisotropy Spectrometer (EPAS), # 2 keV to > 1 MeV interplanetary and solar electrons, # radio mapping of solar wind disturbances (type III bursts) in 3-D, 30 kHz - 2 MHz, # solar wind ion composition, 300-600 km/s, 840 eV/Q to 11.7 keV/Q, M/Q = 1.5 to 5.6, # cosmic ray isotope spectrometer 5-250 MeV/n, Z=3-28, A=6-64 (Li-Ni), # ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft, # X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and # Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book |author=E. Bell II |title=ISEE 3 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location= |date=December 8, 2012 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A |accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and [[interstellar medium]]. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) "[d]etermines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. "Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Some cosmic rays are superluminals. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Electron astronomy]] * [[Gamma-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Positron astronomy]] * [[Proton astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry]] * [[X-ray astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }} * {{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=2014-01-11 }} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Cosmic-ray astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] i5icx6k6d5ir6lpcyf9xxfn74pvo7k9 2417238 2417224 2022-08-22T05:20:28Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Secondary cosmic rays */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy.svg|thumb|right|250px|The flux of cosmic-ray particles is a function of their energy. Credit: Sven Lafebre, after Swordy.<ref name="Swordy">{{cite journal |author=S. Swordy |title=The energy spectra and anisotropies of cosmic rays |month= |year=2001 |journal=Space Science Reviews |issue= |volume=99 |pages=85–94 }}</ref>{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Cosmic rays''' are energetic charged [[w:Subatomic particles|subatomic particles]], originating in [[w:Outer space|outer space]]. At right is an image indicating the range of cosmic-ray energies. The flux for the lowest energies (yellow zone) is mainly attributed to solar cosmic rays, intermediate energies (blue) to galactic cosmic rays, and highest energies (purple) to extragalactic cosmic rays.<ref name="Swordy"/> “'''Cosmic ray astronomy''' attempts to identify and study the sources of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays. It is unique in its reliance on charged particles as the information carriers.”<ref name="Sommers">{{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astronomy}} "Astronomy based on cosmic rays with the highest energies [above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts] opens a new window on the nearby universe."<ref name="Abraham">{{cite journal |author=J Abraham |author2=P Abreu |author3=M Aglietta |author4=C Aguirre |author5=D Allard |author6=The Pierre Auger Collaboration |title=Correlation of the highest-energy cosmic rays with nearby extragalactic objects |journal=Science |month=November 9, |year=2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=938-43 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/318/5852/938.short |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1126/science.1151124 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Cosmic rays== "Cosmic rays arise from galactic source accelerators."<ref name="Lee">{{cite book |author=S. Y. Lee |title=Accelerator physics, Second Edition |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. |location=Singapore |date=2004 |editor= |pages=575 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=981-256-182-X |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> Cosmic rays may be upwards of a ZeV (10²¹ eV). About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei of alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that originate from astrophysical sources are called '''primary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' low energy cosmic rays associated with solar flares are called '''solar cosmic rays'''. Cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. The positive ions are # free protons, # alpha particles (helium nuclei), # lithium nuclei, # beryllium nuclei, and # boron nuclei. '''Def.''' a [[wikt:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]] in which a [[wikt:nucleus|nucleus]] [[wikt:fragment|fragment]]s into many [[wikt:nucleon|nucleon]]s is called '''spallation'''. Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle (e.g. a [[w:proton|proton]]) impacts with [[w:matter|matter]], including other cosmic rays. The result of the collision is the expulsion of large numbers of [[w:nucleons|nucleons]] (protons and neutrons) from the object hit. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. ==Planetary sciences== {{main|Planetary sciences}} "Production rates of ²²Na (T_1/2 = 2.6 years) from aluminium by the action of cosmic rays are measured at the Mont Blanc (altitude 4600 m), the Aiguille du Midi (3840 m), and the Col du Lautaret (2070 m). They are 2.3±0.5, 1.8±0.3, and 0. 77±0.18 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, in good agreement with the calculated production rates, 2.4, 1.7 and 0.6 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, at the three stations."<ref name="Yokoyama">{{cite journal |author=Y Yokoyama |author2=JL Reyss |author3=F Guichard |title=Production of radionuclides by cosmic rays at mountain altitudes |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |month=August |year=1977 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44-50 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0012821X77901868 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Colors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Colors}} "[B]roadband optical photometry of Centaurs and Kuiper Belt objects from the Keck 10 m, the University of Hawaii 2.2 m, and the Cerro Tololo InterAmerican (CTIO) 1.5 m telescopes [shows] a wide dispersion in the optical colors of the objects, indicating nonuniform surface properties. The color dispersion [may] be understood in the context of the expected steady reddening due to bombardment by the ubiquitous flux of cosmic rays."<ref name="Luu">{{cite journal |author=Jane Luu |author2=David Jewitt |title=Color Diversity among the Centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects |journal=The Astronomical Journal |month=November |year=1996 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=2310-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996AJ....112.2310L |arxiv= |bibcode=1996AJ....112.2310L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Larmor radius== The '''Larmor radius''' is the radius of the circular motion of a charged particle] in the presence of a uniform magnetic field. “[F]or a particle of energy ''E'' in EeV and charge ''Z'' in a magnetic field ''B'' in µG [the Larmor radius (''R''_L)] is roughly”<ref name="Sommers"/> :<math>R_L = 1 kpc \frac{E}{Z B}</math> where :*<math>R_L \ </math> is the Larmor radius, :*<math>E\ </math> is the energy of the particle in EeV :*<math>Z \ </math> is the charge of the particle, and :*<math>B \ </math> is the constant magnetic field. ==Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limits== '''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''. Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance. :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon. ==Askaryan effects== The '''Askaryan effect''' is the phenomenon whereby a particle traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in a dense [[w:dielectric|dielectric]] (such as salt, ice or the lunar [[w:regolith|regolith]]) produces a shower of secondary charged particles which contain a charge [[w:anisotropy|anisotropy]] and thus emits a cone of [[w:Coherence (physics)|coherent]] radiation in the [[w:radio frequency|radio]] or [[w:microwave|microwave]] part of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectrum]]. It is similar to the [[w:Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov effect]]. So far the effect has been observed in [[w:silicon dioxide|silica]] [[w:sand|sand]],<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0011001 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Silica Sand]</ref> rock salt,<ref>[http://lanl.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0412128 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Rock Salt]</ref> and ice<ref name="Gorham">{{cite journal |author=P. W. Gorham |author2=S. W. Barwick |author3=J. J. Beatty |author4=D. Z. Besson |author5=W. R. Binns |author6=C. Chen |author7=P. Chen |author8=J. M. Clem |author9=A. Connolly |author10=P. F. Dowkontt |author11=M. A. DuVernois |author12=R. C. Field |author13=D. Goldstein |author14=A. Goodhue |author15=C. Hast |author16=C. L. Hebert |author17=S. Hoover |author18=M. H. Israel |author19=J. Kowalski |author20=J. G. Learned |author21=K. M. Liewer |author22=J. T. Link |author23=E. Lusczek |author24=S. Matsuno |author25=B. Mercurio |author26=C. Miki |author27=P. Miocinovic |author28=J. Nam |author29=C. J. Naudet |author30=J. Ng |author31=R. Nichol |author32=K. Palladino |author33=K. Reil |author34=A. Romero-Wolf |author35=M. Rosen |author36=D. Saltzberg |author37=D. Seckel |author38=G. S. Varner |author39=D. Walz |author40=F. Wu |title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October 25, |year=2007 |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=5 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?arXiv:hep-ex/0611008 |arxiv=hep-ex/0611008 |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref>.<ref name="Lehtinen">{{cite journal |author=Nikolai G. Lehtinen |author2=Peter W. Gorham |author3=Abram R. Jacobson |author4=Robert A. Roussel-Dupre ́ |title=FORTE satellite constraints on ultrahigh energy cosmic particle fluxes |journal=Physical Review D |month=January |year=2004 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=013008-1 to 14 |url=http://ees.lanl.gov/ees2/pdfs/Lehtinen_2004.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.69.013008 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-09-02 }}</ref> ==Galactic cosmic rays== [[Image:NeutronMonitor.GIF|right|thumb|400px|Cosmic Ray Intensity (blue) and Sunspot Number (green) is shown from 1951 to 2006. Credit: University of New Hampshire.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "effect of time-variations in galactic cosmic rays on the rate of production of neutrons in the atmosphere [was studied using] a series of balloon and airplane observations of the [fast neutron] flux and spectrum of 1-10 MeV neutrons, in flights at high geomagnetic latitude, during [quiet times as well as during Forbush decreases, which are rapid decreases in the observed galactic cosmic rays following a coronal mass ejection (CME), and solar particle events for] the period of increasing solar modulation, 1965-1969. It also included latitude surveys in 1964-1965 and in 1968."<ref name=Merker>{{ cite book |author=M. Merker |author2=E. S. Light |author3=R. B. Mendell |author4=S. A. Korff |title=The flux of fast neutrons in the atmosphere. 1. The effect of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays, In: ''Solar Cosmic Rays, Modulation of Galactic Radiation, Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Effects'' |volume=2 |publisher=International Conference on Cosmic Rays |location=Budapest |date=1970 |editor=A. Somogyi |pages=739 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ICRC....2..739M |arxiv= |bibcode=1970ICRC....2..739M |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-08-15 }}</ref> In the image on the right for Forbush decreases, data include GOES-15 X-rays, energetic particles, and magnetometer. Cosmic Rays from the Moscow station show a Forbush Decrease. The graph on the right shows an inverse correlation between sunspot numbers (solar activity) and neutron production from galactic cosmic rays. '''Notation''': let the symbol '''Z''' stand for '''atomic number'''. ::: let the symbol '''PeV''' stand for '''10¹⁵ electron volts'''. "The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 − 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle flux consists of these elements."<ref name=Horandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R Hörandel |author2=N N Kalmykov |author3=A V Timokhin |title=The end of the galactic cosmic-ray energy spectrum-a phenomenological view |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |month=April |year=2006 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=132-41 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/47/1/017 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/47/1/017 |pmid= |pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0508015 |accessdate=2011-12-31 }}</ref> In the graph on the right, the black line is cosmic-ray data and the red line is temperature. ''Ulysses'' data is included. {{clear}} ==Ultra-high energy cosmic rays== [[Image:Absolute flux of cosmic–ray elements at 1 TeV-nucleus versus nuclear charge.png|right|thumb|300px|Absolute flux Φ⁰_Z of cosmic–ray elements at ''E''₀ = 1 TeV/nucleus is plotted versus nuclear charge. Credit: Jörg R. Hörandel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The '''Oh-My-God particle''' was observed on the evening of 15 October 1991 over [[w:Dugway Proving Ground|Dugway Proving Ground]], Utah. Its observation was a shock to [[w:astrophysics|astrophysicists]], who estimated its energy to be approximately {{val|3|e=20|u=eV}}<ref name="Baez">[http://www.desy.de/user/projects/Physics/General/open_questions.html Open Questions in Physics.] German Electron-Synchrotron. A Research Centre of the Helmholtz Association. Updated March 2006 by JCB. Original by John Baez.</ref>(50&nbsp;[[w:joule|joule]]s)&mdash;in other words, a [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic particle]] with kinetic energy equal to that of a [[w:baseball (object)|baseball]] (142&nbsp;g or 5&nbsp;oz) traveling at 100&nbsp;km/h (60&nbsp;mph). It was most probably a [[w:proton|proton]] with a speed very close to the [[w:speed of light|speed of light]] (approximately 0.9999999999999999999999951c), so close that in a year-long race between light and the cosmic ray, the ray would fall behind only 46 nanometers (5 x 10^-24 light-years), or 0.15 femtoseconds (1.5 x 10^-16 s).<ref name="Walker">{{cite book | author=J. Walker | date=January 4, 1994 | title=The Oh-My-God Particle | url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/OhMyGodParticle/ | publisher=Fourmilab |accessdate= }}</ref> “The energy spectrum of cosmic rays extends to ~10²⁰ eV (and smoothly to 10¹⁹).”<ref name="Hillas">{{cite journal |author=A. M. Hillas |title=The Origin of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1984 |volume=22 |issue= |pages=425-44 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1984ARA&A..22..425H |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002233 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Primary cosmic rays== [[Image:Climax Colorado surface neutron data.png|right|thumb|250px|Data from the Climax, Colorado, surface neutron monitor is an indicator of primary cosmic rays in the GeV range. Credit: John N. Bahcall and William H. Press.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The data on the right "from the Climax, Colorado, surface neutron monitor [...] is an indicator of primary cosmic rays in the GeV range."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "Variation with the solar cycle [dotted curve of sunspot data] is evident."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "The tendency of the cosmic-ray modulation to lag sunspots (at least at times of sunspot decline) is visible, as is the somewhat more sawtooth form of the cosmic rays."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "The surface neutron flux [...] is largest at solar minimum and smallest at solar maximum, and [...] has the same sense as the ³⁷Ar production variations."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "Primary cosmic rays below ~1 GeV are shielded by heliospheric currents which build up during solar maximum; see, e.g., Simpson 1989 and references there in."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> {{clear}} ==Secondary cosmic rays== Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Minerals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Minerals}} [[Image:Cosmo03.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a diagram of muon target minerals. Credit: Derek Fabel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Bombardment by protostellar cosmic rays may make the rock precursors of [Calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions] CAIs and chondrules radioactive, producing radionuclides found in meteorites that are difficult to obtain with other mechanisms."<ref name="Lee1998">{{cite journal |author=Typhoon Lee |author2=Frank H. Shu |author3=Hsien Shang |author4=Alfred E. Glassgold |author5=K. E. Rehm |title=Protostellar cosmic rays and extinct radioactivities in meteorites |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=October 20, |year=1998 |volume=506 |issue=2 |pages=898-912 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/506/2/898 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/306284 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> "The Earth is continually being bombarded by high-energy cosmic rays that originate predominantly from super nova explosions within our galaxy. Interactions between these high energy cosmic rays and the Earth's atmosphere creates secondary and tertiary cosmic rays, including neutrons and muons."<ref name=Fabel>{{ cite book |author=Derek Fabel |title=In-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides |publisher=University of Glasgow |location= |date=December 18, 2008 |url=http://web2.ges.gla.ac.uk/~dfabel/CN_intro.html |accessdate=2014-03-21 }}</ref> "When reaching the Earth's surface these high energy particles can penetrate meters into rock and sediment."<ref name=Fabel/> "Nuclear interactions between neutrons and muons and minerals [as in the diagram at the right] such as quartz, calcite, K-feldspar, and olivine, produce long-lived radionuclides such as Be-10, Al-26 and Cl-36."<ref name=Fabel/> "The production rates of these "in-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides" are almost unimaginably small - a few atoms per gram of rock per year, however using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) we can detect and count cosmogenic nuclides down to levels of a few thousand atoms per gram (parts per million of parts per billion!)."<ref name=Fabel/> "The build-up of cosmogenic nuclides through time provides us with a way to measure exposure ages for rock surfaces such as fault scarps, lava flows and glacial pavements.Where surfaces are gradually evolving, cosmogenic nuclide measurements allow us to calculate erosion or soil accumulation rates.Where previously exposed rock or sediment is re-buried the relative decay between different cosmogenic nuclides can be used to date the burial time."<ref name=Fabel/> {{clear}} ==Theoretical cosmic-ray astronomy== "The phenomenology of cosmic ray cascades ... reflects in an essential way processes governed by the strong force."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Full multiple scattering theory must take account of the angular dependence of hadron-nucleon scattering, which affects the degree of screening."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Sources== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Sources}} "Violent activity and Supernovae generate cosmic ray (suprathermal) particles. The speeds of individual particles may be ~ c, and their energy density, if they diffused uniformly through the universe, could well exceed 100 eV per baryon. Subrelativistic particles would be slowed down, and would transmit their energy to the thermal component. However, the relativistic particles could themselves exert a pressure if they were coupled (e.g. via magnetic fields) so that they constituted, with the thermal gas, a composite fluid, to which they contributed most of the pressure. Although there is here even less problem in fulfilling the energy density requirement than there is for ultraviolet radiation, there is uncertainty about how uniformly it can spread. If the cosmic-ray energy remains concentrated around the sources, it is irrelevant in the present context [of the cold dark matter cosmogony]; at the other extreme, if the particles diffuse too freely, they do not couple well enough to protogalactic gas for their pressure gradients to oppose gravitational collapse."<ref name="Rees">{{cite journal |author=Martin J. Rees |title=Is the Universe flat? |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |month=December |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=331-48 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02714464 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-18 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Objects== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Objects|Object astronomy}} "Comparison with the chemical composition of various astrophysical objects, such as the Sun, the [[interstellar medium]], supernovae or neutron stars, can give clues about the site at which cosmic rays are injected into the acceleration process."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Strong forces== {{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}} "In field theory it is known that coupling constants “run”. This means that the values of the [[coupling constant]]s that one measures depend on the energy at which the measurement is performed. [...] the three different coupling constants [one each for the strong force, electromagnetic force, and the weak force] of the standard model seem to converge to the same value at an energy scale of about 10¹⁶ GeV [...] This suggests that there is only one coupling constant at high energies and most likely only one symmetry group. [...] The current belief [is] that the electromagnetic, weak and strong forces [are] unified at about 10¹⁶ GeV [as such] one has to rely on [the] particle physics interactions which can lead to electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays".<ref name="Vachaspati">{{cite journal |author=Tanmay Vachaspati |title=Topological defects in the cosmos and lab |journal=Contemporary Physics |month= |year=1998 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=225-37 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/001075198181928 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1080/001075198181928 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Weak forces== "The feature that makes deep inelastic lepton scattering and e⁺e^- annihilation tractable is that these processes proceed via the electromagnetic and weak interactions."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Continua== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Continua}} Continuum "radiation ... diffuse gamma rays with energies above 10 MeV. In the galaxy these are produced primarily by bremsstrahlung from cosmic ray electrons and from decay in flight of π⁰'s produced by interactions of cosmic ray protons."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} "The attenuation of photons in the microwave background ''via'' the process :<math>\gamma + \gamma (3^o K) \rightarrow e^+ e^-</math> is strongly energy dependent, with a minimum attenuation length of ≈ 7 kpc around 2.5 PeV, as determined by the threshold for e⁺e^- production (Gould and Schreder, 1966; Jelley, 1966)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation/Meteors}} [[Image:Micrometeorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a micrometeorite collected from the antarctic snow. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he carbonaceous material [is] known from observation to dominate the terrestrial [micrometeorite (MM)] flux."<ref name="Taylor"/> "Ureilites occur about half as often as eucrites (Krot et al. 2003), are relatively friable, have less a wide range of cosmic-ray exposure ages including two less than 1 Myr, and, like the dominant group of MM precursors, contain carbon."<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |author=Susan Taylor |author2=Gregory F. Herzog |author3=Jeremy S. Delaney |title=Crumbs from the crust of Vesta: Achondritic cosmic spherules from the South Pole water well |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |month= |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=223-33 |url= |bibcode=2007M&PS...42..223T |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00229.x |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Hadrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Hadrons}} [[Image:Differential hadron energy spectrum.png|right|thumb|300px|Differential energy spectrum shows the differential vertical hadron intensity versus hadron energy in GeV. Credit: F. Ashton, A. Nasri, & I. A. Ward.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "problems plaguing (3 + 1)- dimensional quantum gravity quantization programs are solved by virtue of the fact that spacetime is dimensionally-reduced. Indeed, effective models of quantum gravity are plentiful in (2 + 1) and even (1 + 1) dimensions [11–13]. Similarly, the cosmological constant problem may be explained as a Casimir-type energy between two adjacent “foliations” of three-dimensional space as the scale size L > L4 opens up a fourth space dimension."<ref name=Mureika>{{ cite journal |author=Jonas Mureika |author2=Dejan Stojkovic |title=Detecting Vanishing Dimensions Via Primordial Gravitational Wave Astronomy |journal=Physical review letters |date=8 March 2011 |volume=106 |issue=10-11 |pages=101101 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1102.3434.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.101101 |pmid= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "What makes this proposal of evolving dimensions very attractive is that some evidence of the lower dimensional structure of our space-time at a TeV scale may already exist. Namely, alignment of the main energy fluxes in a target (transverse) plane has been observed in families of cosmic ray particles [18–20]. The fraction of events with alignment is statistically significant for families with energies higher than TeV and large number of hadrons. This can be interpreted as evidence for coplanar scattering of secondary hadrons produced in the early stages of the atmospheric cascade development."<ref name=Mureika/> In the image on the right, the "energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level has been measured over the energy range 600 GeV - 8 TeV. The spectrum is found to be well represented in differential form by N(E)dE = AE^-𝛄dE where 𝛄 = 2.74 ± 0.16 with no suggested anomalous behaviour over the whole energy range."<ref name=Ashton>{{ cite book |author=F. Ashton |author2=A. Nasri |author3=I. A. Ward |title=The energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level, In: ''International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |volume=7 |publisher=Sofia, B'lgarska Akademiia na Naukite |location=Plovdiv, Bulgaria |date=26 August 1977 |editor= |pages=458-463 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1977ICRC....7..458A/G000458.000.html |arxiv= |bibcode=1977ICRC....7..458A |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "Incident hadrons either interact in the lead (15 cm thick) or iron (15 cm thick) targets and the resulting cascade traverses the plastic scintillators [...] which are both 5 cm thick. Using a burst of size > 400 equivalent muons traversing either scintillator as a master trigger a high voltage pulse was applied to the flash tubes, which are photographed, after a time delay of 330 𝛍s. From the resulting photograph the projected angle of incidence of the incident hadron could be determined and a decision taken a to whether is was in the acceptance geometry as defined [...]. [...] In converting the burst spectrum measurements to an estimate of the incident hadron spectrum the hadrons have been assumed to be nucleons. If charged pions are assumed the energies shown in [the image on the right] should be reduced by 0.8."<ref name=Ashton/> {{clear}} ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons|}} [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name="Choy">{{cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name="Choy"/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei. The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays, which propagate for interstellar distances. "Proton astronomy [since protons are also most cosmic rays] should be possible; it may also provide indirect information on inter-galactic magnetic fields."<ref name="Halzen">{{cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=July |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-78 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0204527 |arxiv= |bibcode=2002RPPh...65.1025H |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Antiprotons have been detected in cosmic rays for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray protons with nuclei in the [[interstellar medium]], via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name="Kennedy">{{cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> Kosmos 60 measured the gamma-ray background flux density to be 1.7×10⁴ quanta/(m²·s). As was seen by Ranger 3 and Lunas 10 & 12, the spectrum fell sharply up to 1.5 MeV and was flat for higher energies. Several peaks were observed in the spectra which were attributed to the inelastic interaction of cosmic protons with the materials in the satellite body. {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1% of cosmic rays. "The conventional procedure of delta-ray counting to measure charge (Powell, Fowler, and Perkins 1959), which was limited to resolution sigma_z = 1-2 because of uncertainties of the criterion of delta-ray ranges, has been significantly improved by the application of delta-ray range distribution measurements for ¹⁶O and ³²S data of 200 GeV per nucleon (Takahashi 1988; Parnell ''et al.'' 1989)."<ref name="Burnett">{{cite journal |author=T. H. Burnett |author2=''et al.'' |author3=The JACEE Collaboration |title=Energy spectra of cosmic rays above 1 TeV per nucleon |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=January |year=1990 |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=L25-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=GIF&db_key=AST |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B |doi=10.1086/185642 |pmid= |pdf=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> Here, the delta-ray tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for "[d]irect measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei above 1 TeV/nucleon ... in a series of balloon-borne experiments".<ref name="Burnett"/> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:509305main GBM positron event 300dpi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Observation of positrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash is performed by the Fermi gamma ray telescope. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.{{tlx|free media}}]] A few antiprotons and positrons are in primary cosmic rays. "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name="Ting">{{cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> A High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) has been developed and tested in the mid 1990s to measure the positron fraction in cosmic rays.<ref name="Barwick"/> There is an "unexpected rise of the positron fraction, observed by HEAT and PAMELA experiments, for energies larger than a few GeVs."<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite journal |author=Roberto Alfredo Lineros Rodriguez |title=Positrons from cosmic rays interactions and dark matter annihilations |journal=Rivista Del Nuovo Cimento |month= |year=2010 |volume=125B |issue= |pages=1053-70 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010arXiv1002.0671A |arxiv=1002.0671 |bibcode=2010arXiv1002.0671A |doi=10.1393/ncb/i2010-10910-7 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-17 }}</ref> "[T]he HEAT balloon experiment [30] ... has mildly indicated a possible positron excess at energies larger than 10 GeV ... In October 2008, the latest results of PAMELA experiment [36] have confirmed and extended this feature [37]."<ref name="Rodriguez"/> Earlier measurements indicate that "the positron fraction, [f = ] e⁺/(e^- + e⁺), increases with energy at energies above 10 GeV. Such an increase would require either the appearance of a new source of positrons or a depletion of primary electrons."<ref name="Barwick">{{cite journal |author=S. W. Barwick |author2=J. J. Beatty |author3=A. Bhattacharyya |author4=C. R. Bower |author5=C. J. Chaput |author6=S. Coutu |author7=G. A. de Nolfo |author8=J. Knapp |author9=D. M. Lowder |author10=S. McKee |author11=D. Müller |author12=J. A. Musser |author13=S. L. Nutter |author14=E. Schneider |author15=S. P. Swordy |author16=G. Tarlé |author17=A. D. Tomasch |author18=E. Torbet |title=Measurements of the Cosmic-Ray Positron Fraction from 1 to 50 GeV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=June 20, |year=1997 |volume=482 |issue=2 |pages=L191-4 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/482/2/L191/pdf/1538-4357_482_2_L191.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode=1997ApJ...482L.191B |doi=10.1086/310706 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-13 }}</ref> All results taken together suggest a slight decrease with increasing energy from about 1 GeV to 10 GeV, but overall the fraction may be constant, per Figure 2.<ref name="Barwick"/> {{clear}} ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy}} [[Image:Moons shodow in muons.gif|thumb|right|250px|The Moon's cosmic ray shadow. Credit: J. H. Cobb et al. (The Soudan 2 Collaboration).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] At right is an image of the Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the [[w:Soudan II|Soudan II]] detector. The shadow is the result of approximately 120 muons missing from a total of 33 million detected in Soudan 2 over its 10 years of operation. The cross denotes the actual location of the Moon. The shadow of the Moon is slightly offset from this location because cosmic rays are electrically charged particles and were slightly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field on their journey to the upper atmosphere. The shadow is produced due to the shielding effect the Moon has on galactic and cosmic rays, which stream in from all directions. "To reduce the background of ordinary cosmic ray showers, several large air shower experiments emphasize measurement of the muon content of the shower. Ironically, early indications are that the signal seems to have the same muon content as the background."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}} Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of [[w:radioactive decay|radioactive decay]], or [[w:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]]s, or when [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s hit atoms. Cosmic "ray neutrinos of local origin are also the background for neutrino astronomy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} "Over the last few years, the cold dark matter cosmogony has become a fiducial model for the formation of structure. [...] The problem with detecting dark matter using annihilation radiation gamma rays has been that the expected signal is comparable to the background (Stecker 1988) and it would be difficult to separate a "cosmic-ray halo" from a dark halo."<ref name="Lake">{{cite journal |author=George Lake |title=High Dark Matter Densities and the Formation of Extreme Dwarf Galaxies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June 20, |year=1990 |volume=356 |issue=06 |pages=L43-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990ApJ...356L..43L |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...356L..43L |doi=10.1086/185746 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-20 }}</ref> In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background. ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} Some "of the possible sources of the ultra-high energy cosmic rays, such as very young supernova remnants and X-ray binaries, are associated with relatively dense concentrations of matter and would therefore be likely point sources of secondary photons and neutrinos."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Opticals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}} "An accelerator in this particular supernova [TeV range] could hardly be this powerful without having altered the behavior of the optical light curve, which was very successfully explained as being powered by the radioactive decay chain of ⁵⁶Ni synthesized in the explosion (Pinto & Woosley, 1988)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Cygnus X-3 is obscured by the disk of the galaxy and is not visible in the optical. It is therefore impossible to determine unambiguously by what means it is powered."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} "The Broad LAteral Non-imaging Cherenkov Array (BLANCA) takes advantage of the CASA-MIA particle array installation by augmenting it with 144 angle-integrating Cherenkov detectors. Located in Dugway, Utah at an atmospheric depth of 870 g cm⁻², BLANCA uses the CASA trigger to collect Cherenkov light and records the Cherenkov lateral distribution from cosmic ray events in the energy range of the knee. The CASA trigger threshold imposes an energy threshold of ∼ 100 TeV on the Cherenkov array. However, BLANCA analysis uses events with a 200 TeV minimum to avoid composition bias introduced from the CASA trigger."<ref name="Swordy2002"/> "Each BLANCA detector contains a large Winston cone [43] which concentrates the light striking an 880 cm² entrance aperture onto a photomultiplier tube. The concentrator has a nominal half-angle of 12.5° and truncated length of 60 cm. The Winston cones were aligned vertically with ∼ 0.5° accuracy. A two-output preamplifier increases the dynamic range of the detector. The minimum detectable density of a typical BLANCA unit is approximately one blue photon per cm²."<ref name="Swordy2002">{{cite journal |author=S.P. Swordy |author2=L.F. Fortson |author3=J. Hinton |author4=J. Hörandel |author5=J. Knapp |author6=C.L. Pryke |author7=T. Shibata |author8=S.P. Wakely |author9=Z. Cao |author10=M. L. Cherry |author11=S. Coutu |author12=J. Cronin |author13=R. Engel |author14=J.W. Fowler |author15=K.-H. Kampert |author16=J. Kettler |author17=D.B. Kieda |author18=J. Matthews |author19=S. A. Minnick |author20=A. Moiseev |author21=D. Muller |author22=M. Roth |author23=A. Sill |author24=G. Spiczak |title=The Composition of Cosmic Rays at the Knee |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=October |year=2002 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=129-50 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0202159.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00108-1 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens|Green astronomy}} "Babcock, using a Fabry and Perot interferometer, determined very accurately the wave-length of the auroral green line 5577. ... After a careful examination of all the results obtained in these reports, we may only say that the exact nature of the cosmical rays, responsible for the aurora, remains a mystery. ... The origin of the most prominent and interesting line of the auroral spectrum, the line 5577, has hitherto remained unexplained. Vegard* has recently obtained a luminescent band from solid nitrogen, that he supposes, under very special conditions, may coincide with the auroral green line. ... spectra of pure helium and of pure oxygen were taken at different pressures and with various excitations, but no trace of 5577 or of any other new lines was obtained. ... Mixtures of helium, oxygen and nitrogen were excited, and it was found that the line 5577 could be photographed on the same plate with the nitrogen band system, thus reproducing in the laboratory practically the entire auroral spectrum. In ... mixtures of neon and oxygen ... neon enhanced the line 5577 in the same manner as helium. ... From Plate 20 it will be seen that all the lines except 5577 have been identified as ''strong'' lines in the spectrum of helium, hydrogen, oxygen, or mercury. ... It has been shown that this line must be attributed to some hitherto unknown spectrum of oxygen, and that it is not a limiting member of the ordinary band spectrum of oxygen. It has been observed faintly in highly purified oxygen when currents of high density have been used."<ref name="McLennan">{{cite journal |author=J. C. McLennan |author2=G. M. Shrum |title=On the Origin of the Auroral Green Line 5577 Å, and other Spectra Associated with the Aurora Borealis |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences |month= |year=1925 |volume=108 |issue=747 |pages=501-12 |url=http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/108/747/501.full.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1098/rspa.1925.0088 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-24 }}</ref> Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the [[Stars/Sun|sun]] during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} "When magnetic fields "reconnect" in a turbulent magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) plasma, electric fields are generated in which particles can be accelerated (Matthaeus ''et al.'', 1984; Sorrell, 1984)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Berylliums== {{main|Chemicals/Berylliums}} The "presence in ... cosmic radiation [is] of a much greater proportion of "secondary" nuclei, such as lithium, beryllium and boron, than is found generally in the universe."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Carbons== These "are nevertheless present in the cosmic radiation as spallation products of the abundant nuclei of carbon and oxygen (Li,Be,B) and of iron (Sc,Ti,V,Cr,Mn)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Aluminums== {{main|Chemicals/Aluminums}} [[Image:COMPTEL 26Al galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The distribution of ²⁶Al in the [[w:Milky Way|Milky Way]] is shown. Credit: [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/cgro/ the COMPTEL Collaboration].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aluminum26 Map.png|thumb|left|250px|This is the CGRO gamma-ray signal from the Galactic Center region. Credit: COMPTEL Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The dominant reactions for making ²⁶Al by [cosmic-ray] proton and α bombardment of refractory rocks in impulsive flares are ²⁷Al(p, pn)²⁶Al (β=0.92), ²⁶Mg(p, n)²⁶Al (β=1.0), ²⁴Mg(α, pn)²⁶Al (β=2.5 and y_CR = 0.1), ²⁸Si(p, 2pn)²⁶Al (β=0.10), and ²⁸Si(α, αpn)²⁶Al (β=0.41)."<ref name="Lee1998"/> '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. Aluminium-26 also emits gamma rays and X-rays,<ref>{{ cite book | url = http://hpschapters.org/northcarolina/NSDS/26AlPDF.pdf | title = Nuclide Safety Data Sheet Aluminum-26 | publisher = www.nchps.org}}</ref> and is one of the few [[w:radionuclide|radionuclide]]s to emit X-rays. {{clear}} ==Ions== {{main|Plasmas/Ions|Ions}} "Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids."<ref name="Madey">{{cite journal |author=Theodore E. Madey |author2=Robert E. Johnson |author3=Thom M. Orlando |title=Far-out surface science: radiation-induced surface processes in the solar system |journal=Surface Science |month=March |year=2002 |volume=500 |issue=1-3 |pages=838-58 |url=http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/~madey/Publications/Full_Publications/PDF/madey_SS_2002.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0039-6028(01)01556-4 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> ==Atmospheres== {{main|Atmospheric astronomy}} Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|Earth's atmosphere]], creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from the [[w:Tata Institute of Fundamental Research|Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (India), [[w:Osaka City University|Osaka City University]] (Japan) and [[w:Durham University|Durham University]] (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in [[w:Kolar Gold Fields|Kolar Gold Fields]] in India in 1965. "The major problems associated with the balloon borne positron measurements are (i) the unique identification against a vast background of protons, and (ii) corrections for the positrons produced in the residual atmosphere."<ref name="Barbiellini">{{cite journal |author=G. Barbiellini |author2=G. Basini |author3=R. Bellotti |author4=M. Bpcciolini |author5=M. Boezio |author6=F. Massimo Brancaccio |author7=U. Bravar |author8=F. Cafagna |author9=M. Candusso |author10=P. Carlson |author11=M. Casolino |author12=M. Castellano |author13=M. Circella |author14=A. Codino |author15=G. De Cataldo |author16=C. De Marzo |author17=M.P. De Pascale |author18=N. Finetti |author19=T. Francke |author20=N. Giglietto |author21=R.L. Golden |author22=C. Grimani |author23=M. Hof |author24=B. Marangelli |author25=W. Menn |author26=J.W. Mitchell |author27=A. Morselli |author28=J.F. Ormes |author29=P. Papini |author30=a. Perego |author31=S. Piccardi |author32=P. Picozza |author33=M. Ricci |author34=P. Schiavon |author35=M. Simon |author36=R. Sparvoli |author37=P. Spillatini |author38=P. Spinelli |author39=S.A. Stephens |author40=S.J. Stochaj |author41=R.E. Streitmatter |author42=M. Suffert |author43=A. Vacchi |author44=N. Weber |author45=N. Zampa |title=The cosmic-ray positron-to-electron ratio in the energy range 0.85 to 14 GeV |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1996 |volume=309 |issue=05 |pages=L15-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996A&A...309L..15B |arxiv= |bibcode=1996A&A...309L..15B |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-11 }}</ref> "[T]o account for the atmospheric corrections ... first [use] the instrument to determine the negative muon spectrum at float altitude. ... [Use this] spectrum ... to normalize the analytically determined atmospheric electron-positron spectra. ... most of the atmospheric electrons and positrons at small atmospheric depths are produced from muon decay at [the energies from 0.85 to 14 GeV]."<ref name="Barbiellini"/> ==Materials== {{main|Chemicals/Materials}} "The two groups of elements Li, Be, B and Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn are many orders of magnitude more abundant in the cosmic radiation than in solar system material."<ref name="Gaisser">{{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=11 January 2014 }}</ref> ==Meteorites== {{main|Rocks/Meteorites|Meteorites}} [[Image:Allan Hills 81005, lunar meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the lunar meteorite ''Allan Hills 81005''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:NWA 6963 full slice.jpg|thumb|right|250px|NWA 6963 is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/44124348109@N01 Steve Jurvetson].{{tlx|free media}}]] Cosmic ray exposure history established with noble gas measurements have shown that all lunar meteorites were ejected from the Moon in the past 20 million years. Most left the Moon in the past 100,000 years. Imaged at lower right is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite. "The perimeter exhibits a fusion crust from the heat of entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fresh sample of NWA 6963, an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Meteorites are often labeled NWA for North West Africa, not because they land there more often, but because they are easy to spot as peculiar objects in the desert sands. From the geochemistry and presence of various isotopes, the origin and transit time is deduced. The 99 meteorites from Mars exhibit precise elemental and isotopic compositions similar to rocks and atmosphere gases analyzed by spacecraft on Mars, starting with the Viking lander in 1976. Compared to other meteorites, the Martians have younger formation ages, unique oxygen isotopic composition (consistent for Mars and not for Earth), and the presence of aqueous weathering products. A trapped gas analysis concluded that their origin was Mars quite recently, in the year 2000."<ref name="Jurvetson">{{cite book |author=Steve Jurvetson |title=It came from Mars |publisher=flickr from Yahoo! |location= |date=21 December 2012 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/44124348109@N01/8302214803 |accessdate=24 February 2013 }}</ref> "The formation ages of meteorites often come from their cosmic-ray exposure (CRE), measured from the nuclear products of interactions of the meteorite in space with energetic cosmic ray particles. This one is particularly young, having crystallized only 180 million years ago, suggesting that volcanic activity was still present on Mars at that time. Volcanic flows are the youngest part of a planet, and this one happened to be hit by a meteor impact, ejecting" it from the youthful Mars.<ref name="Jurvetson"/> {{clear}} ==Spectrometers== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectrometers}} [[Image:Grsradiation-med.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This diagram depicts the generation of gamma rays by cosmic ray exposure. Credit: JPL, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Using Germanium detectors - a crystal of hyperpure germanium that produces pulses proportional to the captured photon energy; while more sensitive, it has to be cooled to a low temperature, requiring a bulky cryogenic apparatus. When exposed to [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]] (charged particles in space that come from the stars, including our sun), chemical elements in soils and rocks emit uniquely identifiable signatures of energy in the form of gamma rays. The gamma ray spectrometer looks at these signatures, or energies, coming from the elements present in the target soil. By measuring gamma rays coming from the target body, it is possible to calculate the abundance of various elements and how they are distributed around the planet's surface. Gamma rays, emitted from the [[w:atomic nucleus|nuclei]] of [[w:atoms|atoms]], show up as sharp [[w:emission lines|emission lines]] on the instrument's spectrum output. While the energy represented in these emissions determines which elements are present, the intensity of the spectrum reveals the elements concentrations. Spectrometers are expected to add significantly to the growing understanding of the origin and evolution of planets like Mars and the processes shaping them today and in the past. {{clear}} ==Solar cosmic rays== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:SpaceEnvironmentOverview From 19830101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows an overview of the space weather conditions over several solar cycles including the relationship between sunspot numbers and cosmic rays. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Solar magnetic flux.png|left|thumb|300px|Comparison shows the observed (solar irradiance and sunspot number, symbols) and modeled (solid line) total magnetic flux Credit: Luis Eduardo A. Vieira and Sami K. Solanki.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver"/> "For solar cosmic-rays, the apparent lack of proton acceleration in the corona seems justified, in contrast to the electrons, proton bremsstrahlung and gyrosynchrotron emission are negligible. This suggests a transit time anomaly, Δ''T''_''A'', defined as follows: : Δ''T''_''A'' = Δ''T''_onset - 11 min, where Δ''T''_onset is the deduced Sun-Earth transit time for the first arriving relativistic protons and 11 min is the nominal transit time for a ~2 GeV proton traversing a 1.3 AU Archimedes spiral path."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> "The '''solar wind''' is a stream of [[w:charged particle|charged particle]]s ejected from the [[w:stellar atmosphere|upper atmosphere]] of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. It mostly consists of electrons and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 [[w:electronvolt|keV]]. Δ''T''_''A'' may have values from "7-19 min for a small sample of well-connected ... cosmic-ray flares."<ref name="Cliver"/> The transit time anomaly may be explained by a rise time associated with the ground-level events (GLEs). "The average GLE rise time ... for well-connected ... events ... defined to be the time from event onset to maximum as measured by the neutron monitor station showing the largest increase and whose asymptotic cone of acceptance ... includes the nominal direction of the Archimedean spiral path, is 21.3 min."<ref name="Cliver"/> "Data from an extensive air shower detector of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays shows shadowing of the cosmic-ray flux by the Moon and the Sun with significance of 4.9 standard deviations. This is the first observation of such shadowing."<ref name="Alexandreas">{{cite journal |author=D.E. Alexandreas |author2=R.C. Allen |author3=D. Berley |author4=S.D. Biller |author5=R.L. Burman |author6=D.R. Cady |author7=C.Y. Chang |author8=B.L. Dingus |author9=G.M. Dion |author10=R.W. Ellsworth |author11=M.K. Gilra |author12=J.A. Goodman |author13=S. Gupta |author14=T.J. Haines |author15=C.M. Hoffman |author16=D.A. Krakauer |author17=P. Kwok |author18=J. lloyd-Evans |author19=D.E. Nagle |author20=M.E. Potter |author21=V.D. Sandberg |author22=M.J. Stark |author23=R.L. Talaga |author24=P.R. Vishwanath |author25=G.B. Yodh |author26=W. Zhang |title=Observation of shadowing of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays by the moon and the sun |journal=Physical Review, D (Particles Fields) |month=March 1, |year=1991 |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=1735-8 |url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6399949 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> "The ... solar proton flare on 20 April 1998 at W 90° and S 43° (9:38 UT) was measured by the GOES-9-satellite (Solar Geophysical Data 1998), as well as by other experiments on WIND ... and GEOTAIL. Protons were accelerated up to energies > 110 MeV and are therefore able to hit the surface of Mercury."<ref name="Kirsch">{{cite book |author=E. Kirsch |author2=U.A. Mall |author3=B. Wilken |author4=G. Gloeckler |author5=A.B. Galvin |author6=K. Cierpka |title=Detection of Pickup- and Sputter Ions by Experiment SMS on the WIND-S/C After a Mercury Conjunction, In: ''Proceedings of the 26th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) |location=Salt Lake City, Utah, USA |date=August 17, 1999 |editor=D. Kieda |editor2=M. Salamon |editor3=B. Dingus |pages=212-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1999ICRC....6..212K |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> Here's a quote from Bowman's "Radiocarbon Dating" book from 1990, p. 19: "High sunspot activity increases the weak magnetic field that exists between the planets, and at such times there is a greater deflection of cosmic rays and hence ¹⁴C decreases."<ref name=Bowman>{{ cite book |title=Radiocarbon Dating |author=Sheridan Bowman |publisher=British Museum Press |date=1995 |isbn=0-7141-2047-2 |location=London |origyear=1990 }}</ref> "Cosmic rays originate from the Sun as well as from galactic sources."<ref name=Bowen>{{ cite book |author=Robert Bowen |title=Carbon-14 Dating, In: ''Isotopes in the Earth Sciences'' |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |date=1994 |pages=247-263 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |isbn=978-94-010-7678-4 |accessdate=2017-12-05 }}</ref> Here's a quote from Aitken's "Radiocarbon Dating" article from 2000, "Cosmic-ray variations are associated with changes in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field. A weak field allows more cosmic radiation to reach the upper atmosphere, and the production of carbon-14 is consequently enhanced--causing raw radiocarbon ages to be underestimates of calendar ages. The short-term wiggles mentioned above are associated with sunspot activity."<ref name= Ellis>{{ cite book |author=Martin J. Aitken |title=Radiocarbon Dating, In: ''Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Routledge |location= |date=16 December 2000 |editor=Linda Ellis |pages=744 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjOPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&f=false |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-12-04 }}</ref> "Direct observations of cosmic rays within the heliosphere over several decades have revealed a great deal of information about the acceleration and propagation of cosmic radiation through the interstellar space and the heliosphere. We now know that the cosmic radiation incident at the top of the earth’s atmosphere comes to us through several “filters”: # Galactic magnetic fields, # Interstellar magnetic fields, # Solar magnetic plasma within the heliosphere, regulated by solar activity, and finally, # the Terrestrial geomagnetic field."<ref name=Lal2001>{{ cite journal |author=D Lal |author2=A J T Jull |title=In-situ cosmogenic {{chem|14|C}}: Production and examples of its unique applications in studies of terrestrial and extraterrestrial processes |journal=Radiocarbon |year=2001 |volume=43 |issue=28 |pages=731-742 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/download/3905/3330 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2017-12-06 }}</ref> "Additionally, cosmic ray particles are frequently accelerated by the sun, and sometimes in a nearby supernova to make an appreciable difference in the total cosmic ray flux at the earth!"<ref name=Lal2001/> "Since fairly extensive cosmic-ray data on primary and secondary cosmic rays are available for more than the past five decades, covering five solar cycles, it is fairly easy to make reliable calculations of the magnitude of variations in cosmogenic production rates in terrestrial solids due to solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux. This exercise is based on a study of relative changes in the primary cosmic-ray flux at the top of the atmosphere, and flux of low energy neutrons as measured by neutron monitors. Solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux is conveniently described in terms of a modulation potential, ∅, which is a phase-lagged function of solar activity (see Castagnoli and Lal 1980; Lal 1988b, 2000 and references therein). Continuous data are available for several neutron monitors at sea-level and mountain altitudes located at different latitudes, and these data have been analyzed in terms of transfer functions relating changes in the secondary nucleon fluxes in the atmosphere to those in the primary cosmic-ray spectra (cf. Webber and Lockwood 1988; Nagashima et al. 1989). For a recent discussion on changes in cosmic-ray fluxes as measured on spacecrafts and in neutron monitor counting rates, the reader is referred to Lal (2000). The manner in which the primary and secondary cosmic-ray flux changes occur with the march of solar activity is described in detail by Lal and Peters (1967), who also estimate the changes in the isotope production rates as a function of altitude and latitude during 1956 (a period of solar minimum) and 1958 (a period of unusually high solar activity). Using this approach, and using the neutron monitor data available to date, one can improve on the earlier estimates of solar temporal variations in cosmogenic nuclide production rates at sea level and at mountain altitudes. We must mention here that several direct experiments are also being made at present by exposing targets to cosmic radiation at different altitudes and latitudes (cf. Lal 2000)."<ref name=Lal2001/> {{clear}} ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds}} "[C]oronal magnetic bottles, produced by flares, [may] serve as temporary traps for solar cosmic rays ... It is the expansion of these bottles at velocities of 300–500 km/s which allows fast azimuthal propagation of solar cosmic rays independent of energy. A coronagraph on [[w:OSO 7|Os 7]] observed a coronal cloud which was associated with bifurcation of the underlying coronal structure."<ref name="Schatten">{{cite journal |author=K. H. Schatten |author2=D. J. Mullan |title=Fast azimuthal transport of solar cosmic rays via a coronal magnetic bottle |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month=December 1, |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=35 |pages=5609-20 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i035p05609.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i035p05609 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-07 }}</ref> "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> ==Mercury== From the Mariner 10 observations in [[electron astronomy]], it is concluded that "[d]ue to the limited shielding provided by its relatively weak magnetic dipole moment, the surface of Mercury is everywhere subject to bombardment by cosmic rays and solar energetic particles with energies greater than 1 MeV/nucleon."<ref name="Ogilvie">{{cite journal |author=K. W. Ogilvie |author2=J. D. Scudder |author3=V. M. Vasyliunas |title=Observations at the Planet Mercury by the Plasma Electron Experiment: Mariner 10 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=13 |pages=1807-24 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i013p01807.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i013p01807 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Galactic cosmic rays should have very similar fluxes on Mercury and the Moon."<ref name="Langevin">{{cite journal |author=Y Langevin |title=The regolith of Mercury: present knowledge and implications for the Mercury Orbiter mission |journal=Planetary and Space Science |month=January |year=1997 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31-7 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063396000980 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00098-0 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Solar Cosmic Rays which result in the formation of particle tracks also increase by a factor of up to 10 when compared to the Moon. However, surface temperatures reach 700 K, which can result over millions of years in the annealing of irradiation effects."<ref name="Langevin"/> ==Venus== Venus's small [[w:Magnetosphere of Venus|induced magnetosphere]] provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against [[w:cosmic radiation|cosmic radiation]]. This radiation may result in cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges.<ref name="Upadhyay">{{cite journal |author=Upadhyay, H. O. |author2=Singh, R. N. |title=Cosmic ray Ionization of Lower Venus Atmosphere |month=April|year=1995|journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=15|issue=4|pages=99–108 |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(94)00070-H|bibcode = 1995AdSpR..15...99U }}</ref> ==Earth== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The Earth's atmosphere is a relatively bright source of gamma rays produced in interactions of ordinary cosmic ray protons with air atoms. When cosmic rays enter the Earth’s atmosphere they collide with molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, to produce a cascade of billions of lighter particles, a so-called air shower. An air shower is an extensive (many kilometres wide) cascade of ionized particles and electromagnetic radiation produced in the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray (i.e. one of extraterrestrial origin) enters the atmosphere. There is "a decrease in thunderstorms at the time of high cosmic rays and an increase in thunderstorms 2-4 days later."<ref name="Lethbridge">{{cite journal |author=Mae Devoe Lethbridge |title=Thunderstorms, cosmic rays, and solar-lunar influences |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1990 |volume=95 |issue=D9 |pages=13,645-9 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1990/JD095iD09p13645.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JD095iD09p13645 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at lower altitudes are the result of the [[w:beta decay|beta decay]] of [[w:neutrons|neutrons]] created by cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms.<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book | first=Thomas F. | last=Tascione | title=Introduction to the Space Environment, 2nd. Ed. | publisher=Kreiger Publishing CO. | location=Malabar, Florida USA | date=1994 | isbn=0-89464-044-5 }}</ref> The [[w:Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics|PAMELA]] experiment detected orders of magnitude higher levels of [[w:antiproton|antiproton]]s than are expected from normal [[w:particle decay|particle decay]]s while passing through the SAA. This suggests the van Allen belts confine a significant flux of antiprotons produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]].<ref name="Adriani">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29 | title = The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons | year = 2011 | last1 = Adriani | first1 = O. | last2 = Barbarino | first2 = G. C. | last3 = Bazilevskaya | first3 = G. A. | last4 = Bellotti | first4 = R. | last5 = Boezio | first5 = M. | last6 = Bogomolov | first6 = E. A. | last7 = Bongi | first7 = M. | last8 = Bonvicini | first8 = V. | last9 = Borisov | first9 = S. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal Letters | volume = 737 | issue = 2 | pages = L29 | bibcode = 2011ApJ...737L..29A | arxiv=1107.4882v1 }}</ref> The energy of the antiprotons has been measured in the range from 60 - 750 MeV. {{clear}} ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:Moonthorium-med.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image is an elemental map of the Moon using a GRS. Credit: Los Alamos National Laboratory.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] “The lunar surface also lends itself well to cosmic ray astronomy (as it lies outside the Earth's magnetosphere) and other astronomies requiring large, bulky detectors (eg [[gamma-ray astronomy]]).”<ref name="Crawford">{{cite journal |author=IA Crawford |title=The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon |journal=Space Policy |month=May |year=2004 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=91-7 |url=http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/405/01/Binder1.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2004.02.007 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori/> The [[w:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] has imaged the Moon in gamma rays of energy greater than 20 MeV.<ref name="heasarc">{{cite book |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/epo/news/gammoon.html |title=CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon |publisher=Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2011-11-08 }}</ref> These are produced by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]] bombardment of its surface. Gamma-ray spectrometers have been widely used for the elemental and isotopic analysis of airless bodies in the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]], especially the Moon<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite journal | journal = Science | year = 1998 | volume = 281 | issue = 5382 | pages = 1484–1489 | doi = 10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 | title = Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer | author = D. J. Lawrence |author2=W. C. Feldman |author3=B. L. Barraclough |author4=A. B. Binder |author5=R. C. Elphic |author6=S. Maurice |author7=D. R. Thomsen | pmid = 9727970 | bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L }}</ref> These surfaces are subjected to a continual bombardment of high-energy cosmic rays, which excite nuclei in them to emit characteristic gamma-rays which can be detected from orbit. Thus an orbiting instrument can in principle map the surface distribution of the elements for an entire planet. They are able to measure the abundance and distribution of about 20 primary elements of the periodic table, including [[w:silicon|silicon]], [[w:oxygen|oxygen]], [[w:iron|iron]], [[w:magnesium|magnesium]], [[w:potassium|potassium]], [[w:aluminum|aluminum]], [[w:calcium|calcium]], [[w:sulfur|sulfur]], and [[w:carbon|carbon]]. The chemical element [[w:thorium|thorium]] [is] mapped [by a GRS], with higher concentrations shown in yellow/orange/red in the left-hand side image shown on the left. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the [[w:Lunar Prospector|Lunar Prospector]] using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn lose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name="Williams"/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name="Williams"/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:PIA16020.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This graph shows the preliminary results from Curiosity's first radiation measurements on Mars, specifically the flux of radiation detected by Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on Mars over three and a half hours on Aug. 6 PDT (Aug. 7 UTC). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI.{{tlx|free media}}]] "NASA's Curiosity rover ... Radiation Assessment Detector instrument, or RAD, collected data for about 3 1/2 hours on Wednesday (Aug. 8)"<ref name="Wall">{{cite book |author=Mike Wall |title=Mars Rover Curiosity Measures Red Planet Radiation |publisher=news.yahoo.com |location= |date=August 9, 2012 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/mars-rover-curiosity-measures-red-planet-radiation-135649183.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref>. As the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]] was relatively quiet in the direction of Mars, most of the spikes in the collected, unprocessed temporal spectrum are considered to be from galactic cosmic-radiation.<ref name="Hassler">{{cite book |author=Don Hassler |title=Curiosity Takes First Cosmic Ray Sample on Surface |publisher=www.space.com/NASA |location= |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://www.space.com/17004-curiosity-takes-first-cosmic-ray-sample-on-surface-video.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "The data show that the radiation levels measured on Mars during this period of quiet solar activity are reduced from the average radiation detected in space during Curiosity's cruise to Mars. This is explained by the rover being on the planet versus out in space, where it would have more exposure to radiation from all directions. Red arrows point to spikes in the radiation dose rate from heavy ion particles, which would be the most dangerous to astronauts. ... RAD measures 26 kinds of charged particles as well as neutrons and gamma rays."<ref name="Curiosity2">{{cite book |author=NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI |title=Curiosity's First Radiation Measurements on Mars |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/?ImageID=4338 |accessdate=2012-08-19 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Interplanetary medium== {{main|Interplanetary medium}} The interplanetary medium includes interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot plasma from the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. The temperature of the interplanetary medium varies. For dust particles within the asteroid belt, typical temperatures range from 200&nbsp;K (−73 °C) at 2.2&nbsp;AU down to 165&nbsp;K (−108 °C) at 3.2&nbsp;AU<ref name="Low">{{cite journal | author=Low, F. J. |author2=''et al.'' | title=Infrared cirrus&nbsp;– New components of the extended infrared emission | journal=Astrophysical Journal, Part 2&nbsp;– Letters to the Editor | year=1984 | volume=278 | pages=L19–L22 | bibcode=1984ApJ...278L..19L | doi=10.1086/184213 }}</ref> The density of the interplanetary medium is very low, about 5 particles per cubic centimeter in the vicinity of the [[Earth]]; it decreases with increasing distance from the sun, in inverse proportion to the square of the distance. It is variable, and may be affected by magnetic fields and events such as [[w:Coronal mass ejection|coronal mass ejection]]s. It may rise to as high as 100 particles/cm³. ==Uranus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Uranus}} "[F]or the regions of the giant planets, especially Uranus and Neptune, ... ionization is due mainly to cosmic rays."<ref name="Hayashi">{{cite journal |author=Chushiro Hayashi |title=Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Effects of Magnetic and Turbulent Viscosities on the Nebula |journal=Progress Theoretical Physics Supplement |month= |year=1981 |volume= |issue=70 |pages=35-53 |url=http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/70/35/ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1143/PTPS.70.35 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> ==Oort clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds}} Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10⁷ yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} "The sun emits a plasma wind with an embedded magnetic field that tends to exclude low energy galactic cosmic rays from the heliosphere."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "observed cosmic ray flux at Earth is inversely correlated with solar activity. [...] At a period of high solar activity (for example in 1983), the flux below a GeV can be suppressed by as much as an order of magnitude."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "flux of cosmic rays in the heliosphere varies with the eleven year solar cycle".<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} In [[astronomy]], the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [Intergalactic medium] intergalactic space. In astronomy, the [[interstellar medium]] (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic medium. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name="Spitzer">{{cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''. The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Milky Way== {{main|Milky Way}} "As with solar system cosmic rays, it is likely that both extended and point sources play a role in acceleration of particles in the Galaxy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Large Magellanic Cloud== Because neutrinos are only [[Weak interaction|weakly interacting]] with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large in order to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation.<ref name="twsP16">{{cite journal |author= KENNETH CHANG |title= Tiny, Plentiful and Really Hard to Catch |journal=The New York Times |date= April 26, 2005 |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/26/science/26neut.html?pagewanted=print&position= |accessdate= 2011-06-16 }}</ref> ==Active galactic nuclei== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei}} There is "a correlation between the arrival directions of cosmic rays with energy above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts and the positions of active galactic nuclei (AGN) lying within ~75 megaparsecs."<ref name="Abraham"/> Some low energy cosmic rays originate or are associated with solar flares. Even these cosmic rays have too high an energy to originate from the solar photosphere. The [[coronal cloud]] in close proximity to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] may be a source or create them as it bombards the chromosphere from above. "In particular we recognize a first trace of Vela, brightest gamma and radio galactic source, and smeared sources along Galactic Plane and Center [as a source of ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECR)]."<ref name="Fargion">{{cite journal |author=Daniele Fargion |title=UHECR besides ''Cen''_''A'': Hints of galactic sources |journal=Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics |month=April |year=2010 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=363-5 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0146641009001276 |arxiv=0911.4176 |bibcode=2010PrPNP..64..363F |doi=10.1016/j.ppnp.2009.12.049 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-09 }}</ref> "The main correlated map is the 408 MHz one. The first astronomical source that seem to correlate is the main multiplet along ''Cen''_''A''. This AGN source, the nearest extragalactic one, sits in the same direction of a far Centaurus Cluster (part of the Super-Galactic Plane). The blurring by random galactic magnetic field might spread the nearest AGN event along the same Super-Galactic Plane, explaining the AUGER group miss-understanding [3]."<ref name="Fargion"/> ==Locations on Earth== [[w:Ice core|Ice core]]s contain thin nitrate-rich layers that can be analyzed to reconstruct a history of past events [such as solar cosmic ray events] before reliable observations; [this includes] data from Greenland ice cores<ref name="McCracken">{{cite book |url=http://www.stuartclark.com/files/thomas-qa.pdf |title=How do you determine the effects of a solar flare that took place 150 years ago? |publisher=Stuart Clarks Universe |accessdate=May 23, 2012 }}</ref> and others. These show evidence that events of [the magnitude of the [[w:Solar storm of 1859|solar storm of 1859]]—as measured by high-energy proton radiation, not geomagnetic effect—occur approximately once per 500 years, with events at least one-fifth as large occurring several times per century.<ref name="McCracken01">{{cite journal |author=Kenneth G. McCracken |author2=G. A. M. Dreschhoff |author3=E. J. Zeller |author4=D. F. Smart |author5=M. A. Shea |title=Solar cosmic ray events for the period 1561–1994 1. Identification in polar ice, 1561–1950 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=106 |issue=A10 |pages=21,585–21,598 |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2000JA000237 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JA000237.shtml |accessdate=February 16, 2011 |bibcode=2001JGR...10621585M }}</ref> Less severe storms have occurred in 1921 and 1960, when widespread radio disruption was reported. ==Technology== {{main|Technology}} [[Image:Shower detection.png|thumb|right|400px|This diagram depicts an air shower resulting from cosmic rays. Credit: Konrad Bernlöhr.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Penston">{{cite book |author = Margaret J. Penston |date = 14 August 2002 |url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&style=feature |title = The electromagnetic spectrum |publisher = Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council |accessdate = 17 August 2006 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory== [[Image:Multi Mirror Telescope in 1981.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This shows the Multi Mirror Telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in 1981. Credit: [[C:User:Happa|Happa]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory''' is an astronomical [[Astronomical observatories|observatory]] owned and operated by the [[w:Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory]] (SAO) with research activities that include imaging and spectroscopy of extragalactic, stellar, and planetary bodies, as well as [[Gamma-ray astronomy|gamma-ray]] and cosmic-ray astronomy. {{clear}} ==Pierre Auger Observatory== The '''Pierre Auger Observatory''' is an international cosmic ray observatory designed to detect [[w:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|ultra-high-energy cosmic ray]]s: single [[w:sub-atomic particle|sub-atomic particle]]s ([[w:proton|proton]]s or [[w:Atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]) with energies beyond 10²⁰&nbsp;[[w:electronvolt|eV]] (about the energy of a [[w:tennis ball|tennis ball]] traveling at 80&nbsp;km/h). These high energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per km² per century, therefore the Auger Observatory has created a detection area the size of [[w:Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] — over 3,000 km² (1,200 sq mi) — in order to record a large number of these events. It is located in western [[w:Argentina|Argentina]]'s [[w:Mendoza Province|Mendoza Province]], in one of the South American [[w:Pampas|Pampas]]. The basic set-up consists of 1600 water tanks ([[w:Cherenkov detector|water Cherenkov Detectors]], similar to the [[w:Haverah Park experiment|Haverah Park experiment]]) distributed over 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), along with four atmospheric [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] detectors (similar to the [[w:High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector|High Resolution Fly's Eye]]) overseeing the surface array. ==Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes== [[Image:Magicmirror.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is the MAGIC telescope at La Palma, Canary Islands. Credit: [[c:User:Pachango|Pachango]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''MAGIC''' ('''Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes''') is a system of two [[w:IACT|Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov telescope]]s situated at the [[w:Roque de los Muchachos Observatory|Roque de los Muchachos Observatory]] on [[w:La Palma|[La Palma]], one of the [[w:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]], at about 2200 m above sea level. MAGIC detects particle showers released by gamma rays, using the [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], i.e., faint light radiated by the charged particles in the showers. With a diameter of 17 meters for the reflecting surface, it is the largest in the world. MAGIC is sensitive to cosmic gamma rays with energies between 50 [[w:GeV|GeV]] and 30 [[w:TeV|TeV]] due to its large mirror; other ground-based gamma-ray telescopes typically observe gamma energies above 200-300 GeV. Satellite-based detectors detect gamma-rays in the energy range from keV up to several GeV. MAGIC has found pulsed gamma-rays at energies higher than 25 GeV coming from the [[w:Crab Pulsar|Crab Pulsar]].<ref name="ScienceU">"Observation of Pulsed Gamma-Rays Above 25 GeV from the Crab Pulsar with MAGIC", MAGIC collaboration, Science 322 (2008) 1221.</ref> The presence of such high energies indicates that the gamma-ray source is far out in the pulsar's [[w:magnetosphere|magnetosphere]], in contradiction with many models. A much more controversial observation is an energy dependence in the speed of light of cosmic rays coming from a short burst of the [[w:blazar|blazar]] [[w:Markarian 501|Markarian 501]] on July 9, 2005. Photons with energies between 1.2 and 10 TeV arrived 4 minutes after those in a band between .25 and .6 TeV. The average delay was .030±.012 seconds per GeV of energy of the photon. If the relation between the space velocity of a photon and its energy is linear, then this translates into the fractional difference in the speed of light being equal to minus the photon's energy divided by 2 x 10¹⁷ GeV. {{clear}} ==Balloons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Balloons}} The various background effects OSO 1 encountered prompted the flight of similar detectors on a balloon to determine the cosmic-ray effects in the materials surrounding the detectors. Measurements "of the cosmic-ray positron fraction as a function of energy have been made using the High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) balloon-borne instrument."<ref name="Barwick"/> "The first flight took place from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, [on May 3, 1994, with a total time at float altitude of 29.5 hr and a mean atmospheric overburden of 5.7 g cm^-2] ... The second flight [is] from Lynn Lake, Manitoba, [on August 23, 1995, with a total time at float altitude of 26 hr, and a mean atmospheric overburden of 4.8 g cm^-2]"<ref name="Barwick"/>. ==Orbital rocketry== [[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|right|250px|This photograph shows Explorer 11 with its orbital rocket. Credit: HEASARC GSFC NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HEAO-3.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of HEAO 3. Credit: William Mahoney, NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Explorer 11''' (also known as '''S15''') was an American Earth-[[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital]] satellite that carried the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope. This was the earliest beginning of space [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. Launched on April 27, 1961 by a [[w:Juno II|Juno II rocket]] the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission. During the spacecraft's seven month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from cosmic radiation. The HEAO 3 French-Danish C-2 experiment measured the relative composition of the isotopes of the primary cosmic rays between beryllium and iron (Z from 4 to 26) and the elemental abundances up to tin (Z=50). Cerenkov counters and [[w:hodoscope|hodoscope]]s, together with the Earth's magnetic field, formed a spectrometer. They determined charge and mass of cosmic rays to a precision of 10% for the most abundant elements over the momentum range from 2 to 25 GeV/c (c=speed of light). The purpose of the HEAO 3 C-3 experiment was to measure the charge spectrum of cosmic-ray nuclei over the nuclear charge (Z) range from 17 to 120, in the energy interval 0.3 to 10 GeV/nucleon; to characterize cosmic ray sources; processes of nucleosynthesis, and propagation modes. "The [[w:Rigidity (electromagnetism)|rigidity]] dependence of the escape length of cosmic rays in the galaxy has been derived in the framework of the leaky box model from the measured values of the B/C ratio."<ref name=Engelmann/> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name="Engelmann"/> {{clear}} ==Extreme Universe Space Observatory== The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. ==Heliocentric rocketry== [[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|250px|right|A technician stands next to one of the twin Helios spacecraft during testing. Credit: NASA/Max Planck.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Titan 3E Centaur with Helios 1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Shown is Helios 1 sitting atop the [[w:Titan III|Titan IIIE]] / [[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Helios - Trajectory.png|200px|thumb|left|Trajectory of the Helio space probes is diagrammed. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Helios 1''' and '''Helios 2''' are a pair of probes launched into heliocentric orbit for the purpose of studying solar processes. The probes are notable for having set a maximum speed record among spacecraft at 252,792 km/h<ref name="wilkinson2012">{{cite book | author=John Wilkinson | title=New Eyes on the Sun: A Guide to Satellite Images and Amateur Observation | series=Astronomers' Universe Series | publisher=Springer | date=2012 | isbn=3-642-22838-0 | page=37 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud2icgujz0wC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> (157,078 mi/h or 43.63 mi/s or 70.22 km/s or 0.000234c). Helios 2 flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun than Helios 1, achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a record distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers),<ref name="Helios">{{cite book |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Helios_02&Display=ReadMore |title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Helios 2 }}</ref> slightly inside the orbit of Mercury. Helios 2 was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios 1. The probes are no longer functional but still remain in their elliptical orbit around the Sun. On board, each probe carried an instrument for cosmic radiation investigation (the CRI) for measuring protons, electrons, and X-rays to determine the distribution of cosmic rays. {{clear}} ==Exploratory rocketry== [[Image:Pioneer 10 on its kickmotor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pioneer 10 on its kick motor prior to encapsulation before launch. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52a - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The charged particle instrument (CPI) is used to detect cosmic rays in the solar system. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52b - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The cosmic-ray telescope collects data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.png|thumb|left|250px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|250px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the Voyager 1 spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Cosmic Rays at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|The plot shows a dramatic increase in the rate of cosmic ray particle detection by the ''Voyager 1'' spacecraft (October 2012). Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] Pioneer 10 is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter/Keynote lecture|Jupiter]]<ref name="Fimmel">{{cite book |title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY |last=Fimmel |first=R. O., W. Swindell, and E. Burgess |date=1974 |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |isbn= |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]]. Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972 by an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas-Centaur]] expendable vehicle from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 36|Cape Canaveral]], [[w:Florida|Florida]]. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the [[w:Asteroid belt#Exploration|asteroid belt]]. "In 1972, the return of the galactic cosmic rays in the inner solar system to solar minimum conditions and the launch of Pioneer 10 toward Jupiter coincided to make possible the measurements of the low-energy cosmic-ray charge spectra during solar quiet times."<ref name="McDonald">{{cite journal |author=F. B. McDonald |author2=B. J. Teegarden |author3=J. H. Trainor |author4=W. R. Webber |title=The anomalous abundance of cosmic-ray nitrogen and oxygen nuclei at low energies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1. |year=1974 |volume=187 |issue=02 |pages=L105-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1974ApJ...187L.105M |arxiv= |bibcode=1974ApJ...187L.105M |doi=10.1086/181407 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> "Recent measurements using the Goddard-University of New Hampshire cosmic-ray telescope on the ''Pioneer 10'' spacecraft have revealed an anomalous spectrum of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei relative to other nuclei such as He and C, in the energy range 3-30 MeV per nucleon."<ref name="McDonald"/> "To eliminate [the solar cosmic-ray background] a very careful selection of times must be made to assure that solar cosmic rays are not obviously present [by] requiring that the 10-20 MeV proton intensity measured on the same experiment be essentially at background level."<ref name="McDonald"/> The '''International Cometary Explorer''' ('''ICE''') spacecraft was originally known as [the] '''International Sun/Earth Explorer 3''' ('''ISEE-3''') satellite. ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV. The instruments aboard ISEE-3 are designed to detect # protons in the energy range 150 eV - 7 keV and electrons in the 10 eV - 1 keV range (Solar wind plasma experiment), # Low, Medium and High-Energy Cosmic Rays (1-500 MeV/n, Z = 1-28, electrons 2-10 MeV, for Medium Energy; H to Ni, 20-500 MeV/n for High-energy), # H-Fe 30 MeV/n - 15 GeV/n and electrons 5-400 MeV for the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum experiment, # 17 Hz - 100 kHz magnetic and electric field wave levels (Plasma Waves Spectrum Analyzer), # low-energy solar proton acceleration and propagation processes in interplanetary space, Energetic Particle Anisotropy Spectrometer (EPAS), # 2 keV to > 1 MeV interplanetary and solar electrons, # radio mapping of solar wind disturbances (type III bursts) in 3-D, 30 kHz - 2 MHz, # solar wind ion composition, 300-600 km/s, 840 eV/Q to 11.7 keV/Q, M/Q = 1.5 to 5.6, # cosmic ray isotope spectrometer 5-250 MeV/n, Z=3-28, A=6-64 (Li-Ni), # ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft, # X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and # Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book |author=E. Bell II |title=ISEE 3 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location= |date=December 8, 2012 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A |accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and [[interstellar medium]]. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) "[d]etermines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. "Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Some cosmic rays are superluminals. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Electron astronomy]] * [[Gamma-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Positron astronomy]] * [[Proton astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry]] * [[X-ray astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }} * {{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=2014-01-11 }} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Cosmic-ray astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] gtr6smktom4sp3em44siig9nncafo6h 2417239 2417238 2022-08-22T05:21:18Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Primary cosmic rays */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Cosmic ray flux versus particle energy.svg|thumb|right|250px|The flux of cosmic-ray particles is a function of their energy. Credit: Sven Lafebre, after Swordy.<ref name="Swordy">{{cite journal |author=S. Swordy |title=The energy spectra and anisotropies of cosmic rays |month= |year=2001 |journal=Space Science Reviews |issue= |volume=99 |pages=85–94 }}</ref>{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Cosmic rays''' are energetic charged [[w:Subatomic particles|subatomic particles]], originating in [[w:Outer space|outer space]]. At right is an image indicating the range of cosmic-ray energies. The flux for the lowest energies (yellow zone) is mainly attributed to solar cosmic rays, intermediate energies (blue) to galactic cosmic rays, and highest energies (purple) to extragalactic cosmic rays.<ref name="Swordy"/> “'''Cosmic ray astronomy''' attempts to identify and study the sources of ultrahigh energy cosmic rays. It is unique in its reliance on charged particles as the information carriers.”<ref name="Sommers">{{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Astronomy== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Astronomy}} "Astronomy based on cosmic rays with the highest energies [above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts] opens a new window on the nearby universe."<ref name="Abraham">{{cite journal |author=J Abraham |author2=P Abreu |author3=M Aglietta |author4=C Aguirre |author5=D Allard |author6=The Pierre Auger Collaboration |title=Correlation of the highest-energy cosmic rays with nearby extragalactic objects |journal=Science |month=November 9, |year=2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=938-43 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/318/5852/938.short |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1126/science.1151124 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Cosmic rays== "Cosmic rays arise from galactic source accelerators."<ref name="Lee">{{cite book |author=S. Y. Lee |title=Accelerator physics, Second Edition |publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. |location=Singapore |date=2004 |editor= |pages=575 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=981-256-182-X |accessdate=2011-12-17 }}</ref> Cosmic rays may be upwards of a ZeV (10²¹ eV). About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei, 10% are helium nuclei of alpha particles, and 1% are the nuclei of heavier elements. Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1%. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that originate from astrophysical sources are called '''primary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' cosmic rays that are created when primary cosmic rays interact with interstellar matter are called '''secondary cosmic rays'''. '''Def.''' low energy cosmic rays associated with solar flares are called '''solar cosmic rays'''. Cosmic rays are not charge balanced; that is, positive ions heavily outnumber electrons. The positive ions are # free protons, # alpha particles (helium nuclei), # lithium nuclei, # beryllium nuclei, and # boron nuclei. '''Def.''' a [[wikt:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]] in which a [[wikt:nucleus|nucleus]] [[wikt:fragment|fragment]]s into many [[wikt:nucleon|nucleon]]s is called '''spallation'''. Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle (e.g. a [[w:proton|proton]]) impacts with [[w:matter|matter]], including other cosmic rays. The result of the collision is the expulsion of large numbers of [[w:nucleons|nucleons]] (protons and neutrons) from the object hit. Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. ==Planetary sciences== {{main|Planetary sciences}} "Production rates of ²²Na (T_1/2 = 2.6 years) from aluminium by the action of cosmic rays are measured at the Mont Blanc (altitude 4600 m), the Aiguille du Midi (3840 m), and the Col du Lautaret (2070 m). They are 2.3±0.5, 1.8±0.3, and 0. 77±0.18 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, in good agreement with the calculated production rates, 2.4, 1.7 and 0.6 atoms min⁻¹ kg⁻¹, respectively, at the three stations."<ref name="Yokoyama">{{cite journal |author=Y Yokoyama |author2=JL Reyss |author3=F Guichard |title=Production of radionuclides by cosmic rays at mountain altitudes |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |month=August |year=1977 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44-50 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0012821X77901868 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> ==Colors== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Colors}} "[B]roadband optical photometry of Centaurs and Kuiper Belt objects from the Keck 10 m, the University of Hawaii 2.2 m, and the Cerro Tololo InterAmerican (CTIO) 1.5 m telescopes [shows] a wide dispersion in the optical colors of the objects, indicating nonuniform surface properties. The color dispersion [may] be understood in the context of the expected steady reddening due to bombardment by the ubiquitous flux of cosmic rays."<ref name="Luu">{{cite journal |author=Jane Luu |author2=David Jewitt |title=Color Diversity among the Centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects |journal=The Astronomical Journal |month=November |year=1996 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=2310-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996AJ....112.2310L |arxiv= |bibcode=1996AJ....112.2310L |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Larmor radius== The '''Larmor radius''' is the radius of the circular motion of a charged particle] in the presence of a uniform magnetic field. “[F]or a particle of energy ''E'' in EeV and charge ''Z'' in a magnetic field ''B'' in µG [the Larmor radius (''R''_L)] is roughly”<ref name="Sommers"/> :<math>R_L = 1 kpc \frac{E}{Z B}</math> where :*<math>R_L \ </math> is the Larmor radius, :*<math>E\ </math> is the energy of the particle in EeV :*<math>Z \ </math> is the charge of the particle, and :*<math>B \ </math> is the constant magnetic field. ==Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limits== '''Notation''': let the symbol GZK represent '''Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin'''. Based on interactions between cosmic rays and the photons of the [[w:Cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) cosmic rays with energies over the threshold energy of 5x10¹⁹ [[w:electron-volt|eV]] interact with cosmic microwave background photons <math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}</math> to produce [[w:pion|pion]]s via the <math>\Delta</math> resonance. :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow p + \pi^0,</math> or :<math>\gamma_{\rm CMB}+p\rightarrow\Delta^+\rightarrow n + \pi^+.</math> Pions produced in this manner proceed to decay in the standard pion channels—ultimately to photons for neutral pions, and photons, positrons, and various neutrinos for positive pions. Neutrons decay also to similar products, so that ultimately the energy of any cosmic ray proton is drained off by production of high energy photons plus (in some cases) high energy electron/positron pairs and neutrino pairs. The pion production process begins at a higher energy than ordinary electron-positron pair production (lepton production) from protons impacting the CMB, which starts at cosmic ray proton energies of only about 10¹⁷[[w:electron-volt|eV]]. However, pion production events drain 20% of the energy of a cosmic ray proton as compared with only 0.1% of its energy for electron positron pair production. This factor of 200 is from two sources: the pion has only about ~130 times the mass of the leptons, but the extra energy appears as different kinetic energies of the pion or leptons, and results in relatively more kinetic energy transferred to a heavier product pion, in order to conserve momentum. The much larger total energy losses from pion production result in the pion production process becoming the limiting one to high energy cosmic ray travel, rather than the lower-energy light-lepton production process. The pion production process continues until the cosmic ray energy falls below the pion production threshold. Due to the mean path associated with this interaction, extragalactic cosmic rays traveling over distances larger than 50 [[w:Parsec|Mpc]] (163 [[w:Light-year|Mly]]) and with energies greater than this threshold should never be observed on Earth. This distance is also known as GZK horizon. ==Askaryan effects== The '''Askaryan effect''' is the phenomenon whereby a particle traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in a dense [[w:dielectric|dielectric]] (such as salt, ice or the lunar [[w:regolith|regolith]]) produces a shower of secondary charged particles which contain a charge [[w:anisotropy|anisotropy]] and thus emits a cone of [[w:Coherence (physics)|coherent]] radiation in the [[w:radio frequency|radio]] or [[w:microwave|microwave]] part of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectrum]]. It is similar to the [[w:Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov effect]]. So far the effect has been observed in [[w:silicon dioxide|silica]] [[w:sand|sand]],<ref>[http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0011001 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Silica Sand]</ref> rock salt,<ref>[http://lanl.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0412128 Observation of the Askaryan Effect in Rock Salt]</ref> and ice<ref name="Gorham">{{cite journal |author=P. W. Gorham |author2=S. W. Barwick |author3=J. J. Beatty |author4=D. Z. Besson |author5=W. R. Binns |author6=C. Chen |author7=P. Chen |author8=J. M. Clem |author9=A. Connolly |author10=P. F. Dowkontt |author11=M. A. DuVernois |author12=R. C. Field |author13=D. Goldstein |author14=A. Goodhue |author15=C. Hast |author16=C. L. Hebert |author17=S. Hoover |author18=M. H. Israel |author19=J. Kowalski |author20=J. G. Learned |author21=K. M. Liewer |author22=J. T. Link |author23=E. Lusczek |author24=S. Matsuno |author25=B. Mercurio |author26=C. Miki |author27=P. Miocinovic |author28=J. Nam |author29=C. J. Naudet |author30=J. Ng |author31=R. Nichol |author32=K. Palladino |author33=K. Reil |author34=A. Romero-Wolf |author35=M. Rosen |author36=D. Saltzberg |author37=D. Seckel |author38=G. S. Varner |author39=D. Walz |author40=F. Wu |title=Observations of the Askaryan Effect in Ice |journal=Physical Review Letters |month=October 25, |year=2007 |volume=99 |issue=17 |pages=5 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/bib_query?arXiv:hep-ex/0611008 |arxiv=hep-ex/0611008 |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.171101 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref>.<ref name="Lehtinen">{{cite journal |author=Nikolai G. Lehtinen |author2=Peter W. Gorham |author3=Abram R. Jacobson |author4=Robert A. Roussel-Dupre ́ |title=FORTE satellite constraints on ultrahigh energy cosmic particle fluxes |journal=Physical Review D |month=January |year=2004 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=013008-1 to 14 |url=http://ees.lanl.gov/ees2/pdfs/Lehtinen_2004.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.69.013008 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-09-02 }}</ref> ==Galactic cosmic rays== [[Image:NeutronMonitor.GIF|right|thumb|400px|Cosmic Ray Intensity (blue) and Sunspot Number (green) is shown from 1951 to 2006. Credit: University of New Hampshire.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:ExtremeEvent 20120304-00h 20120317-24h.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Space weather conditions are associated with solar activity. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:GCR+Temperature.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Galactic cosmic rays (GCR) are displayed from 1951 to 2006. Credit: [[c:User:Jbo166|Jbo166]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The "effect of time-variations in galactic cosmic rays on the rate of production of neutrons in the atmosphere [was studied using] a series of balloon and airplane observations of the [fast neutron] flux and spectrum of 1-10 MeV neutrons, in flights at high geomagnetic latitude, during [quiet times as well as during Forbush decreases, which are rapid decreases in the observed galactic cosmic rays following a coronal mass ejection (CME), and solar particle events for] the period of increasing solar modulation, 1965-1969. It also included latitude surveys in 1964-1965 and in 1968."<ref name=Merker>{{ cite book |author=M. Merker |author2=E. S. Light |author3=R. B. Mendell |author4=S. A. Korff |title=The flux of fast neutrons in the atmosphere. 1. The effect of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays, In: ''Solar Cosmic Rays, Modulation of Galactic Radiation, Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Effects'' |volume=2 |publisher=International Conference on Cosmic Rays |location=Budapest |date=1970 |editor=A. Somogyi |pages=739 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970ICRC....2..739M |arxiv= |bibcode=1970ICRC....2..739M |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-08-15 }}</ref> In the image on the right for Forbush decreases, data include GOES-15 X-rays, energetic particles, and magnetometer. Cosmic Rays from the Moscow station show a Forbush Decrease. The graph on the right shows an inverse correlation between sunspot numbers (solar activity) and neutron production from galactic cosmic rays. '''Notation''': let the symbol '''Z''' stand for '''atomic number'''. ::: let the symbol '''PeV''' stand for '''10¹⁵ electron volts'''. "The most dominant group is the iron group (Z = 25 − 27), at energies around 70 PeV more than 50% of the all-particle flux consists of these elements."<ref name=Horandel>{{ cite journal |author=Jörg R Hörandel |author2=N N Kalmykov |author3=A V Timokhin |title=The end of the galactic cosmic-ray energy spectrum-a phenomenological view |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |month=April |year=2006 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=132-41 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/47/1/017 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/47/1/017 |pmid= |pdf=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0508015 |accessdate=2011-12-31 }}</ref> In the graph on the right, the black line is cosmic-ray data and the red line is temperature. ''Ulysses'' data is included. {{clear}} ==Ultra-high energy cosmic rays== [[Image:Absolute flux of cosmic–ray elements at 1 TeV-nucleus versus nuclear charge.png|right|thumb|300px|Absolute flux Φ⁰_Z of cosmic–ray elements at ''E''₀ = 1 TeV/nucleus is plotted versus nuclear charge. Credit: Jörg R. Hörandel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The '''Oh-My-God particle''' was observed on the evening of 15 October 1991 over [[w:Dugway Proving Ground|Dugway Proving Ground]], Utah. Its observation was a shock to [[w:astrophysics|astrophysicists]], who estimated its energy to be approximately {{val|3|e=20|u=eV}}<ref name="Baez">[http://www.desy.de/user/projects/Physics/General/open_questions.html Open Questions in Physics.] German Electron-Synchrotron. A Research Centre of the Helmholtz Association. Updated March 2006 by JCB. Original by John Baez.</ref>(50&nbsp;[[w:joule|joule]]s)&mdash;in other words, a [[w:subatomic particle|subatomic particle]] with kinetic energy equal to that of a [[w:baseball (object)|baseball]] (142&nbsp;g or 5&nbsp;oz) traveling at 100&nbsp;km/h (60&nbsp;mph). It was most probably a [[w:proton|proton]] with a speed very close to the [[w:speed of light|speed of light]] (approximately 0.9999999999999999999999951c), so close that in a year-long race between light and the cosmic ray, the ray would fall behind only 46 nanometers (5 x 10^-24 light-years), or 0.15 femtoseconds (1.5 x 10^-16 s).<ref name="Walker">{{cite book | author=J. Walker | date=January 4, 1994 | title=The Oh-My-God Particle | url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/OhMyGodParticle/ | publisher=Fourmilab |accessdate= }}</ref> “The energy spectrum of cosmic rays extends to ~10²⁰ eV (and smoothly to 10¹⁹).”<ref name="Hillas">{{cite journal |author=A. M. Hillas |title=The Origin of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |month= |year=1984 |volume=22 |issue= |pages=425-44 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1984ARA&A..22..425H |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002233 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Primary cosmic rays== [[Image:Climax Colorado surface neutron data.png|right|thumb|250px|Data from the Climax, Colorado, surface neutron monitor is an indicator of primary cosmic rays in the GeV range. Credit: John N. Bahcall and William H. Press.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The data on the right "from the Climax, Colorado, surface neutron monitor [...] is an indicator of primary cosmic rays in the GeV range."<ref name=Bahcall1991>{{ cite journal |author=John N. Bahcall |author2=William H. Press |title=Solar-cycle modulation of event rates in the chlorine solar neutrino experiment |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=1 April |year=1991 |volume=370 |issue=04 |pages=730-742 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1991ApJ...370..730B&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |arxiv= |bibcode=1991ApJ...370..730B |doi=10.1086/169856 |pmid= |accessdate=2016-11-22 }}</ref> "Variation with the solar cycle [dotted curve of sunspot data] is evident."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "The tendency of the cosmic-ray modulation to lag sunspots (at least at times of sunspot decline) is visible, as is the somewhat more sawtooth form of the cosmic rays."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "The surface neutron flux [...] is largest at solar minimum and smallest at solar maximum, and [...] has the same sense as the ³⁷Ar production variations."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> "Primary cosmic rays below ~1 GeV are shielded by heliospheric currents which build up during solar maximum; see, e.g., Simpson 1989 and references there in."<ref name=Bahcall1991/> {{clear}} ==Secondary cosmic rays== Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori>{{ cite journal |author=M. Amenomori |author2=S. Ayabe |author3=X. J. Bi |author4=D. Chen |author5=S. W. Cui |author6=Danzengluobu |author7=L. K. Ding |author8=X. H. Ding |author9=C. F. Feng |author10=Zhaoyang Feng |author11=Z. Y. Feng |author12=X. Y. Gao |author13=Q. X. Geng |author14=H. W. Guo |author15=H. H. He |author16=M. He |author17=K. Hibino |author18=N. Hotta |author19=HaibingHu |author20=H. B. Hu |author21=J. Huang |author22=Q. Huang |author23=H. Y. Jia |author24=F. Kajino |author25=K. Kasahara |author26=Y. Katayose |author27=C. Kato |author28=K. Kawata |author29=Labaciren |author30=G. M. Le |author31=A. F. Li |author32=J. Y. Li |author33=Y.-Q. Lou |author34=H. Lu |author35=S. L. Lu |author36=X. R. Meng |author37=K. Mizutani |author38=J. Mu |author39=K. Munakata |author40=A. Nagai |author41=H. Nanjo |author42=M. Nishizawa |author43=M. Ohnishi |author44=I. Ohta |author45=H. Onuma |author46=T. Ouchi |author47=S. Ozawa |author48=J. R. Ren |author49=T. Saito |author50=T. Y. Saito |author51=M. Sakata |author52=T. K. Sako |author53=T. Sasaki |author54=M. Shibata |author55=A. Shiomi |author56=T. Shirai |author57=H. Sugimoto |author58=M. Takita |author59=Y. H. Tan |author60=N. Tateyama |author61=S. Torii |author62=H. Tsuchiya |author63=S. Udo |author64=B. S. Wang |author65=H. Wang |author66=X. Wang |author67=Y. G. Wang |author68=H. R. Wu |author69=L. Xue |author70=Y. Yamamoto |author71=C. T. Yan |author72=X. C. Yang |author73=S. Yasue |author74=Z. H. Ye |author75=G. C. Yu |author76=A. F. Yuan |author77=T. Yuda |author78=H. M. Zhang |author79=J. L. Zhang |author80=N. J. Zhang |author81=X. Y. Zhang |author82=Y. Zhang |author83=Yi Zhang |author84=Zhaxisangzhu |author85=X. X. Zhou |title=Moon Shadow by Cosmic Rays under the Influence of Geomagnetic Field and Search for Antiprotons at Multi-TeV Energies |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=September |year=2007 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=137-42 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.3326.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name=Engelmann>{{ cite journal |author=J.J. Engelmann |author2=P. Ferrando |author3=A. Soutoul |author4=P. Goret |author5=E. Juliusson |author6=L. Koch-Miramond |author7=N. Lund |author8=P. Masse |author9=B. Peters |author10=N. Petrou |author11=I.L. Rasmussen |title=Charge composition and energy spectra of cosmic-ray nuclei for elements from Be to Ni. Results from HEAO-3-C2 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=July |year=1990 |volume=233 |issue=1 |pages=96-111 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1990A&A...233...96E |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> ==Minerals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Minerals}} [[Image:Cosmo03.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a diagram of muon target minerals. Credit: Derek Fabel.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Bombardment by protostellar cosmic rays may make the rock precursors of [Calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions] CAIs and chondrules radioactive, producing radionuclides found in meteorites that are difficult to obtain with other mechanisms."<ref name="Lee1998">{{cite journal |author=Typhoon Lee |author2=Frank H. Shu |author3=Hsien Shang |author4=Alfred E. Glassgold |author5=K. E. Rehm |title=Protostellar cosmic rays and extinct radioactivities in meteorites |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=October 20, |year=1998 |volume=506 |issue=2 |pages=898-912 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/506/2/898 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1086/306284 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-04 }}</ref> "The Earth is continually being bombarded by high-energy cosmic rays that originate predominantly from super nova explosions within our galaxy. Interactions between these high energy cosmic rays and the Earth's atmosphere creates secondary and tertiary cosmic rays, including neutrons and muons."<ref name=Fabel>{{ cite book |author=Derek Fabel |title=In-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides |publisher=University of Glasgow |location= |date=December 18, 2008 |url=http://web2.ges.gla.ac.uk/~dfabel/CN_intro.html |accessdate=2014-03-21 }}</ref> "When reaching the Earth's surface these high energy particles can penetrate meters into rock and sediment."<ref name=Fabel/> "Nuclear interactions between neutrons and muons and minerals [as in the diagram at the right] such as quartz, calcite, K-feldspar, and olivine, produce long-lived radionuclides such as Be-10, Al-26 and Cl-36."<ref name=Fabel/> "The production rates of these "in-situ produced terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides" are almost unimaginably small - a few atoms per gram of rock per year, however using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) we can detect and count cosmogenic nuclides down to levels of a few thousand atoms per gram (parts per million of parts per billion!)."<ref name=Fabel/> "The build-up of cosmogenic nuclides through time provides us with a way to measure exposure ages for rock surfaces such as fault scarps, lava flows and glacial pavements.Where surfaces are gradually evolving, cosmogenic nuclide measurements allow us to calculate erosion or soil accumulation rates.Where previously exposed rock or sediment is re-buried the relative decay between different cosmogenic nuclides can be used to date the burial time."<ref name=Fabel/> {{clear}} ==Theoretical cosmic-ray astronomy== "The phenomenology of cosmic ray cascades ... reflects in an essential way processes governed by the strong force."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Full multiple scattering theory must take account of the angular dependence of hadron-nucleon scattering, which affects the degree of screening."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Sources== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Sources}} "Violent activity and Supernovae generate cosmic ray (suprathermal) particles. The speeds of individual particles may be ~ c, and their energy density, if they diffused uniformly through the universe, could well exceed 100 eV per baryon. Subrelativistic particles would be slowed down, and would transmit their energy to the thermal component. However, the relativistic particles could themselves exert a pressure if they were coupled (e.g. via magnetic fields) so that they constituted, with the thermal gas, a composite fluid, to which they contributed most of the pressure. Although there is here even less problem in fulfilling the energy density requirement than there is for ultraviolet radiation, there is uncertainty about how uniformly it can spread. If the cosmic-ray energy remains concentrated around the sources, it is irrelevant in the present context [of the cold dark matter cosmogony]; at the other extreme, if the particles diffuse too freely, they do not couple well enough to protogalactic gas for their pressure gradients to oppose gravitational collapse."<ref name="Rees">{{cite journal |author=Martin J. Rees |title=Is the Universe flat? |journal=Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy |month=December |year=1984 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=331-48 |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02714464 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-18 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Objects== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Objects|Object astronomy}} "Comparison with the chemical composition of various astrophysical objects, such as the Sun, the [[interstellar medium]], supernovae or neutron stars, can give clues about the site at which cosmic rays are injected into the acceleration process."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Strong forces== {{main|Charges/Interactions/Strong}} "In field theory it is known that coupling constants “run”. This means that the values of the [[coupling constant]]s that one measures depend on the energy at which the measurement is performed. [...] the three different coupling constants [one each for the strong force, electromagnetic force, and the weak force] of the standard model seem to converge to the same value at an energy scale of about 10¹⁶ GeV [...] This suggests that there is only one coupling constant at high energies and most likely only one symmetry group. [...] The current belief [is] that the electromagnetic, weak and strong forces [are] unified at about 10¹⁶ GeV [as such] one has to rely on [the] particle physics interactions which can lead to electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays".<ref name="Vachaspati">{{cite journal |author=Tanmay Vachaspati |title=Topological defects in the cosmos and lab |journal=Contemporary Physics |month= |year=1998 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=225-37 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/001075198181928 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1080/001075198181928 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-11-05 }}</ref> ==Weak forces== "The feature that makes deep inelastic lepton scattering and e⁺e^- annihilation tractable is that these processes proceed via the electromagnetic and weak interactions."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Continua== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Continua}} Continuum "radiation ... diffuse gamma rays with energies above 10 MeV. In the galaxy these are produced primarily by bremsstrahlung from cosmic ray electrons and from decay in flight of π⁰'s produced by interactions of cosmic ray protons."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} "The attenuation of photons in the microwave background ''via'' the process :<math>\gamma + \gamma (3^o K) \rightarrow e^+ e^-</math> is strongly energy dependent, with a minimum attenuation length of ≈ 7 kpc around 2.5 PeV, as determined by the threshold for e⁺e^- production (Gould and Schreder, 1966; Jelley, 1966)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation/Meteors}} [[Image:Micrometeorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a micrometeorite collected from the antarctic snow. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "[T]he carbonaceous material [is] known from observation to dominate the terrestrial [micrometeorite (MM)] flux."<ref name="Taylor"/> "Ureilites occur about half as often as eucrites (Krot et al. 2003), are relatively friable, have less a wide range of cosmic-ray exposure ages including two less than 1 Myr, and, like the dominant group of MM precursors, contain carbon."<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal |author=Susan Taylor |author2=Gregory F. Herzog |author3=Jeremy S. Delaney |title=Crumbs from the crust of Vesta: Achondritic cosmic spherules from the South Pole water well |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |month= |year=2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=223-33 |url= |bibcode=2007M&PS...42..223T |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00229.x |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Anomalous cosmic rays== [[Image:Helios 2 acr.gif|right|thumb|250px|A mechanism is suggested for anomalous cosmic rays (ACRs) of the acceleration of pick-up ions at the solar wind termination shock. Credit: Eric R. Christian.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "While interstellar plasma is kept outside the heliosphere by an interplanetary magnetic field, the interstellar neutral gas flows through the solar system like an interstellar wind, at a speed of 25 km/sec. When closer to the Sun, these atoms undergo the loss of one electron in photo-ionization or by charge exchange. Photo-ionization is when an electron is knocked off by a solar ultra-violet photon, and charge exchange involves giving up an electron to an ionized solar wind atom. Once these particles are charged, the Sun's magnetic field picks them up and carries them outward to the solar wind termination shock. They are called pickup ions during this part of their trip."<ref name=Christian>{{ cite book |author=Eric R. Christian |title=Anomalous Cosmic Rays |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=7 April 2011 |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/acr.html |accessdate=2017-08-05 }}</ref> "The ions repeatedly collide with the termination shock, gaining energy in the process. This continues until they escape from the shock and diffuse toward the inner heliosphere. Those that are accelerated are then known as anomalous cosmic rays."<ref name=Christian/> "ACRs [may] represent a sample of the very local interstellar medium. They are not thought to have experienced such violent processes as GCRs, and they have a lower speed and energy. ACRs include large quantities of helium, oxygen, neon, and other elements with high ionization potentials, that is, they require a great deal of energy to ionize, or form ions. ACRs are a tool for studying the movement of energetic particles within the solar system, for learning the general properties of the heliosphere, and for studying the nature of interstellar material itself."<ref name=Christian/> {{clear}} ==Hadrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Hadrons}} [[Image:Differential hadron energy spectrum.png|right|thumb|300px|Differential energy spectrum shows the differential vertical hadron intensity versus hadron energy in GeV. Credit: F. Ashton, A. Nasri, & I. A. Ward.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The "problems plaguing (3 + 1)- dimensional quantum gravity quantization programs are solved by virtue of the fact that spacetime is dimensionally-reduced. Indeed, effective models of quantum gravity are plentiful in (2 + 1) and even (1 + 1) dimensions [11–13]. Similarly, the cosmological constant problem may be explained as a Casimir-type energy between two adjacent “foliations” of three-dimensional space as the scale size L > L4 opens up a fourth space dimension."<ref name=Mureika>{{ cite journal |author=Jonas Mureika |author2=Dejan Stojkovic |title=Detecting Vanishing Dimensions Via Primordial Gravitational Wave Astronomy |journal=Physical review letters |date=8 March 2011 |volume=106 |issue=10-11 |pages=101101 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1102.3434.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.101101 |pmid= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "What makes this proposal of evolving dimensions very attractive is that some evidence of the lower dimensional structure of our space-time at a TeV scale may already exist. Namely, alignment of the main energy fluxes in a target (transverse) plane has been observed in families of cosmic ray particles [18–20]. The fraction of events with alignment is statistically significant for families with energies higher than TeV and large number of hadrons. This can be interpreted as evidence for coplanar scattering of secondary hadrons produced in the early stages of the atmospheric cascade development."<ref name=Mureika/> In the image on the right, the "energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level has been measured over the energy range 600 GeV - 8 TeV. The spectrum is found to be well represented in differential form by N(E)dE = AE^-𝛄dE where 𝛄 = 2.74 ± 0.16 with no suggested anomalous behaviour over the whole energy range."<ref name=Ashton>{{ cite book |author=F. Ashton |author2=A. Nasri |author3=I. A. Ward |title=The energy spectrum of hadrons in cosmic rays at sea level, In: ''International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |volume=7 |publisher=Sofia, B'lgarska Akademiia na Naukite |location=Plovdiv, Bulgaria |date=26 August 1977 |editor= |pages=458-463 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1977ICRC....7..458A/G000458.000.html |arxiv= |bibcode=1977ICRC....7..458A |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=10 July 2019 }}</ref> "Incident hadrons either interact in the lead (15 cm thick) or iron (15 cm thick) targets and the resulting cascade traverses the plastic scintillators [...] which are both 5 cm thick. Using a burst of size > 400 equivalent muons traversing either scintillator as a master trigger a high voltage pulse was applied to the flash tubes, which are photographed, after a time delay of 330 𝛍s. From the resulting photograph the projected angle of incidence of the incident hadron could be determined and a decision taken a to whether is was in the acceptance geometry as defined [...]. [...] In converting the burst spectrum measurements to an estimate of the incident hadron spectrum the hadrons have been assumed to be nucleons. If charged pions are assumed the energies shown in [the image on the right] should be reduced by 0.8."<ref name=Ashton/> {{clear}} ==Neutrons== {{main|Radiation/Neutrons|}} [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Because free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name="Choy">{{cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name="Choy"/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] About 89% of cosmic rays are simple protons or hydrogen nuclei. The free proton is stable and is found naturally in a number of situations. Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons. Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays, which propagate for interstellar distances. "Proton astronomy [since protons are also most cosmic rays] should be possible; it may also provide indirect information on inter-galactic magnetic fields."<ref name="Halzen">{{cite journal |author=Francis Halzen |author2=Dan Hooper |title=High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection |journal=Reports on Progress in Physics |month=July |year=2002 |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=1025-78 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0204527 |arxiv= |bibcode=2002RPPh...65.1025H |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/65/7/201 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Antiprotons have been detected in cosmic rays for over 25 years, first by balloon-borne experiments and more recently by satellite-based detectors. The standard picture for their presence in cosmic rays is that they are produced in collisions of cosmic ray protons with nuclei in the [[interstellar medium]], via the reaction, where A represents a nucleus: : {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A → {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}} + {{SubatomicParticle|Proton}} + A The secondary antiprotons ({{SubatomicParticle|Antiproton}}) then propagate through the [[w:galaxy|galaxy]], confined by the galactic [[w:magnetic field|magnetic field]]s. Their energy spectrum is modified by collisions with other atoms in the interstellar medium. The antiproton cosmic ray energy spectrum is now measured reliably and is consistent with this standard picture of antiproton production by cosmic ray collisions.<ref name="Kennedy">{{cite journal |author=Dallas C. Kennedy |year=2000 |month= |title=Cosmic Ray Antiprotons |journal=Proc. SPIE |volume= 2806 |issue= |pages= 113 |arxiv=astro-ph/0003485 |doi=10.1117/12.253971 }}</ref> Kosmos 60 measured the gamma-ray background flux density to be 1.7×10⁴ quanta/(m²·s). As was seen by Ranger 3 and Lunas 10 & 12, the spectrum fell sharply up to 1.5 MeV and was flat for higher energies. Several peaks were observed in the spectra which were attributed to the inelastic interaction of cosmic protons with the materials in the satellite body. {{clear}} ==Electrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy}} Solitary electrons constitute much of the remaining 1% of cosmic rays. "The conventional procedure of delta-ray counting to measure charge (Powell, Fowler, and Perkins 1959), which was limited to resolution sigma_z = 1-2 because of uncertainties of the criterion of delta-ray ranges, has been significantly improved by the application of delta-ray range distribution measurements for ¹⁶O and ³²S data of 200 GeV per nucleon (Takahashi 1988; Parnell ''et al.'' 1989)."<ref name="Burnett">{{cite journal |author=T. H. Burnett |author2=''et al.'' |author3=The JACEE Collaboration |title=Energy spectra of cosmic rays above 1 TeV per nucleon |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=January |year=1990 |volume=349 |issue=1 |pages=L25-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=GIF&db_key=AST |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B |doi=10.1086/185642 |pmid= |pdf=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1990ApJ...349L..25B&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST&high= |accessdate=2011-11-25 }}</ref> Here, the delta-ray tracks in emulsion chambers have been used for "[d]irect measurements of cosmic-ray nuclei above 1 TeV/nucleon ... in a series of balloon-borne experiments".<ref name="Burnett"/> ==Positrons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy}} [[Image:509305main GBM positron event 300dpi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Observation of positrons from a terrestrial gamma ray flash is performed by the Fermi gamma ray telescope. Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.{{tlx|free media}}]] A few antiprotons and positrons are in primary cosmic rays. "In the first 18 months of operations, AMS-02 [image under Cherenkov detectors] recorded 6.8 million positron (an antimatter particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge) and electron events produced from cosmic ray collisions with the interstellar medium in the energy range between 0.5 giga-electron volt (GeV) and 350 GeV. These events were used to determine the positron fraction, the ratio of positrons to the total number of electrons and positrons. Below 10 GeV, the positron fraction decreased with increasing energy, as expected. However, the positron fraction increased steadily from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. This increase, seen previously though less precisely by instruments such as the Payload for Matter/antimatter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, conflicts with the predicted decrease of the positron fraction and indicates the existence of a currently unidentified source of positrons, such as pulsars or the annihilation of dark matter particles. Furthermore, researchers observed an unexpected decrease in slope from 20 GeV to 250 GeV. The measured positron to electron ratio is isotropic, the same in all directions."<ref name="Ting">{{cite book |author=Samuel Ting |author2=Manuel Aguilar-Benitez |author3=Silvie Rosier |author4=Roberto Battiston |author5=Shih-Chang Lee |author6=Stefan Schael |author7=Martin Pohl |title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, DC USA |date=April 13, 2013 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/742.html |accessdate=2013-05-17 }}</ref> A High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) has been developed and tested in the mid 1990s to measure the positron fraction in cosmic rays.<ref name="Barwick"/> There is an "unexpected rise of the positron fraction, observed by HEAT and PAMELA experiments, for energies larger than a few GeVs."<ref name="Rodriguez">{{cite journal |author=Roberto Alfredo Lineros Rodriguez |title=Positrons from cosmic rays interactions and dark matter annihilations |journal=Rivista Del Nuovo Cimento |month= |year=2010 |volume=125B |issue= |pages=1053-70 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010arXiv1002.0671A |arxiv=1002.0671 |bibcode=2010arXiv1002.0671A |doi=10.1393/ncb/i2010-10910-7 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-17 }}</ref> "[T]he HEAT balloon experiment [30] ... has mildly indicated a possible positron excess at energies larger than 10 GeV ... In October 2008, the latest results of PAMELA experiment [36] have confirmed and extended this feature [37]."<ref name="Rodriguez"/> Earlier measurements indicate that "the positron fraction, [f = ] e⁺/(e^- + e⁺), increases with energy at energies above 10 GeV. Such an increase would require either the appearance of a new source of positrons or a depletion of primary electrons."<ref name="Barwick">{{cite journal |author=S. W. Barwick |author2=J. J. Beatty |author3=A. Bhattacharyya |author4=C. R. Bower |author5=C. J. Chaput |author6=S. Coutu |author7=G. A. de Nolfo |author8=J. Knapp |author9=D. M. Lowder |author10=S. McKee |author11=D. Müller |author12=J. A. Musser |author13=S. L. Nutter |author14=E. Schneider |author15=S. P. Swordy |author16=G. Tarlé |author17=A. D. Tomasch |author18=E. Torbet |title=Measurements of the Cosmic-Ray Positron Fraction from 1 to 50 GeV |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=June 20, |year=1997 |volume=482 |issue=2 |pages=L191-4 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/482/2/L191/pdf/1538-4357_482_2_L191.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode=1997ApJ...482L.191B |doi=10.1086/310706 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-07-13 }}</ref> All results taken together suggest a slight decrease with increasing energy from about 1 GeV to 10 GeV, but overall the fraction may be constant, per Figure 2.<ref name="Barwick"/> {{clear}} ==Muons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy}} [[Image:Moons shodow in muons.gif|thumb|right|250px|The Moon's cosmic ray shadow. Credit: J. H. Cobb et al. (The Soudan 2 Collaboration).{{tlx|fairuse}}]] At right is an image of the Moon's cosmic ray shadow, as seen in secondary muons generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and detected 700 meters below ground, at the [[w:Soudan II|Soudan II]] detector. The shadow is the result of approximately 120 muons missing from a total of 33 million detected in Soudan 2 over its 10 years of operation. The cross denotes the actual location of the Moon. The shadow of the Moon is slightly offset from this location because cosmic rays are electrically charged particles and were slightly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field on their journey to the upper atmosphere. The shadow is produced due to the shielding effect the Moon has on galactic and cosmic rays, which stream in from all directions. "To reduce the background of ordinary cosmic ray showers, several large air shower experiments emphasize measurement of the muon content of the shower. Ironically, early indications are that the signal seems to have the same muon content as the background."<ref name="Gaisser"/> {{clear}} ==Neutrinos== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy}} Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of [[w:radioactive decay|radioactive decay]], or [[w:nuclear reaction|nuclear reaction]]s, or when [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s hit atoms. Cosmic "ray neutrinos of local origin are also the background for neutrino astronomy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Gamma rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy}} "Over the last few years, the cold dark matter cosmogony has become a fiducial model for the formation of structure. [...] The problem with detecting dark matter using annihilation radiation gamma rays has been that the expected signal is comparable to the background (Stecker 1988) and it would be difficult to separate a "cosmic-ray halo" from a dark halo."<ref name="Lake">{{cite journal |author=George Lake |title=High Dark Matter Densities and the Formation of Extreme Dwarf Galaxies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June 20, |year=1990 |volume=356 |issue=06 |pages=L43-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990ApJ...356L..43L |arxiv= |bibcode=1990ApJ...356L..43L |doi=10.1086/185746 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-20 }}</ref> In [[gamma-ray astronomy]], when cosmic rays [such as protons] interact with ordinary matter ... pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV [are produced that are included in] the gamma ray background. ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} Some "of the possible sources of the ultra-high energy cosmic rays, such as very young supernova remnants and X-ray binaries, are associated with relatively dense concentrations of matter and would therefore be likely point sources of secondary photons and neutrinos."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Opticals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}} "An accelerator in this particular supernova [TeV range] could hardly be this powerful without having altered the behavior of the optical light curve, which was very successfully explained as being powered by the radioactive decay chain of ⁵⁶Ni synthesized in the explosion (Pinto & Woosley, 1988)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> "Cygnus X-3 is obscured by the disk of the galaxy and is not visible in the optical. It is therefore impossible to determine unambiguously by what means it is powered."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} "The Broad LAteral Non-imaging Cherenkov Array (BLANCA) takes advantage of the CASA-MIA particle array installation by augmenting it with 144 angle-integrating Cherenkov detectors. Located in Dugway, Utah at an atmospheric depth of 870 g cm⁻², BLANCA uses the CASA trigger to collect Cherenkov light and records the Cherenkov lateral distribution from cosmic ray events in the energy range of the knee. The CASA trigger threshold imposes an energy threshold of ∼ 100 TeV on the Cherenkov array. However, BLANCA analysis uses events with a 200 TeV minimum to avoid composition bias introduced from the CASA trigger."<ref name="Swordy2002"/> "Each BLANCA detector contains a large Winston cone [43] which concentrates the light striking an 880 cm² entrance aperture onto a photomultiplier tube. The concentrator has a nominal half-angle of 12.5° and truncated length of 60 cm. The Winston cones were aligned vertically with ∼ 0.5° accuracy. A two-output preamplifier increases the dynamic range of the detector. The minimum detectable density of a typical BLANCA unit is approximately one blue photon per cm²."<ref name="Swordy2002">{{cite journal |author=S.P. Swordy |author2=L.F. Fortson |author3=J. Hinton |author4=J. Hörandel |author5=J. Knapp |author6=C.L. Pryke |author7=T. Shibata |author8=S.P. Wakely |author9=Z. Cao |author10=M. L. Cherry |author11=S. Coutu |author12=J. Cronin |author13=R. Engel |author14=J.W. Fowler |author15=K.-H. Kampert |author16=J. Kettler |author17=D.B. Kieda |author18=J. Matthews |author19=S. A. Minnick |author20=A. Moiseev |author21=D. Muller |author22=M. Roth |author23=A. Sill |author24=G. Spiczak |title=The Composition of Cosmic Rays at the Knee |journal=Astroparticle Physics |month=October |year=2002 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=129-50 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0202159.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0927-6505(02)00108-1 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens|Green astronomy}} "Babcock, using a Fabry and Perot interferometer, determined very accurately the wave-length of the auroral green line 5577. ... After a careful examination of all the results obtained in these reports, we may only say that the exact nature of the cosmical rays, responsible for the aurora, remains a mystery. ... The origin of the most prominent and interesting line of the auroral spectrum, the line 5577, has hitherto remained unexplained. Vegard* has recently obtained a luminescent band from solid nitrogen, that he supposes, under very special conditions, may coincide with the auroral green line. ... spectra of pure helium and of pure oxygen were taken at different pressures and with various excitations, but no trace of 5577 or of any other new lines was obtained. ... Mixtures of helium, oxygen and nitrogen were excited, and it was found that the line 5577 could be photographed on the same plate with the nitrogen band system, thus reproducing in the laboratory practically the entire auroral spectrum. In ... mixtures of neon and oxygen ... neon enhanced the line 5577 in the same manner as helium. ... From Plate 20 it will be seen that all the lines except 5577 have been identified as ''strong'' lines in the spectrum of helium, hydrogen, oxygen, or mercury. ... It has been shown that this line must be attributed to some hitherto unknown spectrum of oxygen, and that it is not a limiting member of the ordinary band spectrum of oxygen. It has been observed faintly in highly purified oxygen when currents of high density have been used."<ref name="McLennan">{{cite journal |author=J. C. McLennan |author2=G. M. Shrum |title=On the Origin of the Auroral Green Line 5577 Å, and other Spectra Associated with the Aurora Borealis |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences |month= |year=1925 |volume=108 |issue=747 |pages=501-12 |url=http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/108/747/501.full.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1098/rspa.1925.0088 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-01-24 }}</ref> Airglow is caused by various processes in the upper atmosphere, such as the recombination of ions which were [[w:photoionization|photoionized]] by the [[Stars/Sun|sun]] during the day, luminescence caused by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s striking the upper atmosphere, and [[w:chemiluminescence|chemiluminescence]] caused mainly by [[w:oxygen|oxygen]] and [[w:nitrogen|nitrogen]] reacting with [[w:hydroxyl|hydroxyl]] ions at heights of a few hundred kilometers. It is not noticeable during the daytime because of the [[w:diffuse sky radiation|scattered light from the Sun]]. ==Plasma objects== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects|Plasma objects}} "When magnetic fields "reconnect" in a turbulent magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) plasma, electric fields are generated in which particles can be accelerated (Matthaeus ''et al.'', 1984; Sorrell, 1984)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Berylliums== {{main|Chemicals/Berylliums}} The "presence in ... cosmic radiation [is] of a much greater proportion of "secondary" nuclei, such as lithium, beryllium and boron, than is found generally in the universe."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Carbons== These "are nevertheless present in the cosmic radiation as spallation products of the abundant nuclei of carbon and oxygen (Li,Be,B) and of iron (Sc,Ti,V,Cr,Mn)."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Aluminums== {{main|Chemicals/Aluminums}} [[Image:COMPTEL 26Al galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The distribution of ²⁶Al in the [[w:Milky Way|Milky Way]] is shown. Credit: [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/cgro/ the COMPTEL Collaboration].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aluminum26 Map.png|thumb|left|250px|This is the CGRO gamma-ray signal from the Galactic Center region. Credit: COMPTEL Collaboration.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The dominant reactions for making ²⁶Al by [cosmic-ray] proton and α bombardment of refractory rocks in impulsive flares are ²⁷Al(p, pn)²⁶Al (β=0.92), ²⁶Mg(p, n)²⁶Al (β=1.0), ²⁴Mg(α, pn)²⁶Al (β=2.5 and y_CR = 0.1), ²⁸Si(p, 2pn)²⁶Al (β=0.10), and ²⁸Si(α, αpn)²⁶Al (β=0.41)."<ref name="Lee1998"/> '''Aluminium-26''', ²⁶Al, is a radioactive [[w:isotope|isotope]] of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the [[w:Radioactive decay#Modes of decay|modes]] [[w:Positron emission|beta-plus]] or [[w:electron capture|electron capture]], both resulting in the stable [[w:nuclide|nuclide]] magnesium-26. The [[w:half-life|half-life]] of ²⁶Al is 7.17{{e|5}} years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons. Aluminium-26 also emits gamma rays and X-rays,<ref>{{ cite book | url = http://hpschapters.org/northcarolina/NSDS/26AlPDF.pdf | title = Nuclide Safety Data Sheet Aluminum-26 | publisher = www.nchps.org}}</ref> and is one of the few [[w:radionuclide|radionuclide]]s to emit X-rays. {{clear}} ==Ions== {{main|Plasmas/Ions|Ions}} "Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids."<ref name="Madey">{{cite journal |author=Theodore E. Madey |author2=Robert E. Johnson |author3=Thom M. Orlando |title=Far-out surface science: radiation-induced surface processes in the solar system |journal=Surface Science |month=March |year=2002 |volume=500 |issue=1-3 |pages=838-58 |url=http://www.physics.rutgers.edu/~madey/Publications/Full_Publications/PDF/madey_SS_2002.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0039-6028(01)01556-4 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-02-09 }}</ref> ==Atmospheres== {{main|Atmospheric astronomy}} Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the [[w:Earth's atmosphere|Earth's atmosphere]], creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from the [[w:Tata Institute of Fundamental Research|Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] (India), [[w:Osaka City University|Osaka City University]] (Japan) and [[w:Durham University|Durham University]] (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in [[w:Kolar Gold Fields|Kolar Gold Fields]] in India in 1965. "The major problems associated with the balloon borne positron measurements are (i) the unique identification against a vast background of protons, and (ii) corrections for the positrons produced in the residual atmosphere."<ref name="Barbiellini">{{cite journal |author=G. Barbiellini |author2=G. Basini |author3=R. Bellotti |author4=M. Bpcciolini |author5=M. Boezio |author6=F. Massimo Brancaccio |author7=U. Bravar |author8=F. Cafagna |author9=M. Candusso |author10=P. Carlson |author11=M. Casolino |author12=M. Castellano |author13=M. Circella |author14=A. Codino |author15=G. De Cataldo |author16=C. De Marzo |author17=M.P. De Pascale |author18=N. Finetti |author19=T. Francke |author20=N. Giglietto |author21=R.L. Golden |author22=C. Grimani |author23=M. Hof |author24=B. Marangelli |author25=W. Menn |author26=J.W. Mitchell |author27=A. Morselli |author28=J.F. Ormes |author29=P. Papini |author30=a. Perego |author31=S. Piccardi |author32=P. Picozza |author33=M. Ricci |author34=P. Schiavon |author35=M. Simon |author36=R. Sparvoli |author37=P. Spillatini |author38=P. Spinelli |author39=S.A. Stephens |author40=S.J. Stochaj |author41=R.E. Streitmatter |author42=M. Suffert |author43=A. Vacchi |author44=N. Weber |author45=N. Zampa |title=The cosmic-ray positron-to-electron ratio in the energy range 0.85 to 14 GeV |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=May |year=1996 |volume=309 |issue=05 |pages=L15-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996A&A...309L..15B |arxiv= |bibcode=1996A&A...309L..15B |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-08-11 }}</ref> "[T]o account for the atmospheric corrections ... first [use] the instrument to determine the negative muon spectrum at float altitude. ... [Use this] spectrum ... to normalize the analytically determined atmospheric electron-positron spectra. ... most of the atmospheric electrons and positrons at small atmospheric depths are produced from muon decay at [the energies from 0.85 to 14 GeV]."<ref name="Barbiellini"/> ==Materials== {{main|Chemicals/Materials}} "The two groups of elements Li, Be, B and Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn are many orders of magnitude more abundant in the cosmic radiation than in solar system material."<ref name="Gaisser">{{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=11 January 2014 }}</ref> ==Meteorites== {{main|Rocks/Meteorites|Meteorites}} [[Image:Allan Hills 81005, lunar meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the lunar meteorite ''Allan Hills 81005''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:NWA 6963 full slice.jpg|thumb|right|250px|NWA 6963 is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/44124348109@N01 Steve Jurvetson].{{tlx|free media}}]] Cosmic ray exposure history established with noble gas measurements have shown that all lunar meteorites were ejected from the Moon in the past 20 million years. Most left the Moon in the past 100,000 years. Imaged at lower right is an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite. "The perimeter exhibits a fusion crust from the heat of entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a fresh sample of NWA 6963, an igneous Martian shergottite meteorite found in September 2011 in Morocco. Meteorites are often labeled NWA for North West Africa, not because they land there more often, but because they are easy to spot as peculiar objects in the desert sands. From the geochemistry and presence of various isotopes, the origin and transit time is deduced. The 99 meteorites from Mars exhibit precise elemental and isotopic compositions similar to rocks and atmosphere gases analyzed by spacecraft on Mars, starting with the Viking lander in 1976. Compared to other meteorites, the Martians have younger formation ages, unique oxygen isotopic composition (consistent for Mars and not for Earth), and the presence of aqueous weathering products. A trapped gas analysis concluded that their origin was Mars quite recently, in the year 2000."<ref name="Jurvetson">{{cite book |author=Steve Jurvetson |title=It came from Mars |publisher=flickr from Yahoo! |location= |date=21 December 2012 |url=http://www.flickr.com/photos/44124348109@N01/8302214803 |accessdate=24 February 2013 }}</ref> "The formation ages of meteorites often come from their cosmic-ray exposure (CRE), measured from the nuclear products of interactions of the meteorite in space with energetic cosmic ray particles. This one is particularly young, having crystallized only 180 million years ago, suggesting that volcanic activity was still present on Mars at that time. Volcanic flows are the youngest part of a planet, and this one happened to be hit by a meteor impact, ejecting" it from the youthful Mars.<ref name="Jurvetson"/> {{clear}} ==Spectrometers== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Spectrometers}} [[Image:Grsradiation-med.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This diagram depicts the generation of gamma rays by cosmic ray exposure. Credit: JPL, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Using Germanium detectors - a crystal of hyperpure germanium that produces pulses proportional to the captured photon energy; while more sensitive, it has to be cooled to a low temperature, requiring a bulky cryogenic apparatus. When exposed to [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]] (charged particles in space that come from the stars, including our sun), chemical elements in soils and rocks emit uniquely identifiable signatures of energy in the form of gamma rays. The gamma ray spectrometer looks at these signatures, or energies, coming from the elements present in the target soil. By measuring gamma rays coming from the target body, it is possible to calculate the abundance of various elements and how they are distributed around the planet's surface. Gamma rays, emitted from the [[w:atomic nucleus|nuclei]] of [[w:atoms|atoms]], show up as sharp [[w:emission lines|emission lines]] on the instrument's spectrum output. While the energy represented in these emissions determines which elements are present, the intensity of the spectrum reveals the elements concentrations. Spectrometers are expected to add significantly to the growing understanding of the origin and evolution of planets like Mars and the processes shaping them today and in the past. {{clear}} ==Solar cosmic rays== {{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}} [[Image:SpaceEnvironmentOverview From 19830101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows an overview of the space weather conditions over several solar cycles including the relationship between sunspot numbers and cosmic rays. Credit: [[c:User:Daniel Wilkinson|Daniel Wilkinson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Solar magnetic flux.png|left|thumb|300px|Comparison shows the observed (solar irradiance and sunspot number, symbols) and modeled (solid line) total magnetic flux Credit: Luis Eduardo A. Vieira and Sami K. Solanki.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver"/> "For solar cosmic-rays, the apparent lack of proton acceleration in the corona seems justified, in contrast to the electrons, proton bremsstrahlung and gyrosynchrotron emission are negligible. This suggests a transit time anomaly, Δ''T''_''A'', defined as follows: : Δ''T''_''A'' = Δ''T''_onset - 11 min, where Δ''T''_onset is the deduced Sun-Earth transit time for the first arriving relativistic protons and 11 min is the nominal transit time for a ~2 GeV proton traversing a 1.3 AU Archimedes spiral path."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> "The '''solar wind''' is a stream of [[w:charged particle|charged particle]]s ejected from the [[w:stellar atmosphere|upper atmosphere]] of the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. It mostly consists of electrons and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 [[w:electronvolt|keV]]. Δ''T''_''A'' may have values from "7-19 min for a small sample of well-connected ... cosmic-ray flares."<ref name="Cliver"/> The transit time anomaly may be explained by a rise time associated with the ground-level events (GLEs). "The average GLE rise time ... for well-connected ... events ... defined to be the time from event onset to maximum as measured by the neutron monitor station showing the largest increase and whose asymptotic cone of acceptance ... includes the nominal direction of the Archimedean spiral path, is 21.3 min."<ref name="Cliver"/> "Data from an extensive air shower detector of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays shows shadowing of the cosmic-ray flux by the Moon and the Sun with significance of 4.9 standard deviations. This is the first observation of such shadowing."<ref name="Alexandreas">{{cite journal |author=D.E. Alexandreas |author2=R.C. Allen |author3=D. Berley |author4=S.D. Biller |author5=R.L. Burman |author6=D.R. Cady |author7=C.Y. Chang |author8=B.L. Dingus |author9=G.M. Dion |author10=R.W. Ellsworth |author11=M.K. Gilra |author12=J.A. Goodman |author13=S. Gupta |author14=T.J. Haines |author15=C.M. Hoffman |author16=D.A. Krakauer |author17=P. Kwok |author18=J. lloyd-Evans |author19=D.E. Nagle |author20=M.E. Potter |author21=V.D. Sandberg |author22=M.J. Stark |author23=R.L. Talaga |author24=P.R. Vishwanath |author25=G.B. Yodh |author26=W. Zhang |title=Observation of shadowing of ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays by the moon and the sun |journal=Physical Review, D (Particles Fields) |month=March 1, |year=1991 |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=1735-8 |url=http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=6399949 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> "The ... solar proton flare on 20 April 1998 at W 90° and S 43° (9:38 UT) was measured by the GOES-9-satellite (Solar Geophysical Data 1998), as well as by other experiments on WIND ... and GEOTAIL. Protons were accelerated up to energies > 110 MeV and are therefore able to hit the surface of Mercury."<ref name="Kirsch">{{cite book |author=E. Kirsch |author2=U.A. Mall |author3=B. Wilken |author4=G. Gloeckler |author5=A.B. Galvin |author6=K. Cierpka |title=Detection of Pickup- and Sputter Ions by Experiment SMS on the WIND-S/C After a Mercury Conjunction, In: ''Proceedings of the 26th International Cosmic Ray Conference'' |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) |location=Salt Lake City, Utah, USA |date=August 17, 1999 |editor=D. Kieda |editor2=M. Salamon |editor3=B. Dingus |pages=212-5 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1999ICRC....6..212K |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> Here's a quote from Bowman's "Radiocarbon Dating" book from 1990, p. 19: "High sunspot activity increases the weak magnetic field that exists between the planets, and at such times there is a greater deflection of cosmic rays and hence ¹⁴C decreases."<ref name=Bowman>{{ cite book |title=Radiocarbon Dating |author=Sheridan Bowman |publisher=British Museum Press |date=1995 |isbn=0-7141-2047-2 |location=London |origyear=1990 }}</ref> "Cosmic rays originate from the Sun as well as from galactic sources."<ref name=Bowen>{{ cite book |author=Robert Bowen |title=Carbon-14 Dating, In: ''Isotopes in the Earth Sciences'' |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |date=1994 |pages=247-263 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-2611-0_6 |isbn=978-94-010-7678-4 |accessdate=2017-12-05 }}</ref> Here's a quote from Aitken's "Radiocarbon Dating" article from 2000, "Cosmic-ray variations are associated with changes in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field. A weak field allows more cosmic radiation to reach the upper atmosphere, and the production of carbon-14 is consequently enhanced--causing raw radiocarbon ages to be underestimates of calendar ages. The short-term wiggles mentioned above are associated with sunspot activity."<ref name= Ellis>{{ cite book |author=Martin J. Aitken |title=Radiocarbon Dating, In: ''Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Routledge |location= |date=16 December 2000 |editor=Linda Ellis |pages=744 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjOPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT7&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&f=false |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2017-12-04 }}</ref> "Direct observations of cosmic rays within the heliosphere over several decades have revealed a great deal of information about the acceleration and propagation of cosmic radiation through the interstellar space and the heliosphere. We now know that the cosmic radiation incident at the top of the earth’s atmosphere comes to us through several “filters”: # Galactic magnetic fields, # Interstellar magnetic fields, # Solar magnetic plasma within the heliosphere, regulated by solar activity, and finally, # the Terrestrial geomagnetic field."<ref name=Lal2001>{{ cite journal |author=D Lal |author2=A J T Jull |title=In-situ cosmogenic {{chem|14|C}}: Production and examples of its unique applications in studies of terrestrial and extraterrestrial processes |journal=Radiocarbon |year=2001 |volume=43 |issue=28 |pages=731-742 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/download/3905/3330 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2017-12-06 }}</ref> "Additionally, cosmic ray particles are frequently accelerated by the sun, and sometimes in a nearby supernova to make an appreciable difference in the total cosmic ray flux at the earth!"<ref name=Lal2001/> "Since fairly extensive cosmic-ray data on primary and secondary cosmic rays are available for more than the past five decades, covering five solar cycles, it is fairly easy to make reliable calculations of the magnitude of variations in cosmogenic production rates in terrestrial solids due to solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux. This exercise is based on a study of relative changes in the primary cosmic-ray flux at the top of the atmosphere, and flux of low energy neutrons as measured by neutron monitors. Solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray flux is conveniently described in terms of a modulation potential, ∅, which is a phase-lagged function of solar activity (see Castagnoli and Lal 1980; Lal 1988b, 2000 and references therein). Continuous data are available for several neutron monitors at sea-level and mountain altitudes located at different latitudes, and these data have been analyzed in terms of transfer functions relating changes in the secondary nucleon fluxes in the atmosphere to those in the primary cosmic-ray spectra (cf. Webber and Lockwood 1988; Nagashima et al. 1989). For a recent discussion on changes in cosmic-ray fluxes as measured on spacecrafts and in neutron monitor counting rates, the reader is referred to Lal (2000). The manner in which the primary and secondary cosmic-ray flux changes occur with the march of solar activity is described in detail by Lal and Peters (1967), who also estimate the changes in the isotope production rates as a function of altitude and latitude during 1956 (a period of solar minimum) and 1958 (a period of unusually high solar activity). Using this approach, and using the neutron monitor data available to date, one can improve on the earlier estimates of solar temporal variations in cosmogenic nuclide production rates at sea level and at mountain altitudes. We must mention here that several direct experiments are also being made at present by exposing targets to cosmic radiation at different altitudes and latitudes (cf. Lal 2000)."<ref name=Lal2001/> {{clear}} ==Coronal clouds== {{main|Plasmas/Plasma objects/Coronal clouds}} "[C]oronal magnetic bottles, produced by flares, [may] serve as temporary traps for solar cosmic rays ... It is the expansion of these bottles at velocities of 300–500 km/s which allows fast azimuthal propagation of solar cosmic rays independent of energy. A coronagraph on [[w:OSO 7|Os 7]] observed a coronal cloud which was associated with bifurcation of the underlying coronal structure."<ref name="Schatten">{{cite journal |author=K. H. Schatten |author2=D. J. Mullan |title=Fast azimuthal transport of solar cosmic rays via a coronal magnetic bottle |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month=December 1, |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=35 |pages=5609-20 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i035p05609.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i035p05609 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-07-07 }}</ref> "A persistent problem of solar cosmic-ray research has been the lack of observations bearing on the timing and conditions in which protons that escape to the interplanetary medium are first accelerated in the corona."<ref name="Cliver">{{cite journal |author=E. W. Cliver |author2=S. W. Kahler |author3=M. A. Shea |author4=D. F. Smart |title=Injection onsets of ~2 GeV protons, ~1 MeV electrons, and ~100 keV electrons in solar cosmic ray flares |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=September 1 |year=1982 |volume=260 |issue=9 |pages=362-70 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...260..362C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-21 }}</ref> ==Mercury== From the Mariner 10 observations in [[electron astronomy]], it is concluded that "[d]ue to the limited shielding provided by its relatively weak magnetic dipole moment, the surface of Mercury is everywhere subject to bombardment by cosmic rays and solar energetic particles with energies greater than 1 MeV/nucleon."<ref name="Ogilvie">{{cite journal |author=K. W. Ogilvie |author2=J. D. Scudder |author3=V. M. Vasyliunas |title=Observations at the Planet Mercury by the Plasma Electron Experiment: Mariner 10 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1977 |volume=82 |issue=13 |pages=1807-24 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1977/JA082i013p01807.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JA082i013p01807 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Galactic cosmic rays should have very similar fluxes on Mercury and the Moon."<ref name="Langevin">{{cite journal |author=Y Langevin |title=The regolith of Mercury: present knowledge and implications for the Mercury Orbiter mission |journal=Planetary and Space Science |month=January |year=1997 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=31-7 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063396000980 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00098-0 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> "Solar Cosmic Rays which result in the formation of particle tracks also increase by a factor of up to 10 when compared to the Moon. However, surface temperatures reach 700 K, which can result over millions of years in the annealing of irradiation effects."<ref name="Langevin"/> ==Venus== Venus's small [[w:Magnetosphere of Venus|induced magnetosphere]] provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against [[w:cosmic radiation|cosmic radiation]]. This radiation may result in cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges.<ref name="Upadhyay">{{cite journal |author=Upadhyay, H. O. |author2=Singh, R. N. |title=Cosmic ray Ionization of Lower Venus Atmosphere |month=April|year=1995|journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=15|issue=4|pages=99–108 |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(94)00070-H|bibcode = 1995AdSpR..15...99U }}</ref> ==Earth== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Earth}} [[Image:Atmospheric Collision.svg|thumb|right|250px|The diagram shows a possible proton collision with an atmosphere molecule. Credit: [[c:User:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The Earth's atmosphere is a relatively bright source of gamma rays produced in interactions of ordinary cosmic ray protons with air atoms. When cosmic rays enter the Earth’s atmosphere they collide with molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, to produce a cascade of billions of lighter particles, a so-called air shower. An air shower is an extensive (many kilometres wide) cascade of ionized particles and electromagnetic radiation produced in the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray (i.e. one of extraterrestrial origin) enters the atmosphere. There is "a decrease in thunderstorms at the time of high cosmic rays and an increase in thunderstorms 2-4 days later."<ref name="Lethbridge">{{cite journal |author=Mae Devoe Lethbridge |title=Thunderstorms, cosmic rays, and solar-lunar influences |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month= |year=1990 |volume=95 |issue=D9 |pages=13,645-9 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1990/JD095iD09p13645.shtml |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/JD095iD09p13645 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-22 }}</ref> It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at lower altitudes are the result of the [[w:beta decay|beta decay]] of [[w:neutrons|neutrons]] created by cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms.<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book | first=Thomas F. | last=Tascione | title=Introduction to the Space Environment, 2nd. Ed. | publisher=Kreiger Publishing CO. | location=Malabar, Florida USA | date=1994 | isbn=0-89464-044-5 }}</ref> The [[w:Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics|PAMELA]] experiment detected orders of magnitude higher levels of [[w:antiproton|antiproton]]s than are expected from normal [[w:particle decay|particle decay]]s while passing through the SAA. This suggests the van Allen belts confine a significant flux of antiprotons produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with [[w:cosmic rays|cosmic rays]].<ref name="Adriani">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29 | title = The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons | year = 2011 | last1 = Adriani | first1 = O. | last2 = Barbarino | first2 = G. C. | last3 = Bazilevskaya | first3 = G. A. | last4 = Bellotti | first4 = R. | last5 = Boezio | first5 = M. | last6 = Bogomolov | first6 = E. A. | last7 = Bongi | first7 = M. | last8 = Bonvicini | first8 = V. | last9 = Borisov | first9 = S. | journal = The Astrophysical Journal Letters | volume = 737 | issue = 2 | pages = L29 | bibcode = 2011ApJ...737L..29A | arxiv=1107.4882v1 }}</ref> The energy of the antiprotons has been measured in the range from 60 - 750 MeV. {{clear}} ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:Moonthorium-med.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image is an elemental map of the Moon using a GRS. Credit: Los Alamos National Laboratory.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Neutrons strip2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows the hydrogen concentrations on the Moon detected by the Lunar Prospector. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] “The lunar surface also lends itself well to cosmic ray astronomy (as it lies outside the Earth's magnetosphere) and other astronomies requiring large, bulky detectors (eg [[gamma-ray astronomy]]).”<ref name="Crawford">{{cite journal |author=IA Crawford |title=The scientific case for renewed human activities on the Moon |journal=Space Policy |month=May |year=2004 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=91-7 |url=http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/405/01/Binder1.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2004.02.007 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }}</ref> Observations of the lunar shadowing of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) has demonstrated that there does not appear to be an antiproton component of the galactic cosmic rays, but the antiprotons detected are instead produced by the GCR interaction with interstellar hydrogen gas.<ref name=Amenomori/> The [[w:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory|Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] has imaged the Moon in gamma rays of energy greater than 20 MeV.<ref name="heasarc">{{cite book |url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cgro/epo/news/gammoon.html |title=CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon |publisher=Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov |date=2005-08-01 |accessdate=2011-11-08 }}</ref> These are produced by [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]] bombardment of its surface. Gamma-ray spectrometers have been widely used for the elemental and isotopic analysis of airless bodies in the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]], especially the Moon<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite journal | journal = Science | year = 1998 | volume = 281 | issue = 5382 | pages = 1484–1489 | doi = 10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 | title = Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer | author = D. J. Lawrence |author2=W. C. Feldman |author3=B. L. Barraclough |author4=A. B. Binder |author5=R. C. Elphic |author6=S. Maurice |author7=D. R. Thomsen | pmid = 9727970 | bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L }}</ref> These surfaces are subjected to a continual bombardment of high-energy cosmic rays, which excite nuclei in them to emit characteristic gamma-rays which can be detected from orbit. Thus an orbiting instrument can in principle map the surface distribution of the elements for an entire planet. They are able to measure the abundance and distribution of about 20 primary elements of the periodic table, including [[w:silicon|silicon]], [[w:oxygen|oxygen]], [[w:iron|iron]], [[w:magnesium|magnesium]], [[w:potassium|potassium]], [[w:aluminum|aluminum]], [[w:calcium|calcium]], [[w:sulfur|sulfur]], and [[w:carbon|carbon]]. The chemical element [[w:thorium|thorium]] [is] mapped [by a GRS], with higher concentrations shown in yellow/orange/red in the left-hand side image shown on the left. At right is the result of an all Moon survey by the [[w:Lunar Prospector|Lunar Prospector]] using an onboard neutron spectrometer (NS). Cosmic rays impacting the lunar surface generate neutrons which in turn lose much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms trapped within the Moon's surface.<ref name="Williams"/> Some of these thermal neutrons collide with the helium atoms within the NS to yield an energy signature which is detected and counted.<ref name="Williams"/> The NS aboard the Lunar Prospector has a surface resolution of 150 km.<ref name="Williams">{{cite book |author=David R. Williams |title=Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer (NS) |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location=Goddard Space Flight Laboratory |date=November 2011 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1998-001A-02 |accessdate=2012-01-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Mars== [[Image:PIA16020.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This graph shows the preliminary results from Curiosity's first radiation measurements on Mars, specifically the flux of radiation detected by Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD) on Mars over three and a half hours on Aug. 6 PDT (Aug. 7 UTC). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI.{{tlx|free media}}]] "NASA's Curiosity rover ... Radiation Assessment Detector instrument, or RAD, collected data for about 3 1/2 hours on Wednesday (Aug. 8)"<ref name="Wall">{{cite book |author=Mike Wall |title=Mars Rover Curiosity Measures Red Planet Radiation |publisher=news.yahoo.com |location= |date=August 9, 2012 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/mars-rover-curiosity-measures-red-planet-radiation-135649183.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref>. As the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]] was relatively quiet in the direction of Mars, most of the spikes in the collected, unprocessed temporal spectrum are considered to be from galactic cosmic-radiation.<ref name="Hassler">{{cite book |author=Don Hassler |title=Curiosity Takes First Cosmic Ray Sample on Surface |publisher=www.space.com/NASA |location= |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://www.space.com/17004-curiosity-takes-first-cosmic-ray-sample-on-surface-video.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "The data show that the radiation levels measured on Mars during this period of quiet solar activity are reduced from the average radiation detected in space during Curiosity's cruise to Mars. This is explained by the rover being on the planet versus out in space, where it would have more exposure to radiation from all directions. Red arrows point to spikes in the radiation dose rate from heavy ion particles, which would be the most dangerous to astronauts. ... RAD measures 26 kinds of charged particles as well as neutrons and gamma rays."<ref name="Curiosity2">{{cite book |author=NASA/JPL-Caltech/SWRI |title=Curiosity's First Radiation Measurements on Mars |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California |date=August 8, 2012 |url=http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/?ImageID=4338 |accessdate=2012-08-19 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Interplanetary medium== {{main|Interplanetary medium}} The interplanetary medium includes interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot plasma from the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. The temperature of the interplanetary medium varies. For dust particles within the asteroid belt, typical temperatures range from 200&nbsp;K (−73 °C) at 2.2&nbsp;AU down to 165&nbsp;K (−108 °C) at 3.2&nbsp;AU<ref name="Low">{{cite journal | author=Low, F. J. |author2=''et al.'' | title=Infrared cirrus&nbsp;– New components of the extended infrared emission | journal=Astrophysical Journal, Part 2&nbsp;– Letters to the Editor | year=1984 | volume=278 | pages=L19–L22 | bibcode=1984ApJ...278L..19L | doi=10.1086/184213 }}</ref> The density of the interplanetary medium is very low, about 5 particles per cubic centimeter in the vicinity of the [[Earth]]; it decreases with increasing distance from the sun, in inverse proportion to the square of the distance. It is variable, and may be affected by magnetic fields and events such as [[w:Coronal mass ejection|coronal mass ejection]]s. It may rise to as high as 100 particles/cm³. ==Uranus== {{main|Gases/Gaseous objects/Uranus}} "[F]or the regions of the giant planets, especially Uranus and Neptune, ... ionization is due mainly to cosmic rays."<ref name="Hayashi">{{cite journal |author=Chushiro Hayashi |title=Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Effects of Magnetic and Turbulent Viscosities on the Nebula |journal=Progress Theoretical Physics Supplement |month= |year=1981 |volume= |issue=70 |pages=35-53 |url=http://ptp.ipap.jp/link?PTPS/70/35/ |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1143/PTPS.70.35 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-08-23 }}</ref> ==Oort clouds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds}} Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10⁷ yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> ==Heliospheres== {{main|Stars/Sun/Heliospheres}} "The sun emits a plasma wind with an embedded magnetic field that tends to exclude low energy galactic cosmic rays from the heliosphere."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "observed cosmic ray flux at Earth is inversely correlated with solar activity. [...] At a period of high solar activity (for example in 1983), the flux below a GeV can be suppressed by as much as an order of magnitude."<ref name="Gaisser"/> The "flux of cosmic rays in the heliosphere varies with the eleven year solar cycle".<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} In [[astronomy]], the '''interstellar medium''' (or '''ISM''') is the [[w:matter|matter]] that exists in the [[w:outer space|space]] between the [[w:star system|star system]]s in a [[w:galaxy|galaxy]]. This matter includes [[w:gas|gas]] in [[w:ion|ion]]ic, [[w:atom|atomic]], and [[w:molecular|molecular]] form, [[w:cosmic dust|dust]], and [[w:cosmic ray|cosmic ray]]s. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding [Intergalactic medium] intergalactic space. In astronomy, the [[interstellar medium]] (or '''ISM''') is the gas and [[w:cosmic dust|cosmic dust]] that pervade interstellar space: the matter that exists between the [[w:star system|star system]]s within a galaxy. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic medium. The interstellar medium consists of an extremely dilute (by terrestrial standards) mixture of ions, atoms, molecules, larger dust grains, cosmic rays, and (galactic) magnetic fields.<ref name="Spitzer">{{cite book |author=L. Spitzer |date=1978 |title=Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-29335-0 }}</ref> The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]], is the '''interstellar radiation field'''. The first gamma-ray telescope carried into orbit, on the [[w:Explorer 11|Explorer 11]] satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons. They appeared to come from all directions in the Universe, implying some sort of uniform "gamma-ray background". Such a background would be expected from the interaction of cosmic rays (very energetic charged particles in space) with interstellar gas. ==Milky Way== {{main|Milky Way}} "As with solar system cosmic rays, it is likely that both extended and point sources play a role in acceleration of particles in the Galaxy."<ref name="Gaisser"/> ==Large Magellanic Cloud== Because neutrinos are only [[Weak interaction|weakly interacting]] with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large in order to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation.<ref name="twsP16">{{cite journal |author= KENNETH CHANG |title= Tiny, Plentiful and Really Hard to Catch |journal=The New York Times |date= April 26, 2005 |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/26/science/26neut.html?pagewanted=print&position= |accessdate= 2011-06-16 }}</ref> ==Active galactic nuclei== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei}} There is "a correlation between the arrival directions of cosmic rays with energy above 6 x 10¹⁹ electron volts and the positions of active galactic nuclei (AGN) lying within ~75 megaparsecs."<ref name="Abraham"/> Some low energy cosmic rays originate or are associated with solar flares. Even these cosmic rays have too high an energy to originate from the solar photosphere. The [[coronal cloud]] in close proximity to the [[Sun (star)|Sun]] may be a source or create them as it bombards the chromosphere from above. "In particular we recognize a first trace of Vela, brightest gamma and radio galactic source, and smeared sources along Galactic Plane and Center [as a source of ultra high energy cosmic rays (UHECR)]."<ref name="Fargion">{{cite journal |author=Daniele Fargion |title=UHECR besides ''Cen''_''A'': Hints of galactic sources |journal=Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics |month=April |year=2010 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=363-5 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0146641009001276 |arxiv=0911.4176 |bibcode=2010PrPNP..64..363F |doi=10.1016/j.ppnp.2009.12.049 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-01-09 }}</ref> "The main correlated map is the 408 MHz one. The first astronomical source that seem to correlate is the main multiplet along ''Cen''_''A''. This AGN source, the nearest extragalactic one, sits in the same direction of a far Centaurus Cluster (part of the Super-Galactic Plane). The blurring by random galactic magnetic field might spread the nearest AGN event along the same Super-Galactic Plane, explaining the AUGER group miss-understanding [3]."<ref name="Fargion"/> ==Locations on Earth== [[w:Ice core|Ice core]]s contain thin nitrate-rich layers that can be analyzed to reconstruct a history of past events [such as solar cosmic ray events] before reliable observations; [this includes] data from Greenland ice cores<ref name="McCracken">{{cite book |url=http://www.stuartclark.com/files/thomas-qa.pdf |title=How do you determine the effects of a solar flare that took place 150 years ago? |publisher=Stuart Clarks Universe |accessdate=May 23, 2012 }}</ref> and others. These show evidence that events of [the magnitude of the [[w:Solar storm of 1859|solar storm of 1859]]—as measured by high-energy proton radiation, not geomagnetic effect—occur approximately once per 500 years, with events at least one-fifth as large occurring several times per century.<ref name="McCracken01">{{cite journal |author=Kenneth G. McCracken |author2=G. A. M. Dreschhoff |author3=E. J. Zeller |author4=D. F. Smart |author5=M. A. Shea |title=Solar cosmic ray events for the period 1561–1994 1. Identification in polar ice, 1561–1950 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=106 |issue=A10 |pages=21,585–21,598 |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2000JA000237 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/2000JA000237.shtml |accessdate=February 16, 2011 |bibcode=2001JGR...10621585M }}</ref> Less severe storms have occurred in 1921 and 1960, when widespread radio disruption was reported. ==Technology== {{main|Technology}} [[Image:Shower detection.png|thumb|right|400px|This diagram depicts an air shower resulting from cosmic rays. Credit: Konrad Bernlöhr.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Penston">{{cite book |author = Margaret J. Penston |date = 14 August 2002 |url=http://www.pparc.ac.uk/frontiers/latest/feature.asp?article=14F1&style=feature |title = The electromagnetic spectrum |publisher = Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council |accessdate = 17 August 2006 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory== [[Image:Multi Mirror Telescope in 1981.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This shows the Multi Mirror Telescope at the Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory in 1981. Credit: [[C:User:Happa|Happa]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory''' is an astronomical [[Astronomical observatories|observatory]] owned and operated by the [[w:Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory]] (SAO) with research activities that include imaging and spectroscopy of extragalactic, stellar, and planetary bodies, as well as [[Gamma-ray astronomy|gamma-ray]] and cosmic-ray astronomy. {{clear}} ==Pierre Auger Observatory== The '''Pierre Auger Observatory''' is an international cosmic ray observatory designed to detect [[w:ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|ultra-high-energy cosmic ray]]s: single [[w:sub-atomic particle|sub-atomic particle]]s ([[w:proton|proton]]s or [[w:Atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]) with energies beyond 10²⁰&nbsp;[[w:electronvolt|eV]] (about the energy of a [[w:tennis ball|tennis ball]] traveling at 80&nbsp;km/h). These high energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per km² per century, therefore the Auger Observatory has created a detection area the size of [[w:Rhode Island|Rhode Island]] — over 3,000 km² (1,200 sq mi) — in order to record a large number of these events. It is located in western [[w:Argentina|Argentina]]'s [[w:Mendoza Province|Mendoza Province]], in one of the South American [[w:Pampas|Pampas]]. The basic set-up consists of 1600 water tanks ([[w:Cherenkov detector|water Cherenkov Detectors]], similar to the [[w:Haverah Park experiment|Haverah Park experiment]]) distributed over 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), along with four atmospheric [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] detectors (similar to the [[w:High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector|High Resolution Fly's Eye]]) overseeing the surface array. ==Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes== [[Image:Magicmirror.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is the MAGIC telescope at La Palma, Canary Islands. Credit: [[c:User:Pachango|Pachango]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''MAGIC''' ('''Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes''') is a system of two [[w:IACT|Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov telescope]]s situated at the [[w:Roque de los Muchachos Observatory|Roque de los Muchachos Observatory]] on [[w:La Palma|[La Palma]], one of the [[w:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]], at about 2200 m above sea level. MAGIC detects particle showers released by gamma rays, using the [[w:Cherenkov radiation|Cherenkov radiation]], i.e., faint light radiated by the charged particles in the showers. With a diameter of 17 meters for the reflecting surface, it is the largest in the world. MAGIC is sensitive to cosmic gamma rays with energies between 50 [[w:GeV|GeV]] and 30 [[w:TeV|TeV]] due to its large mirror; other ground-based gamma-ray telescopes typically observe gamma energies above 200-300 GeV. Satellite-based detectors detect gamma-rays in the energy range from keV up to several GeV. MAGIC has found pulsed gamma-rays at energies higher than 25 GeV coming from the [[w:Crab Pulsar|Crab Pulsar]].<ref name="ScienceU">"Observation of Pulsed Gamma-Rays Above 25 GeV from the Crab Pulsar with MAGIC", MAGIC collaboration, Science 322 (2008) 1221.</ref> The presence of such high energies indicates that the gamma-ray source is far out in the pulsar's [[w:magnetosphere|magnetosphere]], in contradiction with many models. A much more controversial observation is an energy dependence in the speed of light of cosmic rays coming from a short burst of the [[w:blazar|blazar]] [[w:Markarian 501|Markarian 501]] on July 9, 2005. Photons with energies between 1.2 and 10 TeV arrived 4 minutes after those in a band between .25 and .6 TeV. The average delay was .030±.012 seconds per GeV of energy of the photon. If the relation between the space velocity of a photon and its energy is linear, then this translates into the fractional difference in the speed of light being equal to minus the photon's energy divided by 2 x 10¹⁷ GeV. {{clear}} ==Balloons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Balloons}} The various background effects OSO 1 encountered prompted the flight of similar detectors on a balloon to determine the cosmic-ray effects in the materials surrounding the detectors. Measurements "of the cosmic-ray positron fraction as a function of energy have been made using the High-Energy Antimatter Telescope (HEAT) balloon-borne instrument."<ref name="Barwick"/> "The first flight took place from Fort Sumner, New Mexico, [on May 3, 1994, with a total time at float altitude of 29.5 hr and a mean atmospheric overburden of 5.7 g cm^-2] ... The second flight [is] from Lynn Lake, Manitoba, [on August 23, 1995, with a total time at float altitude of 26 hr, and a mean atmospheric overburden of 4.8 g cm^-2]"<ref name="Barwick"/>. ==Orbital rocketry== [[Image:Explorer 11 ground.gif|thumb|right|250px|This photograph shows Explorer 11 with its orbital rocket. Credit: HEASARC GSFC NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HEAO-3.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of HEAO 3. Credit: William Mahoney, NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Explorer 11''' (also known as '''S15''') was an American Earth-[[w:orbital spaceflight|orbital]] satellite that carried the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope. This was the earliest beginning of space [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. Launched on April 27, 1961 by a [[w:Juno II|Juno II rocket]] the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission. During the spacecraft's seven month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from cosmic radiation. The HEAO 3 French-Danish C-2 experiment measured the relative composition of the isotopes of the primary cosmic rays between beryllium and iron (Z from 4 to 26) and the elemental abundances up to tin (Z=50). Cerenkov counters and [[w:hodoscope|hodoscope]]s, together with the Earth's magnetic field, formed a spectrometer. They determined charge and mass of cosmic rays to a precision of 10% for the most abundant elements over the momentum range from 2 to 25 GeV/c (c=speed of light). The purpose of the HEAO 3 C-3 experiment was to measure the charge spectrum of cosmic-ray nuclei over the nuclear charge (Z) range from 17 to 120, in the energy interval 0.3 to 10 GeV/nucleon; to characterize cosmic ray sources; processes of nucleosynthesis, and propagation modes. "The [[w:Rigidity (electromagnetism)|rigidity]] dependence of the escape length of cosmic rays in the galaxy has been derived in the framework of the leaky box model from the measured values of the B/C ratio."<ref name=Engelmann/> For an interstellar medium "composed of 90% H and 10% He, [with a density of 0.3 atoms cm^-3] and using the most recently measured cross sections (Webber, 1989; Ferrando et al., 1988b), the escape length has been found equal to 34''βR''^-0.6 g cm^-2 for rigidities ''R'' above 4.4 GV, and 14''β'' g cm^-2 below. ... where ''R'' and ''β'' are the interstellar values of the rigidity and the ratio of the velocity of the particle to the velocity of light."<ref name="Engelmann"/> {{clear}} ==Extreme Universe Space Observatory== The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. ==Heliocentric rocketry== [[Image:Helios - testing.png|thumb|250px|right|A technician stands next to one of the twin Helios spacecraft during testing. Credit: NASA/Max Planck.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Titan 3E Centaur with Helios 1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Shown is Helios 1 sitting atop the [[w:Titan III|Titan IIIE]] / [[w:Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] launch vehicle. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Helios - Trajectory.png|200px|thumb|left|Trajectory of the Helio space probes is diagrammed. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Helios 1''' and '''Helios 2''' are a pair of probes launched into heliocentric orbit for the purpose of studying solar processes. The probes are notable for having set a maximum speed record among spacecraft at 252,792 km/h<ref name="wilkinson2012">{{cite book | author=John Wilkinson | title=New Eyes on the Sun: A Guide to Satellite Images and Amateur Observation | series=Astronomers' Universe Series | publisher=Springer | date=2012 | isbn=3-642-22838-0 | page=37 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ud2icgujz0wC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> (157,078 mi/h or 43.63 mi/s or 70.22 km/s or 0.000234c). Helios 2 flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun than Helios 1, achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a record distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers),<ref name="Helios">{{cite book |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Helios_02&Display=ReadMore |title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Helios 2 }}</ref> slightly inside the orbit of Mercury. Helios 2 was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios 1. The probes are no longer functional but still remain in their elliptical orbit around the Sun. On board, each probe carried an instrument for cosmic radiation investigation (the CRI) for measuring protons, electrons, and X-rays to determine the distribution of cosmic rays. {{clear}} ==Exploratory rocketry== [[Image:Pioneer 10 on its kickmotor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pioneer 10 on its kick motor prior to encapsulation before launch. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52a - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The charged particle instrument (CPI) is used to detect cosmic rays in the solar system. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10-11 - P52b - fx.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The cosmic-ray telescope collects data on the composition of the cosmic ray particles and their energy ranges. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Launch of Pioneer 10-2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The launch of Pioneer 10 aboard an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas/Centaur]] vehicle. Credit: NASA Ames Resarch Center (NASA-ARC).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pioneer 10 mission jupiter.png|thumb|left|250px|This diagram shows the interplanetary trajectory for Pioneer 10. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|left|250px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Voyager.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This image shows the Voyager 1 spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Cosmic Rays at Voyager 1.png|thumb|right|250px|The plot shows a dramatic increase in the rate of cosmic ray particle detection by the ''Voyager 1'' spacecraft (October 2012). Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] Pioneer 10 is a 258-kilogram [[w:Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[w:space probe|space probe]] that completed the first mission to the planet [[Jupiter/Keynote lecture|Jupiter]]<ref name="Fimmel">{{cite book |title=SP-349/396 PIONEER ODYSSEY |last=Fimmel |first=R. O., W. Swindell, and E. Burgess |date=1974 |publisher=NASA-Ames Research Center |isbn= |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm |accessdate=2011-01-09}}</ref> and became the first spacecraft to achieve [[w:escape velocity|escape velocity]] from the [[w:Solar System|Solar System]]. Pioneer 10 was launched on March 2, 1972 by an [[w:Atlas-Centaur|Atlas-Centaur]] expendable vehicle from [[w:Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 36|Cape Canaveral]], [[w:Florida|Florida]]. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the [[w:Asteroid belt#Exploration|asteroid belt]]. "In 1972, the return of the galactic cosmic rays in the inner solar system to solar minimum conditions and the launch of Pioneer 10 toward Jupiter coincided to make possible the measurements of the low-energy cosmic-ray charge spectra during solar quiet times."<ref name="McDonald">{{cite journal |author=F. B. McDonald |author2=B. J. Teegarden |author3=J. H. Trainor |author4=W. R. Webber |title=The anomalous abundance of cosmic-ray nitrogen and oxygen nuclei at low energies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=February 1. |year=1974 |volume=187 |issue=02 |pages=L105-8 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1974ApJ...187L.105M |arxiv= |bibcode=1974ApJ...187L.105M |doi=10.1086/181407 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-12-05 }}</ref> "Recent measurements using the Goddard-University of New Hampshire cosmic-ray telescope on the ''Pioneer 10'' spacecraft have revealed an anomalous spectrum of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei relative to other nuclei such as He and C, in the energy range 3-30 MeV per nucleon."<ref name="McDonald"/> "To eliminate [the solar cosmic-ray background] a very careful selection of times must be made to assure that solar cosmic rays are not obviously present [by] requiring that the 10-20 MeV proton intensity measured on the same experiment be essentially at background level."<ref name="McDonald"/> The '''International Cometary Explorer''' ('''ICE''') spacecraft was originally known as [the] '''International Sun/Earth Explorer 3''' ('''ISEE-3''') satellite. ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV. The instruments aboard ISEE-3 are designed to detect # protons in the energy range 150 eV - 7 keV and electrons in the 10 eV - 1 keV range (Solar wind plasma experiment), # Low, Medium and High-Energy Cosmic Rays (1-500 MeV/n, Z = 1-28, electrons 2-10 MeV, for Medium Energy; H to Ni, 20-500 MeV/n for High-energy), # H-Fe 30 MeV/n - 15 GeV/n and electrons 5-400 MeV for the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum experiment, # 17 Hz - 100 kHz magnetic and electric field wave levels (Plasma Waves Spectrum Analyzer), # low-energy solar proton acceleration and propagation processes in interplanetary space, Energetic Particle Anisotropy Spectrometer (EPAS), # 2 keV to > 1 MeV interplanetary and solar electrons, # radio mapping of solar wind disturbances (type III bursts) in 3-D, 30 kHz - 2 MHz, # solar wind ion composition, 300-600 km/s, 840 eV/Q to 11.7 keV/Q, M/Q = 1.5 to 5.6, # cosmic ray isotope spectrometer 5-250 MeV/n, Z=3-28, A=6-64 (Li-Ni), # ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft, # X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and # Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book |author=E. Bell II |title=ISEE 3 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location= |date=December 8, 2012 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A |accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> The '''''Voyager 1''''' spacecraft is a {{convert|722|kg|lb|abbr=on}} [[w:space probe|space probe]] launched by [[w:National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] on September 5, 1977 to study the outer [[w:Solar System|Solar System]] and [[interstellar medium]]. The Cosmic Ray System (CRS) "[d]etermines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment. "Measurements from the spacecraft revealed a steady rise since May in collisions with high energy particles (above 70 MeV), which are believed to be cosmic rays emanating from supernova explosions far beyond the Solar System, with a sharp increase in these collisions in late August. At the same time, in late August, there was a dramatic drop in collisions with low-energy particles, which are thought to originate from the Sun.<ref name="lifeslittlemysteries.com">http://www.lifeslittlemysteries.com/2984-voyager-spacecraft-solar-system.html</ref> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Some cosmic rays are superluminals. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Electron astronomy]] * [[Gamma-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Positron astronomy]] * [[Proton astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry]] * [[X-ray astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * {{cite journal |author=P Sommers |author2=S Westerhoff |title=Cosmic ray astronomy |journal=New Journal of Physics |month=May 12, |year=2009 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=055004 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/0802.1267 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/11/5/055004 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-28 }} * {{cite book |author=Thomas K. Gaisser |title=Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |date=1990 |editor= |pages=279 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qJ7Z6oIMqeUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&ots=IxjwLxBwXu&sig=voHKIYstBlBYla4jcbur_b-Zwxs |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn=0521339316 |accessdate=2014-01-11 }} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Cosmic-ray astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Radiation/Lectures]] kmsgaokt1m8tba5is56nzshx7fbtvsp 2 274697 2417087 2416510 2022-08-21T16:24:35Z 177.227.10.212 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+CODATA 2014: '''Ω = x^1/15''' = 2.007 134 949 636... ! Formula ! SI units, u = 0 ! Calculated |- | <math>x = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} \frac{1}{2^{15} \pi^{19}}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{15}}{kg^{9} s^{11}}</math> | <math>x^{1/2}</math> = |- | <math>x = \frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} \frac{\alpha^3}{2^{24} \pi^{14}}</math> | <math>\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}</math> | <math>x</math> = |- | <math>x = \frac{e^{13} c^{24}}{h^3} \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64}} </math> | <math>\frac{A^{13} m^{18}}{s^{8} kg^{3}}</math> | <math>x^{1/5}</math> = |- | <math>x = \frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} \frac{1}{2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5}</math> | <math>\frac{m^9 A^4}{s^5 kg^3}</math> | <math>x^{1/5}</math> = |- | <math>x = \frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} \frac{1}{2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21}}</math> | <math>\frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} </math> | <math>x^{1/15}</math> = |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical) {| class="wikitable" |+Unit relationship |- | kg = 15 |- | m = -13 |- | s = -30 |- | A = 3 |- | K = 20 |} {| class="wikitable" |+CODATA 2014: R=10973731.568508 (u=13) ... c=299792458 (u=17) ... μ₀=4π/10⁷ (u=56) ... α=137.035999139 (u=0) ! Constant ! Formula ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! SI units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2}</math>, u = 57 | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, u = 19 | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, u = 19 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2}</math>, u = 30 | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, u = 6 | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, u = 6 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}}</math>, u = -81 | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, u = -27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>A s</math>, u = -27 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}}</math>, u = 87 | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, u = 29 | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, u = 29 |- | | <math>x = \frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) c}{(h^*)}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''k_Bec/h'' = 1.000 825 132 | <math>\frac{m \;A}{s \;K}</math>, u = 0 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7}</math>, u = 45 | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, u = 15 | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 | <math>kg</math>, u = 15 |- | | <math>x = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 ({k_B}^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 ({e^*})^2 ({m_e}^*) c^4}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''8π⁵k_B/(27α⁶e²m_ec⁴)'' = 1.000 825 | <math>\frac{1}{m^2 A^2 K}</math>, u = 0 |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | <math>(({\gamma_e/2\pi})^*)^3 = \frac{g_e^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2}</math>, u = -126 | ''(γ_e/2π)^*'' = 28024.953 55, u = -42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) | <math>\frac{m^3 s^2 A^6}{kg^3}</math>, u = -42 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R^2}</math>, u = 225 | ''m_P^*'' = 0.217 672 817 580 e-7, u = 15 | ''m_P'' = 0.217 647 0(51) e-7 | <math>kg</math>, u = 15 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math>, u = -195 | ''l_p^*'' = 0.161 603 660 096 e-34, u = -13 | ''l_p'' = 0.161 622 9(38) e-34 | <math>m</math>, u = -13 |- | | <math>x = \frac{2^{11} \pi^3(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)}{\alpha^2 (h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_P^*)}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''2¹¹π³G²k_B/(α²hc²em_P)'' = 1.001 418 | <math>\frac{m^4}{kg^3 s^4 A \;K}</math>, u = 0 |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical) | | <math>f_e = {(\frac{3 \alpha^2 ({e^*}) c}{2\pi^2})}^3 (\frac{c}{2 ({l_p^*})})</math>, u = 0 | f_e = 0.238 954 530 737 e23 | | <math>\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}</math>, u = 0 |- {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit ! Natural constant* ! unit* |- | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 * <math>v</math> = 299792458 | 17 |- | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L</math> = 12647.240312 * <math>\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> = 6.626 069 134 e-34 | 19 |- | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> = 50950.554778 * <math>\frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> = 6.672 497 192 29 e11 | 6 |- | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | ''e*'' = <math>A T</math> = 735.706358485 * <math>\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19 | -27 |- | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> = 0.679138336 * <math>\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23 | 29 |} AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi,\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1</math> :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit number ! Scalar |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 | k |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 | t |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | v |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 | l |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | 3 | a |} {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units and scalars ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit number |- | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>15</math> |- | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>-30</math> |- | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>17</math> |- | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>-13</math> |- | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>3</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! Geometry ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{30}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}},\; unit = u^{-81}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}} ,\; unit = u^{87} </math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} </math> | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! SI constant ! Natural constant ! unit |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413... 10^-21'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415... 10^-21'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0\; e^2 \;c} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}</math> | <math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}</math> | <math> \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! Constant ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 | <math>kg</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! SI constant ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit ! Natural constant* ! unit* |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V | 17 |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | 19 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | 6 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | <math>e^* = A T</math> | -27 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | 29 |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | 56 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensionless physical constants ! Constant ! value |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Omega | Omega]] | ''Ω'' = 2.007 134 9496 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! Constant ! value ! unit |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 | <math>kg</math> |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 | <math>m</math> |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 | <math>s</math> |} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects''' [[w:Planck units |Planck unit]] theories use basic units for mass, length, time and charge, and operate at the Planck scale. In a geometrical Planck theory, these basic units are assigned geometrical objects (''MLTA'') rather than numerical values, the advantage being that the geometries themselves can encode the function of the unit, for example the object for length (''L'') will encode the function of ''length'', the geometrical ''L'' is 1 unit of (Planck) length, such that, unlike numerical models, a dimensioned descriptive (i.e.: ''kg, m, s, A'', ... ) is not required. The ''MLTA'' geometrical objects are selected whereby they may interact with each other (the mass object for example is not independent of the length and the time objects). This permits a mathematical unit relationship linking the objects, and so a physical universe can be constructed [[w:Lego |Lego-style]] by combining the base (Planck unit) ''MLTA'' objects to form more complex objects such as electrons (i.e.: by embedding ''L'' and ''A'' into the geometry of the electron, the electron can have wavelength and charge). Furthermore, these objects can overlap and cancel in a particular ratio (according to that unit relationship), and this ratio occurs in the electron. And so, although the electron has physical parameters (wavelength, charge ...), '''the electron itself is a mathematical particle (units = 1)''', not a physical particle. === Geometrical objects === Base units for mass <math>M</math>, length <math>L</math>, time <math>T</math>, and ampere <math>A</math> can be constructed from the geometry of 2 [[w:dimensionless physical constant | dimensionless physical constants]], the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']] = 137.036 and [[v:Simulation_argument_(coding_Planck_units)#Omega | Omega]] '''Ω''' = 2.007 134 949 <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>. Being independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, these MLTA units would qualify as "natural units"; {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} ==== Objects ==== Each object is assigned a specific geometry, embedded in this geometry is the object function (attribute) and a mathematical relationship between the objects defined using '''uⁿ''' where ''n'' is the unit number; {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit relationship |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | <math>unit = u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} ==== Scalars ==== To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires scalars ('''kltpva''') that can be assigned numerical values. For example, scalars for the SI units; :If we use '''k''' to convert '''M''' to the SI Planck mass <math>m_P</math> (M = 1k = <math>m_P</math>), then '''k''' = 0.2176728e-7kg and '''<math>u^{15}</math>''' will equate to '''kg'''. :To convert '''V''' = 2πΩ² = 25.3123819 to '''c''' requires scalar '''v''' = 11843707.905m/s ('''V''' ''v'' = 2πΩ²''v'' = 299792458m/s) with '''<math>u^{17}</math>''' equating to '''m/s'''. {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | p | <math>unit = u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = TV = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} ===== Scalar relationships ===== The scalars follow the same unit relationship. This means that we can find ratios where the scalars cancel. Here the following ''uⁿ'' groups cancel ('''units = scalars = 1'''), as such '''only 2 numerical scalars are required''', for example, if we know '''a''' and '''l''' then we know '''t''' ('''t = a³l³'''), and from '''l''' and '''t''' we know '''k'''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> And so we know any 2 constants, then we can solve the scalars for those constants, and from those 2 scalars we can solve the Planck units, and from these the dimensioned physical constants. This will apply to any set of units. In this example, to maintain integer exponents, a scalar ''p'' is defined in terms of a scalar ''r''. :<math>r = \sqrt{p} = \sqrt{\Omega},\; unit \;u^{16/2=8}</math> The SI Planck units are known with a low precision, conversely 2 of the CODATA 2014 physical constants have been assigned exact numerical values; ''c'' and permeability of vacuum ''μ₀''. Scalars ''r'' and ''v'' were chosen as they can be derived directly from ''V = c'' and ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (see table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]] below). Using α = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), Ω = 2.007 134 949 636... :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = m/s</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{\alpha};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> This gives scalars ''klta'' ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#u_as_sqrt(velocity/mass)) |for derivation of units kg, m, s, A from r, v]]); :<math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10^-7kg, <math>\;\;\;u^{15} = \frac{(u^8)^4}{u^{17}}</math> :<math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10^-36m, <math>\;\;\;u^{-13} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^5}</math> :<math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10^-43s, <math>\;\;\;u^{-30} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^6}</math> :<math>a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10²³A, <math>\;\;\;u^{3} = \frac{(u^{17})^3}{(u^8)^6}</math> ===== Natural units MLTPA ===== Regardless of which system of units we use, alien or terrestrial, any combination of constants where '''scalars = 1''' (i.e.: the scalars overlap and cancel) will give the same numerical result, they will default to the MLTPA objects. This implies that these objects are Planck's 'natural' units, i.e.: that '''all possible systems of units''' are based on these objects, and so, given that these are geometrical objects, they can be construed as evidence of a mathematical universe. The following are examples of '''units = scalars = 1''' ratios using SI units <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J. {{Cite journal |title= Do the fundamental constants embed evidence of a mathematical universe at the Planck scale? |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/1 }}</ref>. Note: the geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to these ratios. ====== m_P, l_p, t_p ====== In this ratio, the MLT units and ''klt'' scalars both cancel; units = scalars = 1, reverting to the base MLT objects. Setting the scalars ''klt'' for SI Planck units; :k = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10^-7kg :l = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10^-36m :t = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10^-43s :<math>\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} </math> (CODATA 2018 mean) The ''klt'' scalars cancel, leaving; :<math>\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 2^{15} \pi^{19} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^2\color{black} = </math>{{font color|blue|yellow|'''0.109 293... 10²⁴ '''}}, <math>(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 1, \;\frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} = 1</math> Solving for the SI units; :<math>\frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} = \frac{(1.616255e-35)^{15}}{(2.176434e-8)^{9} (5.391247e-44)^{11}} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.109 485... 10²⁴'''}} ====== A, l_p, t_p ====== :a = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10²³A :<math>\frac{A^3 L^3}{T} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^3 \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^3}{(\pi)} (\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{2^{24} \pi^{14} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^1\color{black}}{\alpha^3} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 571... 10¹³'''}}, <math>(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = 1,\; \frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}} = 1</math> :<math>\frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} = \frac{(1.602176634e-19/5.391247e-44)^3 (1.616255e-35)^3}{(5.391247e-44)} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 543... 10¹³'''}}, <math>units = \frac{(C/s)^3 m^3}{s} </math> The Planck units are known with low precision, and so by defining the 3 most accurately known dimensioned constants in [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |terms of these objects]] (c, R = Rydberg constant, <math>\mu_0</math>; CODATA 2014 mean values), we can test to greater precision; ====== c, μ₀, R ====== :<math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2 v)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha r^7}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{v^5} {2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17} r^9})^7 = 2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^{15}\color{black} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1, \;(v^{35})/(r^7)^9 (\frac{v^5}{r^9})^7 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} = \frac{(299792458)^{35}}{(4 \pi/10^7)^9 (10973731.568160)^7} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} == \frac{(u^{-13})^{33} (u^{3})^{18}}{(u^{-30})^{17} (u^{15})^9} = 1</math> The [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units | 2019 SI unit revision]] assigned exact numerical values to 4 constants (c, e, k_B, h). {{see also |Planck units (geometrical)#2019 SI unit revision}} From the table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]], we get geometrical formulas and scalars for; :<math>h^* = 2 \pi MVL = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 19}</math> :<math>e^* = AT = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30 = -27}</math> :<math>k_B^*= 2 \pi MV/A = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3 = 29}</math> ====== c, e, k_B, h ====== :<math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)} = (\frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha} \frac{r^3}{v^3}) (2 \pi \Omega^2 v) / (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) </math> = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}}, <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m C}{s^2 K} == \frac{(u^{-13}) (u^{-27})}{(u^{-30})^2 (u^{20})} = 1</math> ====== c, h, e ====== :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1, \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^3 s^{21}}{m^{18} C^{13}} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^{21}}{(u^{-13})^{18} (u^{-27})^{13}} = 1</math> ====== m_e, λ_e ====== :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black},\; \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} =1,\; (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> :<math>(m_e^*) = \frac{M}{f_e} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}</math> :<math>(m_e^*) = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 (h^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 (e^*)^3 (c^*)^5} = \frac{1}{2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black}} \frac{r^4 u^{15}}{v} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}</math> :<math>m_e = \color{blue}9.109\;383\;7015... \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;kg</math> :<math>(\lambda_e^*) = 2 \pi L f_e = \color{purple}2.426\;310\;238\;667 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;u^{-13}</math> :<math>\lambda_e = \frac{h}{m_e c} = \color{purple}2.426 \;310 \;238 \;67 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;m</math> ====== c, e, m_e ====== :<math>(m_e^*)= \frac{M}{f_e}, \;f_e = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^1\color{black} </math>, units = scalars = 1 ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Electron_formula |m_e formula]]) :<math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{17})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{15})^3} = 1,\; (v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m^9 C^4}{s^9 kg^3} == \frac{(u^{-13})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{-30})^9 (u^{15})^3} = 1</math> ====== k_B, c, e, m_e ====== :<math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}}, <math>units = \frac{s^2}{m^2 K C^2} == \frac{(u^{-30})^2}{(u^{-13})^2 (u^{20}) (u^{-27})^2} = 1</math> ====== m_P, t_p, ε₀ ====== These 3 constants, Planck mass, Planck time and the vacuum permittivity have no Omega term. :<math>\frac{M^4 (\epsilon_0^*)}{T} = (1) (\frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}) / (\pi) = \frac{2^9 \pi^2}{\alpha} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.875'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{15})^4 (u^{-90})}{(u^{-30})} = 1,\; (\frac{r^4}{v})^4 (\frac{1}{r^7 v^2}) / (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{m_p^4 (\epsilon_0)}{t_p} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.850'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^4}{s} \frac{s^4 A^2}{m^3 kg} = \frac{kg^3 A^2 s^3}{m^3} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{3})^2 (u^{-30})^3}{(u^{-13})^3} = 1</math> ====== G, h, c, e, m_e, K_B ====== :<math>\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} = (m_e^*) (\frac{2^{11} \pi^3}{\alpha^2}) = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415... 10^-21'''}}, <math>\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) v^2 (\frac{r^{3}}{v^3})(\frac{r^{4}}{v^1}) / (\frac{r^5}{v^2})^2 (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413... 10^-21'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^3 s^3 C K}{m^4} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^3 (u^{-27}) (u^{20}) }{(u^{-13})^4} = 1</math> ====== α ====== :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Note: The above will apply to any combinations of constants (alien or terrestrial) where '''scalars = 1'''. {| class="wikitable" |+Table of dimensioned physical constants ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! SI unit ! Natural constant* (scalars = 1) ! unit number* |- | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 | 17 |- | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L</math> = 12647.240312 | 19 |- | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> = 50950.554778 | 6 |- | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | ''e*'' = <math>A T</math> = 735.706358485 | -27 |- | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> = 0.679138336 | 29 |} ===== SI Planck unit scalars ===== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})a = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ====== MT to LPVA ====== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvla'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ====== PV to MTLA ====== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''klta'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ==== Physical constants (as geometrical formulas) ==== note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α^*) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c^*'' = 299 792 458, unit = u¹⁷ | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α^*'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R^*'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u¹³ | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{17*2+15+13-6=7*8=56}</math> | ''μ₀^*'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u⁵⁶ | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 8*13-17*5 = 19}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{34-13-15 = 8*5-17*2 = 6}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30=3*8-17*3=-27}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3=10*8-17*3=29}</math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{f_e},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L f_e,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ_e^*'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u^-13 | ''λ_e'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{3+17=17*4-6*8=20} </math> | ''T_p^*'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u²⁰ | ''T_p'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L = TV | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t_p^*'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u^-30 | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A^* = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u³ | ''e/t_p'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R_K^*'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u⁷³ | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} Note that ''r, v, Ω, α'' are dimensionless numbers, however when we replace ''u''ⁿ with the SI unit equivalents (''u''¹⁵ → kg, ''u''^-13 → m, ''u''^-30 → s, ...), the ''geometrical objects'' (i.e.: ''c^*'' = 2πΩ²v = 299792458, units = u¹⁷) become '''indistinguishable''' from their respective ''physical constants'' (i.e.: ''c'' = 299792458, units = m/s). If this mathematical relationship can therefore be identified within the SI units themselves, then we have an argument for a Planck scale mathematical universe <ref>[https://codingthecosmos.com/planck-scale.html Planck scale mathematical universe model]</ref>. ===== Electron formula ===== {{main|Electron (mathematical)}} Although the Planck units MLTA are embedded within the electron formula ''f_e'', this formula is both unit-less and non scalable (units = 1, scalars = 1). Furthermore it is the geometry of 2 dimensionless physical constants and so can also be defined as a dimensionless physical constant (if units = scalars = 1, then that constant will be independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, and so would qualify as a "natural unit"). :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> The electron has dimensioned parameters, however the dimensions derive from the Planck units, ''f_e'' is a mathematical function that dictates how these Planck objects are applied, it does not have dimension units of its own, consequently there is no physical electron. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e = \frac{M}{f_e}</math> (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e = 2\pi L f_e</math> (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e = A.T</math> ===== Fine structure constant ===== The Sommerfeld [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] is a dimensionless physical constant, the CODATA 2018 inverse alpha = 137.035999084. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> ===== Omega ===== The most precise of the experimentally measured constants is the Rydberg ''R = 10973731.568508(65) 1/m''. Here ''c, μ₀, R'' are combined into a unit-less ratio; :<math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{1} {2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}})^7,\;units = \frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1</math> We can now define ''Ω'' using the geometries for (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') and then solve by replacing (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') with the numerical (''c, μ₀, R''). :<math>\Omega^{225}=\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{2^{295} 3^{21} \pi^{157} (\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7 \alpha^{26}}, \;units = 1</math> :<math>\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;636...,\; units = 1</math> (CODATA 2014 mean values) :<math>\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;687...,\; units = 1</math> (CODATA 2018 mean values) There is a close natural number for ''Ω'' that is a square root implying that ''Ω'' can have a plus or a minus solution and this agrees with theory. This solution would however re-classify Omega as a mathematical constant (as being derivable from other mathematical constants). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\frac{\pi^e}{e^{(e-1)}}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> ===== G, h, e, m_e, k_B ===== As geometrical objects, the physical constants (''G, h, e, m_e, k_B'') can also be defined using the geometrical formulas for (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') and solved using the numerical (mean) values for (''c, μ₀, R, α''), i.e.:. :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! Geometry ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{30}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R_\infty}},\; unit = u^{-81}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R_\infty}} ,\; unit = u^{87} </math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R_\infty} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} </math> | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>(m_P^*)^{15} = \frac{2^{25}\pi^{13} \mu_0^6}{ 3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R_\infty^2},\; unit = (u^{15})^{15}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>(l_p^*)^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} \mu_0^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R_\infty^8},\; unit = (u^{-13})^{15} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | <math>(\gamma_e/2\pi)^3 = \frac{g^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2},\; unit = u^{-126}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} ==== 2019 SI unit revision ==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k_B''). In the context of this model however only 2 base units may be assigned by committee as the rest are then numerically fixed by default and so the revision may lead to unintended consequences. For example, the von Klitzing constant Rk = h/e2, yet to derive h and e using Rk suggests an (inverse) alpha = 137.0359952 <ref>[https://codingthecosmos.com/physical-constants-calc.html Physical constants calculator]</ref>. {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants ! Constant ! CODATA 2018 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2018)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 15 e-34 (exact) |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 634 e-19 (exact) |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 649 e-23 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | ''α'' = 137.035 999 084(21) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | ''R'' = 10973 731.568 160(21) |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 7015(28) e-31 |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 1.256 637 062 12(19) e-6 |- | [[w:Quantum_Hall_effect#Applications | Von Klitzing constant]] | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 45 (exact) |} For example, if we solve using the above formulas; <math>R^* = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 e^3} = 10973\;729.082\;465</math> <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{2^4 \pi^{10} R \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^8 \alpha^7},\;m_e^* = 9.109\;382\;3259 \;10^{-31}</math> <math>{(\mu_0^*)}^3 = \frac{3^6 h^3 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2}{2 \pi^{10}},\;\mu_0^* = 1.256\;637\;251\;88\;10^{-6}</math> <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2 \pi^{10} \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2},\;h^* = 6.626\;069\;149\;10^{-34}</math> <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 R},\; e^* = 1.602\;176\;513\;10^{-19}</math> ==== u as sqrt(velocity/mass) ==== We find there is a single base unit '''u''' from which the other units and numerical values can be derived. This base unit incorporates [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum |MLT as square roots]]. =====''u = √{L/M.T}''===== :<math>u,\; units = \sqrt{\frac{L}{M T}} = \sqrt{u^{-13-15+30=2}} = u^1</math> Setting: :<math>x,\;units = \sqrt{\frac{M^9 T^{11}}{L^{15}}} = u^0, units = 1, scalars = 1</math> :<math>y,\;units = M^2T = u^0, units = 1, scalars <> 1</math> Gives; :<math>u^3 = \frac{L^{3/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{3/2}} = A,\; (ampere)</math> :<math>u^6 (y) = \frac{L^3}{T^2 M},\; (G)</math> :<math>u^{13} (xy) = \frac{1}{L},\; (1/l_p)</math> :<math>u^{15} (xy^2) = M,\; (m_P)</math> :<math>u^{17} (xy^2) = V,\; (c)</math> :<math>u^{19} (xy^3) = \frac{ML^2}{T},\; (h)</math> :<math>u^{20} (xy^2) = \frac{L^{5/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{5/2}} = AV,\;(T_P)</math> :<math>u^{27} (x^2y^3) = \frac{M^{3/2}\sqrt{T}}{L^{3/2}} = 1/AT,\; (1/e)</math> :<math>u^{29} (x^2y^4) = \frac{M^{5/2}\sqrt{T}}{\sqrt{L}} = ML/AT,\; (k_B)</math> :<math>u^{30} (x^2 y^3) = \frac{1}{T},\; (1/t_p)</math> :<math>u^{56} (x^4 y^7) = \frac{M^4 T}{L^2},\;(\mu_0)</math> :<math>u^{90} (x^6 y^{11}) = \frac{M^4}{T} </math> ===== ''β'' (unit = ''u'') ===== ''i'' (from ''x'') and ''j'' (from ''y''). :<math>R = \sqrt{P} = \sqrt{\Omega} r,\; units = u^8</math> :<math>\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi R^2}{M} = \frac{A^{1/3} \alpha^{1/3}}{2} \;..., \; unit = u</math> :<math>i = \frac{1}{2\pi {(2\pi \Omega)}^{15}},\; units = 1, scalars = 1</math> :<math>j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2t = \frac{k^8}{r^{15}} ...,\; unit = \frac{u^{17*8}}{u^{8*17}} = u^{15*2}u^{-30} ... = 1,\; units = 1, scalars <> 1</math> For example; the constants solved in terms of (''r, v'') :<math>\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega^2 v}{\Omega r^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega v}{r^2},\; u^1 = u</math> :<math>A = \beta^3 (\frac{2^4}{\alpha}) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6},\; u^3</math> :<math>G = \frac{\beta^6}{2^3 \pi^2} (j) = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^6</math> :<math>L^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{13} (ij) = \frac{1}{2\pi^2 \Omega^2} \frac{v^5}{r^9},\; u^{13}</math> :<math>M = 2\pi \beta^{15} (ij^2) = \frac{r^4}{v},\; u^{15}</math> :<math>P = \beta^{16} (ij^2) = \Omega r^2,\; u^{16}</math> :<math>V = \beta^{17} (ij^2) = 2\pi \Omega^2 v,\; u^{17}</math> :<math>h = \pi \beta^{19} (ij^3) = 8\pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> :<math>T_P^* =\frac{2^3 \beta^{20}}{\pi \alpha} (ij^2) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> :<math>e^{-1} = \frac{\alpha \pi \beta^{27} (i^2j^3)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{128\pi^4 \Omega^3} \frac{v^3}{r^{3}},\; u^{27} </math> :<math>k_B = \frac{\alpha \pi^2 \beta^{29}(i^2j^4)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{32 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> :<math>T^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{30} (i^2 j^3) = \frac{1}{\pi}\frac{v^6}{r^9},\; u^{30}</math> :<math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{56}}{2^3} (i^4 j^7) = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> :<math>\epsilon_0^{*-1} = \mu_0^* (c^*)^2 = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{90}}{2^3} (i^6 j^{11}) = \frac{\alpha}{2^9 \pi^3} v^2 r^7,\; u^{90} </math> ===== limit ''j'' ===== The SI values for ''j'' suggest a limit (numerical boundary) to the values the SI constants can have. :<math>j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2 t = \frac{k^{17/4}}{v^{15/4}} = ... </math> gives a range from 0.812997... ''x''10^-59 to 0.123... ''x''10⁶⁰ In SI terms unit ''β'' can be derived via these ratio; :<math>a^{1/3} = \frac{v}{r^2} = \frac{1}{t^{2/15}k^{1/5}} = \frac{\sqrt{v}}{\sqrt{k}} ... = 23326079.1...; unit = u</math> ===== Rydberg formula ===== The [[w:Rydberg_formula |Rydberg formula]] can now be re-written in terms of amperes <math>A^2</math> :<math>\frac{hc}{2\pi \alpha^2} = \frac{j^2 A^2}{2^8 2\pi t_p}</math> ==== External links ==== * [[v:electron_(mathematical) | Mathematical electron]] * [[v:Relativity_(Planck) | Programming relativity at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck) | Programming gravity at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) | Programming the cosmic microwave background at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | The sqrt of Planck momentum]] * [[v:God_(programmer) | The Programmer God]] * [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark * [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2531429 The mathematical electron model in a Planck scale universe] -(article) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) ==== References ==== {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] rl6bsm2vj7r1vglmzp38up34wod42tj 2417089 2417087 2022-08-21T16:52:21Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+CODATA 2014: Ω = 2.007134949636 ... (Ω¹⁵ = 34565.9580557) ! Formula ! Calculated ! SI units (x) |- | <math>x = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} \frac{1}{2^{15} \pi^{19}}</math> | <math>x^{1/2}</math> = 34593.7696269 | <math>\frac{m^{15}}{kg^{9} s^{11}}</math>, u = 0 |- | <math>x = \frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} \frac{\alpha^3}{2^{24} \pi^{14}}</math> | <math>x</math> = 34561.2903029 | <math>\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}</math>, u = 0 |- | <math>x = \frac{e^{13} c^{24}}{h^3} \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64}} </math> | <math>x^{1/5}</math> = 34565.9613628 | <math>\frac{A^{13} m^{18}}{s^{8} kg^{3}}</math>, u = 0 |- | <math>x = \frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} \frac{1}{2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5}</math> | <math>x^{1/5}</math> = 34565.9571056 | <math>\frac{m^9 A^4}{s^5 kg^3}</math>, u = 0 |- | <math>x = \frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} \frac{1}{2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26}}</math> | <math>x^{1/15}</math> = 34565.9580557 | <math>\frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} </math>, u = 0 |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical) {| class="wikitable" |+Unit relationship |- | kg = 15 |- | m = -13 |- | s = -30 |- | A = 3 |- | K = 20 |} {| class="wikitable" |+CODATA 2014: R=10973731.568508 (u=13) ... c=299792458 (u=17) ... μ₀=4π/10⁷ (u=56) ... α=137.035999139 (u=0) ! Constant ! Formula ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! SI units |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2}</math>, u = 57 | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, u = 19 | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math>, u = 19 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2}</math>, u = 30 | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, u = 6 | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math>, u = 6 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}}</math>, u = -81 | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, u = -27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>A s</math>, u = -27 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}}</math>, u = 87 | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, u = 29 | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math>, u = 29 |- | | <math>x = \frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) c}{(h^*)}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''k_Bec/h'' = 1.000 825 132 | <math>\frac{m \;A}{s \;K}</math>, u = 0 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7}</math>, u = 45 | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, u = 15 | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 | <math>kg</math>, u = 15 |- | | <math>x = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 ({k_B}^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 ({e^*})^2 ({m_e}^*) c^4}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''8π⁵k_B/(27α⁶e²m_ec⁴)'' = 1.000 825 | <math>\frac{1}{m^2 A^2 K}</math>, u = 0 |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | <math>(({\gamma_e/2\pi})^*)^3 = \frac{g_e^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2}</math>, u = -126 | ''(γ_e/2π)^*'' = 28024.953 55, u = -42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) | <math>\frac{m^3 s^2 A^6}{kg^3}</math>, u = -42 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>({m_P^*})^{15} = \frac{2^{25} \pi^{13} {\mu_0}^6}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R^2}</math>, u = 225 | ''m_P^*'' = 0.217 672 817 580 e-7, u = 15 | ''m_P'' = 0.217 647 0(51) e-7 | <math>kg</math>, u = 15 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>({l_p^*})^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} {\mu_0}^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R^8}</math>, u = -195 | ''l_p^*'' = 0.161 603 660 096 e-34, u = -13 | ''l_p'' = 0.161 622 9(38) e-34 | <math>m</math>, u = -13 |- | | <math>x = \frac{2^{11} \pi^3(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)}{\alpha^2 (h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_P^*)}</math>, u = 0 | x = 1.0 | ''2¹¹π³G²k_B/(α²hc²em_P)'' = 1.001 418 | <math>\frac{m^4}{kg^3 s^4 A \;K}</math>, u = 0 |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Planck_units_(geometrical) | | <math>f_e = {(\frac{3 \alpha^2 ({e^*}) c}{2\pi^2})}^3 (\frac{c}{2 ({l_p^*})})</math>, u = 0 | f_e = 0.238 954 530 737 e23 | | <math>\frac{A^3 m^3}{s}</math>, u = 0 |- {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit ! Natural constant* ! unit* |- | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 * <math>v</math> = 299792458 | 17 |- | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L</math> = 12647.240312 * <math>\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}</math> = 6.626 069 134 e-34 | 19 |- | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> = 50950.554778 * <math>\frac{r^5}{v^2}</math> = 6.672 497 192 29 e11 | 6 |- | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | ''e*'' = <math>A T</math> = 735.706358485 * <math>\frac{r^3}{v^3}</math> = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19 | -27 |- | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> = 0.679138336 * <math>\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}</math> = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23 | 29 |} AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi,\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1</math> :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit number ! Scalar |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | 15 | k |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | -30 | t |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | 17 | v |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | -13 | l |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | 3 | a |} {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units and scalars ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit number |- | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>15</math> |- | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>-30</math> |- | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>17</math> |- | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>-13</math> |- | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>3</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! Geometry ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R}^2},\; unit = u^{30}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R}},\; unit = u^{-81}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R}} ,\; unit = u^{87} </math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} </math> | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! SI constant ! Natural constant ! unit |- | <math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)}</math> = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} =</math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}} | <math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} =</math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}} | <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413... 10^-21'''}} | <math>\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} =</math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415... 10^-21'''}} | <math>\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1</math> |- | <math>\frac{2 h}{\mu_0\; e^2 \;c} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}</math> | <math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black}</math> | <math> \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! Constant ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 | <math>kg</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! SI constant ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! unit ! Natural constant* ! unit* |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V | 17 |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | 19 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | 6 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | <math>e^* = A T</math> | -27 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | 29 |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) | <math>\frac{kg \;m}{s^2 \;A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | 56 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensionless physical constants ! Constant ! value |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Omega | Omega]] | ''Ω'' = 2.007 134 9496 |} {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned physical constants ! Constant ! value ! unit |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 | <math>kg</math> |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 | <math>m</math> |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 | <math>s</math> |} '''Natural Planck units as geometrical objects''' [[w:Planck units |Planck unit]] theories use basic units for mass, length, time and charge, and operate at the Planck scale. In a geometrical Planck theory, these basic units are assigned geometrical objects (''MLTA'') rather than numerical values, the advantage being that the geometries themselves can encode the function of the unit, for example the object for length (''L'') will encode the function of ''length'', the geometrical ''L'' is 1 unit of (Planck) length, such that, unlike numerical models, a dimensioned descriptive (i.e.: ''kg, m, s, A'', ... ) is not required. The ''MLTA'' geometrical objects are selected whereby they may interact with each other (the mass object for example is not independent of the length and the time objects). This permits a mathematical unit relationship linking the objects, and so a physical universe can be constructed [[w:Lego |Lego-style]] by combining the base (Planck unit) ''MLTA'' objects to form more complex objects such as electrons (i.e.: by embedding ''L'' and ''A'' into the geometry of the electron, the electron can have wavelength and charge). Furthermore, these objects can overlap and cancel in a particular ratio (according to that unit relationship), and this ratio occurs in the electron. And so, although the electron has physical parameters (wavelength, charge ...), '''the electron itself is a mathematical particle (units = 1)''', not a physical particle. === Geometrical objects === Base units for mass <math>M</math>, length <math>L</math>, time <math>T</math>, and ampere <math>A</math> can be constructed from the geometry of 2 [[w:dimensionless physical constant | dimensionless physical constants]], the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']] = 137.036 and [[v:Simulation_argument_(coding_Planck_units)#Omega | Omega]] '''Ω''' = 2.007 134 949 <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>. Being independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, these MLTA units would qualify as "natural units"; {{bq|''...ihre Bedeutung für alle Zeiten und für alle, auch außerirdische und außermenschliche Kulturen notwendig behalten und welche daher als »natürliche Maßeinheiten« bezeichnet werden können...'' ...These necessarily retain their meaning for all times and for all civilizations, even extraterrestrial and non-human ones, and can therefore be designated as "natural units"... -Max Planck <ref>Planck (1899), p. 479.</ref><ref name="TOM">*Tomilin, K. A., 1999, "[http://www.ihst.ru/personal/tomilin/papers/tomil.pdf Natural Systems of Units: To the Centenary Anniversary of the Planck System]", 287–296.</ref>}} ==== Objects ==== Each object is assigned a specific geometry, embedded in this geometry is the object function (attribute) and a mathematical relationship between the objects defined using '''uⁿ''' where ''n'' is the unit number; {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit relationship |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | <math>unit = u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} ==== Scalars ==== To translate from geometrical objects to a numerical system of units requires scalars ('''kltpva''') that can be assigned numerical values. For example, scalars for the SI units; :If we use '''k''' to convert '''M''' to the SI Planck mass <math>m_P</math> (M = 1k = <math>m_P</math>), then '''k''' = 0.2176728e-7kg and '''<math>u^{15}</math>''' will equate to '''kg'''. :To convert '''V''' = 2πΩ² = 25.3123819 to '''c''' requires scalar '''v''' = 11843707.905m/s ('''V''' ''v'' = 2πΩ²''v'' = 299792458m/s) with '''<math>u^{17}</math>''' equating to '''m/s'''. {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Scalar ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | k | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | t | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | p | <math>unit = u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | v | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = TV = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | l | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | a | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} ===== Scalar relationships ===== The scalars follow the same unit relationship. This means that we can find ratios where the scalars cancel. Here the following ''uⁿ'' groups cancel ('''units = scalars = 1'''), as such '''only 2 numerical scalars are required''', for example, if we know '''a''' and '''l''' then we know '''t''' ('''t = a³l³'''), and from '''l''' and '''t''' we know '''k'''. :<math>\frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}}\;(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} \;(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \;...\; =1</math> And so we know any 2 constants, then we can solve the scalars for those constants, and from those 2 scalars we can solve the Planck units, and from these the dimensioned physical constants. This will apply to any set of units. In this example, to maintain integer exponents, a scalar ''p'' is defined in terms of a scalar ''r''. :<math>r = \sqrt{p} = \sqrt{\Omega},\; unit \;u^{16/2=8}</math> The SI Planck units are known with a low precision, conversely 2 of the CODATA 2014 physical constants have been assigned exact numerical values; ''c'' and permeability of vacuum ''μ₀''. Scalars ''r'' and ''v'' were chosen as they can be derived directly from ''V = c'' and ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (see table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]] below). Using α = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014), Ω = 2.007 134 949 636... :<math>v = \frac{c}{2 \pi \Omega^2}= 11 843 707.905 ...,\; units = m/s</math> :<math>r^7 = \frac{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4 \mu_0}{\alpha};\; r = 0.712 562 514 304 ...,\; units = (\frac{kg.m}{s})^{1/4}</math> This gives scalars ''klta'' ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#u_as_sqrt(velocity/mass)) |for derivation of units kg, m, s, A from r, v]]); :<math>k = \frac{r^4}{v}</math> = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10^-7kg, <math>\;\;\;u^{15} = \frac{(u^8)^4}{u^{17}}</math> :<math>l = \frac{r^9}{v^5}</math> = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10^-36m, <math>\;\;\;u^{-13} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^5}</math> :<math>t = \frac{r^9}{v^6}</math> = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10^-43s, <math>\;\;\;u^{-30} = \frac{(u^8)^9}{(u^{17})^6}</math> :<math>a = \frac{v^3}{r^6}</math> = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10²³A, <math>\;\;\;u^{3} = \frac{(u^{17})^3}{(u^8)^6}</math> ===== Natural units MLTPA ===== Regardless of which system of units we use, alien or terrestrial, any combination of constants where '''scalars = 1''' (i.e.: the scalars overlap and cancel) will give the same numerical result, they will default to the MLTPA objects. This implies that these objects are Planck's 'natural' units, i.e.: that '''all possible systems of units''' are based on these objects, and so, given that these are geometrical objects, they can be construed as evidence of a mathematical universe. The following are examples of '''units = scalars = 1''' ratios using SI units <ref>Macleod, Malcolm J. {{Cite journal |title= Do the fundamental constants embed evidence of a mathematical universe at the Planck scale? |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/1 }}</ref>. Note: the geometry <math>\color{red}(\Omega^{15})^n\color{black}</math> (integer n ≥ 0) is common to these ratios. ====== m_P, l_p, t_p ====== In this ratio, the MLT units and ''klt'' scalars both cancel; units = scalars = 1, reverting to the base MLT objects. Setting the scalars ''klt'' for SI Planck units; :k = 0.217 672 817 580... ''x'' 10^-7kg :l = 0.203 220 869 487... ''x'' 10^-36m :t = 0.171 585 512 841... ''x'' 10^-43s :<math>\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = \frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} </math> (CODATA 2018 mean) The ''klt'' scalars cancel, leaving; :<math>\frac{L^{15}}{M^{9} T^{11}} = \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^{15}}{(1)^{9} (\pi)^{11}} (\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 2^{15} \pi^{19} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^2\color{black} = </math>{{font color|blue|yellow|'''0.109 293... 10²⁴ '''}}, <math>(\frac{l^{15}}{k^9 t^{11}}) = 1, \;\frac{u^{-13*15}}{u^{15*9} u^{-30*11}} = 1</math> Solving for the SI units; :<math>\frac{l_p^{15}}{m_P^{9} t_p^{11}} = \frac{(1.616255e-35)^{15}}{(2.176434e-8)^{9} (5.391247e-44)^{11}} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''0.109 485... 10²⁴'''}} ====== A, l_p, t_p ====== :a = 0.126 918 588 592... ''x'' 10²³A :<math>\frac{A^3 L^3}{T} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^3 \frac{(2\pi^2\Omega^2)^3}{(\pi)} (\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = \frac{2^{24} \pi^{14} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^1\color{black}}{\alpha^3} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 571... 10¹³'''}}, <math>(\frac{a^3 l^3}{t}) = 1,\; \frac{u^{3*3} u^{-13*3}}{u^{-30}} = 1</math> :<math>\frac{(e / t_p)^3 l_p^3}{t_p} = \frac{(1.602176634e-19/5.391247e-44)^3 (1.616255e-35)^3}{(5.391247e-44)} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.205 543... 10¹³'''}}, <math>units = \frac{(C/s)^3 m^3}{s} </math> The Planck units are known with low precision, and so by defining the 3 most accurately known dimensioned constants in [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |terms of these objects]] (c, R = Rydberg constant, <math>\mu_0</math>; CODATA 2014 mean values), we can test to greater precision; ====== c, μ₀, R ====== :<math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2 v)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha r^7}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{v^5} {2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17} r^9})^7 = 2^{295} \pi^{157} 3^{21} \alpha^{26} \color{red}(\Omega^{15})^{15}\color{black} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1, \;(v^{35})/(r^7)^9 (\frac{v^5}{r^9})^7 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{c^{35}}{\mu_0^9 R^7} = \frac{(299792458)^{35}}{(4 \pi/10^7)^9 (10973731.568160)^7} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.326 103 528 6170... 10³⁰¹'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m^{33}A^{18}}{s^{17}kg^9} == \frac{(u^{-13})^{33} (u^{3})^{18}}{(u^{-30})^{17} (u^{15})^9} = 1</math> The [[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units | 2019 SI unit revision]] assigned exact numerical values to 4 constants (c, e, k_B, h). {{see also |Planck units (geometrical)#2019 SI unit revision}} From the table [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Physical_constants_(as_geometrical_formulas) |geometrical physical constants]], we get geometrical formulas and scalars for; :<math>h^* = 2 \pi MVL = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 19}</math> :<math>e^* = AT = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30 = -27}</math> :<math>k_B^*= 2 \pi MV/A = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3 = 29}</math> ====== c, e, k_B, h ====== :<math>\frac{(k_B^*) (e^*) (c^*)}{(h^*)} = (\frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha} \frac{r^3}{v^3}) (2 \pi \Omega^2 v) / (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) </math> = {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.0'''}}, <math>\frac{ (u^{29}) (u^{-27}) (u^{17}) }{ (u^{19}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) (\frac{r^3}{v^3}) (v) / (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{k_B e c}{h} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow|'''1.000 8254'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m C}{s^2 K} == \frac{(u^{-13}) (u^{-27})}{(u^{-30})^2 (u^{20})} = 1</math> ====== c, h, e ====== :<math>\frac{(h^*)^3}{(e^*)^{13} (c^*)^{24}} = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3/(\frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3 r^3}{\alpha v^3})^7.(2\pi\Omega^2 v)^{24} = \frac{\alpha^{13}}{2^{106} \pi^{64} (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 759... 10^-58'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{19})^{3}}{(u^{-27})^{13} (u^{17})^{24}} = 1, \;(\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})^3 / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^{13} (v^{24}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{h^3}{e^{13} c^{24}} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''0.228 473 639... 10^-58'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^3 s^{21}}{m^{18} C^{13}} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^{21}}{(u^{-13})^{18} (u^{-27})^{13}} = 1</math> ====== m_e, λ_e ====== :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black},\; \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} =1,\; (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> :<math>(m_e^*) = \frac{M}{f_e} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}</math> :<math>(m_e^*) = \frac{2^3 \pi^5 (h^*)}{3^3 \alpha^6 (e^*)^3 (c^*)^5} = \frac{1}{2^{20} \pi^8 3^3 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})\color{black}} \frac{r^4 u^{15}}{v} = \color{blue}9.109\;382\;3227 \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;u^{15}</math> :<math>m_e = \color{blue}9.109\;383\;7015... \;10^{-31}\color{black}\;kg</math> :<math>(\lambda_e^*) = 2 \pi L f_e = \color{purple}2.426\;310\;238\;667 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;u^{-13}</math> :<math>\lambda_e = \frac{h}{m_e c} = \color{purple}2.426 \;310 \;238 \;67 \;10^{-12}\color{black}\;m</math> ====== c, e, m_e ====== :<math>(m_e^*)= \frac{M}{f_e}, \;f_e = 2^{20} 3^3 \pi^8 \alpha^3 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^1\color{black} </math>, units = scalars = 1 ([[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Electron_formula |m_e formula]]) :<math>\frac{(c^*)^9 (e^*)^4}{(m_e^*)^3} = 2^{97} \pi^{49} 3^9 \alpha^5 (\color{red}\Omega^{15})^5\color{black} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 368... 10⁹²'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{17})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{15})^3} = 1,\; (v^9) (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^4 / (\frac{r^4}{v})^3 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{c^9 e^4}{m_e^3} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.170 514 342... 10⁹²'''}}, <math>units = \frac{m^9 C^4}{s^9 kg^3} == \frac{(u^{-13})^9 (u^{-27})^4}{(u^{-30})^9 (u^{15})^3} = 1</math> ====== k_B, c, e, m_e ====== :<math>\frac{(k_B^*)}{(e^*)^2 (m_e^*) (c^*)^4} = \frac{3^3 \alpha^6}{2^3 \pi^5} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 035 235 897.'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{29})}{(u^{-27})^2 (u^{15}) (u^{17})^4} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) / (\frac{r^3}{v^3})^2 (\frac{r^4}{v}) (v)^4 = 1</math> :<math>\frac{k_B}{e^2 m_e c^4} = </math> {{font color|blue|yellow| '''73 095 507 858.'''}}, <math>units = \frac{s^2}{m^2 K C^2} == \frac{(u^{-30})^2}{(u^{-13})^2 (u^{20}) (u^{-27})^2} = 1</math> ====== m_P, t_p, ε₀ ====== These 3 constants, Planck mass, Planck time and the vacuum permittivity have no Omega term. :<math>\frac{M^4 (\epsilon_0^*)}{T} = (1) (\frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}) / (\pi) = \frac{2^9 \pi^2}{\alpha} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.875'''}}, <math>\frac{(u^{15})^4 (u^{-90})}{(u^{-30})} = 1,\; (\frac{r^4}{v})^4 (\frac{1}{r^7 v^2}) / (\frac{r^9}{v^6}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{m_p^4 (\epsilon_0)}{t_p} = </math> {{font color|green|yellow| '''36.850'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^4}{s} \frac{s^4 A^2}{m^3 kg} = \frac{kg^3 A^2 s^3}{m^3} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{3})^2 (u^{-30})^3}{(u^{-13})^3} = 1</math> ====== G, h, c, e, m_e, K_B ====== :<math>\frac{(h^*) (c^*)^2 (e^*) (m_e^*)}{(G^*)^2 (k_B^*)} = (m_e^*) (\frac{2^{11} \pi^3}{\alpha^2}) = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1415... 10^-21'''}}, <math>\frac{ (u^{19}) (u^{17})^2 (u^{-27}) (u^{15}) }{ (u^{6})^2 (u^{29}) } = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5}) v^2 (\frac{r^{3}}{v^3})(\frac{r^{4}}{v^1}) / (\frac{r^5}{v^2})^2 (\frac{r^{10}}{v^3}) = 1</math> :<math>\frac{h c^2 e m_e}{G^2 k_B} = </math> {{font color|red|yellow| '''0.1413... 10^-21'''}}, <math>units = \frac{kg^3 s^3 C K}{m^4} == \frac{(u^{15})^3 (u^{-30})^3 (u^{-27}) (u^{20}) }{(u^{-13})^4} = 1</math> ====== α ====== :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> Note: The above will apply to any combinations of constants (alien or terrestrial) where '''scalars = 1'''. {| class="wikitable" |+Table of dimensioned physical constants ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> ! SI unit ! Natural constant* (scalars = 1) ! unit number* |- | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) | <math>\frac{m}{s}</math> | ''c*'' = V = 25.3123819329 | 17 |- | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s}</math> | ''h*'' = <math>2 \pi M V L</math> = 12647.240312 | 19 |- | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 | <math>\frac{m^3}{kg \;s^2}</math> | ''G*'' = <math>\frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> = 50950.554778 | 6 |- | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 | <math>C = A s</math> | ''e*'' = <math>A T</math> = 735.706358485 | -27 |- | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 | <math>\frac{kg \;m^2}{s^2 \;K}</math> | ''k_B*'' = <math>\frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> = 0.679138336 | 29 |} ===== SI Planck unit scalars ===== :<math>M = m_P = (1)k;\; k = m_P = .217\;672\;817\;58... \;10^{-7},\; u^{15}\; (kg)</math> :<math>T = t_p = {\pi}t;\; t = \frac{t_p}{\pi} = .171\;585\;512\;84... 10^{-43},\; u^{-30}\; (s)</math> :<math>L = l_p = {2\pi^2\Omega^2}l;\; l = \frac{l_p}{2\pi^2\Omega^2} = .203\;220\;869\;48... 10^{-36},\; u^{-13}\; (m)</math> :<math>V = c = {2\pi\Omega^2}v;\; v = \frac{c}{2\pi\Omega^2} = 11\;843\;707.905... ,\; u^{17}\; (m/s)</math> :<math>A = e/t_p = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})a = .126\;918\;588\;59... 10^{23},\; u^{3}\; (A)</math> ====== MT to LPVA ====== In this example LPVA are derived from MT. The formulas for MT; :<math>M = (1)k,\; unit = u^{15}</math> :<math>T = (\pi) t,\; unit = u^{-30}</math> Replacing scalars ''pvla'' with ''kt'' :<math>P = (\Omega)\;\frac{k^{12/15}}{t^{2/15}},\; unit = u^{12/15*15-2/15*(-30)=16}</math> :<math>V = \frac{2 \pi P^2}{M} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)\; \frac{k^{9/15}}{t^{4/15}},\; unit = u^{9/15*15-4/15*(-30)=17} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2 \pi^2 \Omega^2) \; k^{9/15} t^{11/15},\; unit = u^{9/15*15+11/15*(-30)=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = \left(\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\right)\; \frac{1}{k^{3/5} t^{2/5}},\; unit = u^{9/15*(-15)+6/15*30=3} </math> ====== PV to MTLA ====== In this example MLTA are derived from PV. The formulas for PV; :<math>P = (\Omega)p,\; unit = u^{16}</math> :<math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\; unit = u^{17}</math> Replacing scalars ''klta'' with ''pv'' :<math>M = \frac{2\pi P^2}{V} = (1)\frac{p^2}{v},\; unit = u^{16*2-17=15} </math> :<math>T = (\pi) \frac{p^{9/2}}{v^6},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*6=-30} </math> :<math>L = T V = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{p^{9/2}}{v^5},\; unit = u^{16*9/2-17*5=-13}</math> :<math>A = \frac{2^4 V^3}{\alpha P^3} = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})\frac{v^3}{p^3},\; unit = u^{17*3-16*3=3}</math> ==== Physical constants (as geometrical formulas) ==== note: <math>\color{red}(u^{15})^n\color{black}</math> constants have no Omega term. {| class="wikitable" |+Dimensioned constants; geometrical vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! In Planck units ! Geometrical object ! SI calculated (r, v, Ω, α^*) ! SI CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | V | <math>c^* = (2\pi\Omega^2)v,\;u^{17} </math> | ''c^*'' = 299 792 458, unit = u¹⁷ | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | | | ''α^*'' = 137.035 999 139 (mean) | ''α'' = 137.035 999 139(31) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | <math>R^* = (\frac{m_e}{4 \pi L \alpha^2 M})</math> | <math>R^* = \frac{1}{2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}}\frac{v^5}{r^9},\;u^{13} </math> | ''R^*'' = 10 973 731.568 508, unit = u¹³ | ''R'' = 10 973 731.568 508(65) |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{4 \pi V^2 M}{\alpha L A^2}</math> | <math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{17*2+15+13-6=7*8=56}</math> | ''μ₀^*'' = 4π/10^7, unit = u⁵⁶ | ''μ₀'' = 4π/10^7 (exact) |- | [[w:Vacuum permittivity | Vacuum permittivity]] | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{1}{\mu_0^* (c^*)^2}</math> | <math>\epsilon_0^* = \frac{2^9 \pi^3}{\alpha}\frac{1}{r^7 v^2},\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^6\color{black} = u^{-90}</math> | | |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>h^* = 2 \pi M V L</math> | <math>h^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{15+17-13 = 8*13-17*5 = 19}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>G^* = \frac{V^2 L}{M}</math> | <math>G^* = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^{34-13-15 = 8*5-17*2 = 6}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>e^* = A T</math> | <math>e^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{r^3}{v^3},\; u^{3-30=3*8-17*3=-27}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>k_B^* = \frac{2 \pi V M}{A}</math> | <math>k_B^* = \frac{\alpha}{2^5 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{17+15-3=10*8-17*3=29}</math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | | <math>m_e^* = \frac{M}{f_e},\; u^{15}</math> | ''m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Classical electron radius | Classical electron radius]] | | <math>\lambda_e^* = 2\pi L f_e,\; u^{-13}</math> | ''λ_e^*'' = 2.426 310 2366 e-12, unit = u^-13 | ''λ_e'' = 2.426 310 236 7(11) e-12 |- | [[w:Planck temperature | Planck temperature]] | <math>T_p^* = \frac{A V}{\pi}</math> | <math>T_p^* = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{3+17=17*4-6*8=20} </math> | ''T_p^*'' = 1.418 145 219 e32, unit = u²⁰ | ''T_p'' = 1.416 784(16) e32 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | M | <math>m_P^* = (1)\frac{r^4}{v} ,\; \color{red}(u^{15})^1\color{black}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | L = TV | <math>l_p^* = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)\frac{r^9}{v^5},\;u^{-13} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] | T | <math>t_p^* = (\pi)\frac{r^9}{v^6} ,\; \color{red}1/(u^{15})^2\color{black} </math> | ''t_p^*'' = 5.390 517 866 e-44, unit = u^-30 | ''t_p'' = 5.391 247(60) e-44 |- | [[w:Ampere | Ampere]] | <math>A = \frac{16 V^3}{\alpha P^3}</math> | <math>A^* = \frac{2^7\pi^3\Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6} ,\; u^3 </math> | A^* = 0.297 221 e25, unit = u³ | ''e/t_p'' = 0.297 181 e25 |- | [[w:Quantum Hall effect | Von Klitzing constant ]] | <math>R_K^* = (\frac{h}{e^2})^*</math> | <math>R_K^* = \frac{\alpha^2}{2^{11} \pi^4 \Omega^2} r^7 v ,\; u^{73}</math> | ''R_K^*'' = 25812.807 455 59, unit = u⁷³ | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 455 5(59) |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | | <math>\gamma_e/2\pi = \frac{g l_p^* m_P^*}{2 k_B^* m_e^*},\; unit = u^{-42}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} Note that ''r, v, Ω, α'' are dimensionless numbers, however when we replace ''u''ⁿ with the SI unit equivalents (''u''¹⁵ → kg, ''u''^-13 → m, ''u''^-30 → s, ...), the ''geometrical objects'' (i.e.: ''c^*'' = 2πΩ²v = 299792458, units = u¹⁷) become '''indistinguishable''' from their respective ''physical constants'' (i.e.: ''c'' = 299792458, units = m/s). If this mathematical relationship can therefore be identified within the SI units themselves, then we have an argument for a Planck scale mathematical universe <ref>[https://codingthecosmos.com/planck-scale.html Planck scale mathematical universe model]</ref>. ===== Electron formula ===== {{main|Electron (mathematical)}} Although the Planck units MLTA are embedded within the electron formula ''f_e'', this formula is both unit-less and non scalable (units = 1, scalars = 1). Furthermore it is the geometry of 2 dimensionless physical constants and so can also be defined as a dimensionless physical constant (if units = scalars = 1, then that constant will be independent of any numerical system and of any system of units, and so would qualify as a "natural unit"). :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}</math> AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length) are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi \frac{r^9}{v^6},\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}\frac{r^3}{v^2},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_{e}^3}{2 T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, scalars = (\frac{r^3}{v^2})^3 \frac{v^6}{r^9} = 1</math> The electron has dimensioned parameters, however the dimensions derive from the Planck units, ''f_e'' is a mathematical function that dictates how these Planck objects are applied, it does not have dimension units of its own, consequently there is no physical electron. [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e = \frac{M}{f_e}</math> (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e = 2\pi L f_e</math> (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e = A.T</math> ===== Fine structure constant ===== The Sommerfeld [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant alpha]] is a dimensionless physical constant, the CODATA 2018 inverse alpha = 137.035999084. :<math>\frac{2 (h^*)}{(\mu_0^*) (e^*)^2 (c^*)} = 2({2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4})/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})(\frac{2^{7} \pi^4 \Omega^3}{\alpha})^2(2 \pi \Omega^2) = \color{blue}\alpha \color{black},\; \frac{u^{19}}{u^{56} (u^{-27})^2 u^{17}} = 1,\; (\frac{r^{13}}{v^5})(\frac{1}{r^7})(\frac{v^6}{r^6})(\frac{1}{v}) = 1</math> ===== Omega ===== The most precise of the experimentally measured constants is the Rydberg ''R = 10973731.568508(65) 1/m''. Here ''c, μ₀, R'' are combined into a unit-less ratio; :<math>\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{(\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7} = (2 \pi \Omega^2)^{35}/(\frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4})^9 .(\frac{1} {2^{23} 3^3 \pi^{11} \alpha^5 \Omega^{17}})^7,\;units = \frac{(u^{17})^{35}}{(u^{56})^9 (u^{13})^7} = 1</math> We can now define ''Ω'' using the geometries for (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') and then solve by replacing (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') with the numerical (''c, μ₀, R''). :<math>\Omega^{225}=\frac{(c^*)^{35}}{2^{295} 3^{21} \pi^{157} (\mu_0^*)^9 (R^*)^7 \alpha^{26}}, \;units = 1</math> :<math>\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;636...,\; units = 1</math> (CODATA 2014 mean values) :<math>\Omega = 2.007\;134\;949\;687...,\; units = 1</math> (CODATA 2018 mean values) There is a close natural number for ''Ω'' that is a square root implying that ''Ω'' can have a plus or a minus solution and this agrees with theory. This solution would however re-classify Omega as a mathematical constant (as being derivable from other mathematical constants). :<math>\Omega = \sqrt{ \left(\frac{\pi^e}{e^{(e-1)}}\right)} = 2.007\;134\;9543... </math> ===== G, h, e, m_e, k_B ===== As geometrical objects, the physical constants (''G, h, e, m_e, k_B'') can also be defined using the geometrical formulas for (''c^*, μ₀^*, R^*'') and solved using the numerical (mean) values for (''c, μ₀, R, α''), i.e.:. :<math>{(h^*)}^3 = (2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13} u^{19}}{v^5})^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {(\mu_0^*)}^3} {3^6 {(c^*)}^5 \alpha^{13} {(R^*)}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants; calculated vs CODATA 2014 ! Constant ! Geometry ! Calculated from (R, c, μ₀, α) ! CODATA 2014 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2014)</ref> |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2\pi^{10} {\mu_0}^3} {3^6 {c}^5 \alpha^{13} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{57}</math> | ''h^*'' = 6.626 069 134 e-34, unit = u¹⁹ | ''h'' = 6.626 070 040(81) e-34 |- | [[w:Gravitational constant | Gravitational constant]] | <math>{(G^*)}^5 = \frac{\pi^3 {\mu_0}}{2^{20} 3^6 \alpha^{11} {R_\infty}^2},\; unit = u^{30}</math> | ''G^*'' = 6.672 497 192 29 e11, unit = u⁶ | ''G'' = 6.674 08(31) e-11 |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 {c}^4 \alpha^8 {R_\infty}},\; unit = u^{-81}</math> | ''e^*'' = 1.602 176 511 30 e-19, unit = u^-27 | ''e'' = 1.602 176 620 8(98) e-19 |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | <math>{(k_B^*)}^3 = \frac{\pi^5 {\mu_0}^3}{3^3 2 {c}^4 \alpha^5 {R_\infty}} ,\; unit = u^{87} </math> | ''k_B^*'' = 1.379 510 147 52 e-23, unit = u²⁹ | ''k_B'' = 1.380 648 52(79) e-23 |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{16 \pi^{10} {R_\infty} {\mu_0}^3}{3^6 {c}^8 \alpha^7},\; unit = u^{45} </math> | '' m_e^*'' = 9.109 382 312 56 e-31, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 56(11) e-31 |- | [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]] | <math>(m_P^*)^{15} = \frac{2^{25}\pi^{13} \mu_0^6}{ 3^6 c^5 \alpha^{16} R_\infty^2},\; unit = (u^{15})^{15}</math> | ''m_P^*'' = .217 672 817 580 e-7, unit = u¹⁵ | ''m_P'' = .217 647 0(51) e-7 |- | [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] | <math>(l_p^*)^{15} = \frac{\pi^{22} \mu_0^9}{2^{35} 3^{24} \alpha^{49} c^{35} R_\infty^8},\; unit = (u^{-13})^{15} </math> | ''l_p^*'' = .161 603 660 096 e-34, unit = u^-13 | ''l_p'' = .161 622 9(38) e-34 |- | [[w:Gyromagnetic ratio | Gyromagnetic ratio]] | <math>(\gamma_e/2\pi)^3 = \frac{g^3 3^3 c^4}{2^8 \pi^8 \alpha \mu_0^3 R_\infty^2},\; unit = u^{-126}</math> | ''γ_e/2π^*'' = 28024.953 55, unit = u^-42 | ''γ_e/2π'' = 28024.951 64(17) |} ==== 2019 SI unit revision ==== Following the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ([[w:2019 redefinition of SI base units|2019 redefinition of SI base units]]) are fixed the numerical values of the 4 physical constants (''h, c, e, k_B''). In the context of this model however only 2 base units may be assigned by committee as the rest are then numerically fixed by default and so the revision may lead to unintended consequences. For example, the von Klitzing constant Rk = h/e2, yet to derive h and e using Rk suggests an (inverse) alpha = 137.0359952 <ref>[https://codingthecosmos.com/physical-constants-calc.html Physical constants calculator]</ref>. {| class="wikitable" |+Physical constants ! Constant ! CODATA 2018 <ref>[http://www.codata.org/] | CODATA, The Committee on Data for Science and Technology | (2018)</ref> |- | [[w:Speed of light | Speed of light]] | ''c'' = 299 792 458 (exact) |- | [[w:Planck constant | Planck constant]] | ''h'' = 6.626 070 15 e-34 (exact) |- | [[w:Elementary charge | Elementary charge]] | ''e'' = 1.602 176 634 e-19 (exact) |- | [[w:Boltzmann constant | Boltzmann constant]] | ''k_B'' = 1.380 649 e-23 (exact) |- | [[w:Fine structure constant | Fine structure constant]] | ''α'' = 137.035 999 084(21) |- | [[w:Rydberg constant | Rydberg constant]] | ''R'' = 10973 731.568 160(21) |- | [[w:Electron mass | Electron mass]] | ''m_e'' = 9.109 383 7015(28) e-31 |- | [[w:Vacuum permeability | Vacuum permeability]] | ''μ₀'' = 1.256 637 062 12(19) e-6 |- | [[w:Quantum_Hall_effect#Applications | Von Klitzing constant]] | ''R_K'' = 25812.807 45 (exact) |} For example, if we solve using the above formulas; <math>R^* = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 e^3} = 10973\;729.082\;465</math> <math>{(m_e^*)}^3 = \frac{2^4 \pi^{10} R \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^8 \alpha^7},\;m_e^* = 9.109\;382\;3259 \;10^{-31}</math> <math>{(\mu_0^*)}^3 = \frac{3^6 h^3 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2}{2 \pi^{10}},\;\mu_0^* = 1.256\;637\;251\;88\;10^{-6}</math> <math>{(h^*)}^3 = \frac{2 \pi^{10} \mu_0^3}{3^6 c^5 \alpha^{13} R^2},\;h^* = 6.626\;069\;149\;10^{-34}</math> <math>{(e^*)}^3 = \frac{4 \pi^5}{3^3 c^4 \alpha^8 R},\; e^* = 1.602\;176\;513\;10^{-19}</math> ==== u as sqrt(velocity/mass) ==== We find there is a single base unit '''u''' from which the other units and numerical values can be derived. This base unit incorporates [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum |MLT as square roots]]. =====''u = √{L/M.T}''===== :<math>u,\; units = \sqrt{\frac{L}{M T}} = \sqrt{u^{-13-15+30=2}} = u^1</math> Setting: :<math>x,\;units = \sqrt{\frac{M^9 T^{11}}{L^{15}}} = u^0, units = 1, scalars = 1</math> :<math>y,\;units = M^2T = u^0, units = 1, scalars <> 1</math> Gives; :<math>u^3 = \frac{L^{3/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{3/2}} = A,\; (ampere)</math> :<math>u^6 (y) = \frac{L^3}{T^2 M},\; (G)</math> :<math>u^{13} (xy) = \frac{1}{L},\; (1/l_p)</math> :<math>u^{15} (xy^2) = M,\; (m_P)</math> :<math>u^{17} (xy^2) = V,\; (c)</math> :<math>u^{19} (xy^3) = \frac{ML^2}{T},\; (h)</math> :<math>u^{20} (xy^2) = \frac{L^{5/2}}{M^{3/2} T^{5/2}} = AV,\;(T_P)</math> :<math>u^{27} (x^2y^3) = \frac{M^{3/2}\sqrt{T}}{L^{3/2}} = 1/AT,\; (1/e)</math> :<math>u^{29} (x^2y^4) = \frac{M^{5/2}\sqrt{T}}{\sqrt{L}} = ML/AT,\; (k_B)</math> :<math>u^{30} (x^2 y^3) = \frac{1}{T},\; (1/t_p)</math> :<math>u^{56} (x^4 y^7) = \frac{M^4 T}{L^2},\;(\mu_0)</math> :<math>u^{90} (x^6 y^{11}) = \frac{M^4}{T} </math> ===== ''β'' (unit = ''u'') ===== ''i'' (from ''x'') and ''j'' (from ''y''). :<math>R = \sqrt{P} = \sqrt{\Omega} r,\; units = u^8</math> :<math>\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi R^2}{M} = \frac{A^{1/3} \alpha^{1/3}}{2} \;..., \; unit = u</math> :<math>i = \frac{1}{2\pi {(2\pi \Omega)}^{15}},\; units = 1, scalars = 1</math> :<math>j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2t = \frac{k^8}{r^{15}} ...,\; unit = \frac{u^{17*8}}{u^{8*17}} = u^{15*2}u^{-30} ... = 1,\; units = 1, scalars <> 1</math> For example; the constants solved in terms of (''r, v'') :<math>\beta = \frac{V}{R^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega^2 v}{\Omega r^2} = \frac{2\pi \Omega v}{r^2},\; u^1 = u</math> :<math>A = \beta^3 (\frac{2^4}{\alpha}) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}\frac{v^3}{r^6},\; u^3</math> :<math>G = \frac{\beta^6}{2^3 \pi^2} (j) = 2^3 \pi^4 \Omega^6 \frac{r^5}{v^2},\; u^6</math> :<math>L^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{13} (ij) = \frac{1}{2\pi^2 \Omega^2} \frac{v^5}{r^9},\; u^{13}</math> :<math>M = 2\pi \beta^{15} (ij^2) = \frac{r^4}{v},\; u^{15}</math> :<math>P = \beta^{16} (ij^2) = \Omega r^2,\; u^{16}</math> :<math>V = \beta^{17} (ij^2) = 2\pi \Omega^2 v,\; u^{17}</math> :<math>h = \pi \beta^{19} (ij^3) = 8\pi^4 \Omega^4 \frac{r^{13}}{v^5},\; u^{19}</math> :<math>T_P^* =\frac{2^3 \beta^{20}}{\pi \alpha} (ij^2) = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha} \frac{v^4}{r^6} ,\; u^{20} </math> :<math>e^{-1} = \frac{\alpha \pi \beta^{27} (i^2j^3)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{128\pi^4 \Omega^3} \frac{v^3}{r^{3}},\; u^{27} </math> :<math>k_B = \frac{\alpha \pi^2 \beta^{29}(i^2j^4)}{4} = \frac{\alpha}{32 \pi \Omega} \frac{r^{10}}{v^3},\; u^{29}</math> :<math>T^{-1} = 4\pi \beta^{30} (i^2 j^3) = \frac{1}{\pi}\frac{v^6}{r^9},\; u^{30}</math> :<math>\mu_0^* = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{56}}{2^3} (i^4 j^7) = \frac{\alpha}{2^{11} \pi^5 \Omega^4} r^7,\; u^{56}</math> :<math>\epsilon_0^{*-1} = \mu_0^* (c^*)^2 = \frac{\pi^3 \alpha \beta^{90}}{2^3} (i^6 j^{11}) = \frac{\alpha}{2^9 \pi^3} v^2 r^7,\; u^{90} </math> ===== limit ''j'' ===== The SI values for ''j'' suggest a limit (numerical boundary) to the values the SI constants can have. :<math>j = \frac{r^{17}}{v^8} = k^2 t = \frac{k^{17/4}}{v^{15/4}} = ... </math> gives a range from 0.812997... ''x''10^-59 to 0.123... ''x''10⁶⁰ In SI terms unit ''β'' can be derived via these ratio; :<math>a^{1/3} = \frac{v}{r^2} = \frac{1}{t^{2/15}k^{1/5}} = \frac{\sqrt{v}}{\sqrt{k}} ... = 23326079.1...; unit = u</math> ===== Rydberg formula ===== The [[w:Rydberg_formula |Rydberg formula]] can now be re-written in terms of amperes <math>A^2</math> :<math>\frac{hc}{2\pi \alpha^2} = \frac{j^2 A^2}{2^8 2\pi t_p}</math> ==== External links ==== * [[v:electron_(mathematical) | Mathematical electron]] * [[v:Relativity_(Planck) | Programming relativity at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck) | Programming gravity at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) | Programming the cosmic microwave background at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | The sqrt of Planck momentum]] * [[v:God_(programmer) | The Programmer God]] * [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark * [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2531429 The mathematical electron model in a Planck scale universe] -(article) * [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article) ==== References ==== {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] tjthlaqbjb4hkxaydfh06dphw9uf2u1 0 275146 2417108 2409339 2022-08-21T22:14:37Z OhanaUnited 18921 merge duplicated ref wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | correspondence1 = | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, India | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | submitted = 6/20/2021 | accepted = 10/22/2021 | w1 = History of penicillin | et_al = true | license = | abstract = The history of penicillin was shaped by the contributions of numerous scientists. The ultimate result was the discovery of the [[w:Mold (fungus)|mould]] [[w:Penicillium|''Penicillium's'']] antibacterial activity and the subsequent development of [[w:penicillins|penicillins]], the most widely used [[w:antibiotics|antibiotics]]. Following an accidental discovery of the mould, later identified as ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|Penicillium rubens]]'', as the source of the antibacterial principle (1928) and the production of a pure compound (1942), penicillin became the first naturally derived antibiotic. There is anecdotal evidence of ancient societies using moulds to treat infections and of awareness that various moulds inhibited bacterial growth. However, it is not clear if ''Penicillium'' species were the species traditionally used or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. In 1928, [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] was the first to discover the antibacterial substance secreted by the ''Penicillium'' mould and concentrate the active substance involved, giving it the name penicillin. His success in treating Harry Lambert's streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]], an infection until then fatal, proved to be a critical moment in the medical use of penicillin. Many later scientists were involved in the stabilisation and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of ''Penicillium''. Among the most important were [[w:Ernst Chain|Ernst Chain]] and [[w:Howard Florey|Howard Florey]], who shared with Fleming the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. | keywords = Antibiotic, bacteria, infection, penicillin, ''Penicillium'' }} ==Early history== [[file:Penicillin core.svg|thumb|The core structure of penicillin, where R is a variable group; the central "square" structure is the β-lactam ring, which is the key component for destruction of bacterial cell walls. {{attrib|[[w:User:Yikrazuul|Yikrazuul]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin (Figure 1) is the second antibiotic and the first naturally-occurring antibiotic discovered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aminov|first=Rustam I.|date=2010|title=A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=1|pages=134|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmc=3109405|pmid=21687759}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first antibiotic discovered was arsphenamine, marketed as [[w:Salvarsan|Salvarsan]], by German physician [[w:Paul Ehrlich|Paul Ehrlich]] and his Japanese assistant [[w:Sahachiro Hata|Sahachiro Hata]] in 1909.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4|title=Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen|last=Ehrlich|first=Paul|last2=Hata|first2=S.|date=1910|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-64911-0|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=1-178|language=German|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4}}</ref> It was a modified compound of a highly toxic chemical [[w:Arsenic|arsenic]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=K. J.|date=2009|title=The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19679737|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=102|issue=8|pages=343–348|doi=10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036|pmc=2726818|pmid=19679737}}</ref> that was used for the treatment of sexually transmitted bacterial (''[[w:Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum]]'') infection or [[syphilis]], and became the most commonly prescribed drug in the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swain|first=K.|date=2018|title='Extraordinarily arduous and fraught with danger': syphilis, Salvarsan, and general paresis of the insane|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29866584|journal=The Lancet Psychiatry|volume=5|issue=9|pages=702–703|doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30221-9|pmid=29866584}}</ref> However, it was overshadowed by penicillin, a safer and more efficacious antibiotic, that was effective against a wide range of [[w:Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive bacteria]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=J. T.|last2=Strominger|first2=J. L.|date=1957|title=Mode of action of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13390969|journal=Science|volume=125|issue=3238|pages=99–101|doi=10.1126/science.125.3238.99|pmid=13390969}}</ref> as well as [[w:Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] ''T. pallidum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clement|first=Meredith E.|last2=Okeke|first2=N. Lance|last3=Hicks|first3=Charles B.|date=2014-11-12|title=Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25387188|journal=JAMA|volume=312|issue=18|pages=1905–1917|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.13259|issn=1538-3598|pmc=6690208|pmid=25387188}}</ref> Traditional curative practices preceded the discovery of penicillin as a component of the mould ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' (from the [[Latin]] word ''penicillum'', meaning "painter's brush").<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ji|first=Hong-Fang|last2=Li|first2=Xue-Juan|last3=Zhang|first3=Hong-Yu|date=2009|title=Natural products and drug discovery. Can thousands of years of ancient medical knowledge lead us to new and powerful drug combinations in the fight against cancer and dementia?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229284|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=10|issue=3|pages=194–200|doi=10.1038/embor.2009.12|pmc=2658564|pmid=19229284}}</ref> Ancient Egypt, Greece and India were aware of the curative properties of fungi and plants in treating bacterial [[w:infection|infections]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |title=History of Antibiotics &#124; Steps of the Scientific Method, Research and Experiments |publisher=Experiment-Resources.com |access-date=2012-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806090931/http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> as shown by the 16th-century BCE record of a Greek king of the use of bread moulds by a woman healer to treat wounded soldiers. Around the same time, Chinese traditional practitioners used moulds from soya bean for wound infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|jstor=1260294}}</ref> In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal [[w:spore|spore]]s) to treat wounds, a technique mentioned by [[w:Henryk Sienkiewicz|Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his 1884 book ''[[w:With Fire and Sword|With Fire and Sword]]''. In 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by English apothecaries such as [[w:John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]], royal botanist to [[w:Charles I|Charles I]], who described the use of certain mould (possibly ''Penicillium'') in his book on [[w:pharmacology|pharmacology]] ''Theatrum Botanicum'' (''The Botanical Theatre'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cranch|first=A. G.|date=1943|title=Early use of Penicillin (?)|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=123|issue=15|pages=990|doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|issn=0002-9955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gould|first=Kate|date=2016|title=Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273/|journal=The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|volume=71|issue=3|pages=572–575|doi=10.1093/jac/dkv484|pmid=26851273|doi-access=free}}</ref> One of the common practices for treating [[w:Impetigo|impetigo]] (an infection due to the bacterium ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'') was mould therapy using moulds obtained from bread and [[w:Porridge|porridge]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|last2=Rally|first2=Louise|last3=Ali|first3=Tasneem Adam|date=1992|title=The scientific basis of mould therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X09805879|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=108–110|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80587-9}}</ref> A Canadian biologist A. E. Cliffe provided a vivid description:<blockquote>It was during a visit through central Europe in 1908 that I came across the fact that almost every farmhouse followed the practice of keeping a mouldy loaf on one of the beams in the kitchen. When I asked the reason for this I was told that this was an old custom and that when any member of the family received an injury such as a cut or bruise, a thin slice from the outside of the loaf was cut off, mixed into a paste with water and applied to the wound with a bandage. It was assumed that no infection would result from such a cut.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|title=From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|date=1999|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4613-7182-3|editor-last=Singh|editor-first=Jagjit|location=Boston, MA|pages=11–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|editor-last2=Aneja|editor-first2=K. R.}}</ref></blockquote>One of the most detailed medical narratives was how Brenda Ward (''née'' Whitnear) was cured of her facial impetigo in 1929. After treating an eight-year-old Brenda with all possible medications available, the family physician James Twomey resorted to traditional practice and advised the mother to prepare a starch paste. The paste was was left in the pantry kept at the cellar head for several days until it became very mouldy. It was then applied on the girl's face as an ointment for over a week until she was completely healed.<ref name=":20" /> There is no written record of the treatment except for the receipt of the consultation fee. Ward recalled that the mould initially appeared yellow in colour, grew into bronze colour, and finally turned into blue-green colonies, which indicates it was either ''Penicillium'' or ''[[w:Aspergillus|Aspergillus]].'' Based on Ward's description, in 1989, British microbiologist [[w:Milton Wainright|Milton Wainright]] concluded that most likely the mould was ''Penicillum'' due the growth pattern and antibacterial activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X89800102|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=21–23|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2}}</ref> Traditional treatments often worked because numerous organisms, including many species of moulds, naturally produce [[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]] substances. However, it was not until recently that practitioners were able to identify or isolate the active components in these organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Early scientific evidence=== The modern history of penicillin research began in earnest in the 1870s in the United Kingdom. [[w:John Scott Burdon-Sanderson|Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson]], physiologist and lecturer at St. Mary's Hospital, observed that [[w:microbiological culture|culture]] fluid covered with mould inhibited [[w:bacteria|bacteria]]l growth in his experiments on [[w:Spontaneous generation|spontaneous generation]] in 1870.<ref>Queener, Sherry; Webber, J. Alan; Queener, Stephen; eds. (1986). [https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Beta_Lactam_Antibiotics_for_Clinical_Use/d-vSwAEACAAJ?hl=en ''Beta-lactam Antibiotics for Clinical Use'',] Informa Health Care, {{ISBN|0824773861}}, p. 4. [Refers to : J. B. Sanderson. Appendix No 5. " Further report of researches concerning the intimate pathology of contagion. The origin and distribution of microzymes (bacteria) in water, and the circumstances which determine their existence in the tissue and liquids of the living body ". 13th Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council [John Simon], with Appendix, 1870. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1871, pp. 56–66; reprinted in [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/s2-11/44/323 ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', n. ser., XI, 1871, pp. 323–352].]</ref> His reports in 1871 described: <blockquote>On October 10 glass a was turbid, and was found on microscopical examination to be teeming with bacteria; a thick whitish scum had formed on its surface. Glass h was perfectly clear; there were, however, great numbers of torula [a type of yeast] cells on its surface, but no bacteria. On October 12 6 exhibited numerous tufts of penicillium, but the liquid still remained limpid and free from bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burdon-Sanderson|first=(John)|date=1871|title=Memoirs: The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in Water, and the Circumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body|url=https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323|journal=Journal of Cell Science|volume=s2-11|issue=44|pages=323–352|doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323}}</ref>{{Efn|Unlike his predecessor scientists such as Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur who had experimentally rebutted spontaneous generation, Burdon-Sanderson went further by specifically identifying the types of microbes as bacteria, microzyme, fungi, torula, and ''Penicillium'', including the differences in their growth pattern. His experiment on 11 November 1870 reads: "At the same date all the glasses showed tufts of penicillium; those on 3 and 5 were more advanced than the rest... the liquid in 5 was found to be perfectly limpid and free from microzymes (referring to bacteria)."}} </blockquote>From his experiments, Burdon-Sanderson believed that decomposition or putrefaction was caused by bacteria, and not by moulds. He applied the ''Penicillium'' mould on dissected thigh muscles from a guinea pig and left them in bell jars. After two weeks tissues in sterilised jars and with ''Penicillium'' mould did not show signs of rotting. These experiments indicate that the mould had antibacterial activity, but Burdon-Sanderson failed to notice the importance of this finding.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Selwyn|first=S.|date=1979|title=Pioneer work on the ‘penicillin phenomenon’, 1870–1876|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jac/5.3.249|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1093/jac/5.3.249}}</ref> Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted [[w:Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], an English surgeon and the father of modern [[w:antisepsis|antisepsis]], to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also prevented the growth of bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Majno|first=Guido|last2=Joris|first2=Isabelle|date=1979|title=Billroth and Penicillium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4452384|journal=Reviews of Infectious Diseases|volume=1|issue=5|pages=880–884|doi=10.1093/clinids/1.5.880}}</ref> Lister identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium glaucum|Penicillium glaucum]]'' and found that most bacteria could not grow alongside this mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lister|first=Joseph|date=1875|title=XVI.— A Contribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other Fermentative Changes, and to the Natural History of Torulæ and Bacteria|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0080456800026004/type/journal_article|journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=313–344|doi=10.1017/S0080456800026004}}</ref> He also described the antibacterial action of the mould on human tissue.<ref name=":21" /> In 1877, he treated Ellen Jones, a nurse at [[w:King's College Hospital|King's College Hospital]], whose wounds did not respond to any traditional antiseptic. The nurse was cured when a crude extract of ''P. glaucum'' culture was applied to her wounds. Uncertain of the nature and effect of the mould, Lister did not published his observations.<ref name=":1" /> In 1873, Welsh physician [[w:William Roberts (physician)|William Roberts]], who later coined the term "[[w:enzyme|enzyme]]", also conducted experiments on spontaneous generation and observed that glass tubes were easily contaminated by airborne bacteria and moulds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443/|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref> In his 1874 report in the ''[[w:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', he stated: "I have repeatedly observed that liquids in which the ''Penicillum glaucum'' was growing luxuriantly could with difficulty be artificially infected with ''Bacteria''; it seemed, in fact, as if this fungus played the part of the plants in an aquarium, and held in check the growth of ''Bacteria,'' with their attendant putrefactive changes."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=W.|date=1874|title=Studies on biogenesis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/109106|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=164|pages=457–477|doi=10.1098/rstl.1874.0012}}</ref> This is regarded as "the first unequivocal published statement" on antibacterial activity of any substance.<ref name=":1" /> [[w:John Tyndall|John Tyndall]], professor of physics at the [[w:Royal Institution of Great Britain|Royal Institution of Great Britain]], followed up on Roberts's work on refutation of spontaneous generation and demonstrated in 1875 the antibacterial action of the ''P. glaucum''. His report, read before the Royal Society in 1876 (and published as a monograph in 1881),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doetsch|first=R. N.|date=1963|title=Studies on biogenesis by Sir William Roberts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14028366|journal=Medical History|volume=7|pages=232–240|doi=10.1017/s0025727300028374|pmc=1034828|pmid=14028366}}</ref> stated:<blockquote>[The] two most actively charged tubes were in part crowned by beautiful tufts of Penicilllum Glaucum. This expanded gradually until it covered the entire surface with a thick tough layer, which must have seriously intercepted the oxygen necessary to the Bacterial life. The bacteria lost their translatory power, fell to the bottom, and left the liquid between them and the superficial layer clear.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Landsberg|first=H.|date=1949|title=Prelude to the discovery of penicillin|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/227238|journal=Isis|volume=40|issue=3|pages=225–227|doi=10.1086/349043}}</ref></blockquote> In 1876, German biologist [[w:Robert Koch|Robert Koch]] discovered that ''[[w:Bacillus anthracis|Bacillus anthracis]]'' was the causative pathogen of [[w:anthrax|anthrax]];<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|trans-title=The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}</ref> it was the first time a specific bacterium was proved to cause a specific disease, and the first direct evidence of the [[w:Germ theory of diseases|germ theory of diseases]].<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}</ref> A year later, French biologists [[w:Louis Pasteur|Louis Pasteur]] and Jules Francois Joubert observed that, when contaminated with moulds, cultures of the anthrax bacilli could be successfully inhibited.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=G.|date=2016|title=La Moisissure et la Bactérie: Deconstructing the fable of the discovery of penicillin by Ernest Duchesne|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/21810|journal=Endeavour|volume=40|issue=3|pages=188–200|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.07.005|pmid=27496372|vauthors=Shama G}}</ref> They reported their findings in the ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences'':<blockquote>Neutral or slightly alkaline urine is an excellent medium for the bacteria... But if when the urine is inoculated with these bacteria an aerobic organism, for example one of the "common bacteria," is sown at the same time, the anthrax bacterium makes little or no growth and sooner or later dies out altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the same phenomenon is seen in the body even of those animals most susceptible to anthrax, leading to the astonishing result that anthrax bacteria can be introduced in profusion into an animal, which yet does not develop the disease; it is only necessary to add some "common 'bacteria" at the same time to the liquid containing the suspension of anthrax bacteria. These facts perhaps justify the highest hopes for therapeutics.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=Howard W.|date=1946|title=The Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2602034/|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=19|issue=1|pages=101–118.1|pmc=2602034|pmid=20275724}}</ref></blockquote>The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named as "antibiosis" by French biologist [[w:Jean Paul Vuillemin|Jean Paul Vuillemin]] in 1877<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Brunel|first=J.|date=1951|title=Antibiosis from Pasteur to Fleming|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14873929|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=287–301|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.287|pmid=14873929}}</ref> (the term antibiosis, meaning "against life", was adopted as "[[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]]" by American biologist and later Nobel laureate [[w:Selman Waksman|Selman Waksman]] in 1947<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waksman|first=S. A.|date=1947|title=What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541|journal=Mycologia|volume=39|issue=5|pages=565–569|doi=10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635|pmid=20264541}}</ref>). It has also been asserted that Pasteur identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium notatum|Penicillium notatum]]''. However, [[w:Paul de Kruif|Paul de Kruif]]'s 1926 ''Microbe Hunters'' disagrees, describing this incident as contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kruif|first=Paul De|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&id=pH24vLpivRgC&q|title=Microbe Hunters|date=1996|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602777-9|location=Florida (USA)|pages=144|language=en|quote=At once Pasteur jumped to a fine idea: "If the harmless bugs from the air choke out the anthrax bacilli in the bottle, they will do it in the body too! It is a kind of dog-eat-dog!” shouted Pasteur, (...) Pasteur gravely announced: "That there were high hopes for the cure of disease from this experiment", but that is the last you hear of it, for Pasteur was never a man to give the world of science the benefit of studying his failures.|orig-year=1926}}</ref> Ten years later, in 1887, Swiss physician [[w:Carl Garré|Carl Alois Philipp Garré]] developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results.<ref name=":15" /> Using a gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently; and reported:<blockquote>I inoculated on the untouched cooled [gelatin] plate alternate parallel strokes of ''B. fluorescens'' [''[[w:Pseudomonas fluorescens|Pseudomonas fluorescens]]''] and ''Staph. pyogenes'' [''[[w:Streptococcus pyogenes|Streptococcus pyogenes]]'' ]... B. fluorescens grew more quickly... [This] is not a question of overgrowth or crowding out of one by another quicker-growing species, as in a garden where luxuriantly growing weeds kill the delicate plants. Nor is it due to the utilization of the available foodstuff by the more quickly growing organisms, rather there is an antagonism caused by the secretion of specific, easily diffusible substances which are inhibitory to the growth of some species but completely ineffective against others.<ref name=":17" /></blockquote>At the [[w:University of Naples|University of Naples]], in 1895, physician [[w:Vincenzo Tiberio|Vincenzo Tiberio]] published his research about moulds initially found in a water well in [[w:Arzano|Arzano]].<ref>Tiberio, Vincenzo (1895) [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA24 "Sugli estratti di alcune muffe"] [On the extracts of certain moulds], ''Annali d'Igiene Sperimentale'' (Annals of Experimental Hygiene), 2nd series, '''5''' : 91–103. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false From p. 95:] ''"Risulta chiaro da queste osservazioni che nella sostanza cellulare delle muffe esaminate son contenuti dei principi solubili in acqua, forniti di azione battericida: sotto questo riguardo sono più attivi o in maggior copia quelli dell' ''Asp. flavescens'', meno quelli del ''Mu. mucedo'' e del ''Penn. glaucum''."'' (It follows clearly from these observations that in the cellular substance of the moulds examined are contained some water-soluble substances, provided with bactericidal action: in this respect are more active or in greater abundance those of ''Aspergillus flavescens''; less, those of ''Mucor mucedo'' and ''Penicillium glaucum''.)</ref> He noticed that whenever the moulds on the wall of the well was cleaned, many people had abdominal pain due to infection ([[w:Enteritis|enteritis]]), which was unheard of when the well was mouldy. He believed that there was a link between the infection and the mould.<ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Perciaccante|first=Antonio|last2=Coralli|first2=Alessia|last3=Lippi|first3=Donatella|last4=Appenzeller|first4=Otto|last5=Bianucci|first5=Raffaella|date=2019|title=Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31154612|journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine|volume=14|issue=8|pages=1363–1364|doi=10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1|pmid=31154612}}</ref> After identifying different moulds from the well, he found that ''Penicilium'' and ''Aspergillus'' could kill certain bacteria including ''[[w:Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholerae]]'', and some staphylococci strains.<ref name="Bucci">{{Cite journal|last=Bucci|first=Roberto|last2=Galli|first2=P.|date=2011|title=Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.8253&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Italian Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=404–406}}</ref> From his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action.<ref name="Bucci" /> However, his findings did not receive any attention until the discovery of penicillin.<ref name=":29" /> [[file:Penicillium rubens (Fleming's strain).png|thumb|Fleming's mould, ''Penicillium rubens'' CBS 205.57. A–C. Colonies 7 d old 25 °C. A. CYA. B. MEA. C. YES. D–H. Condiophores. I. Conidia. Bars = 10 µm. {{attrib|[https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] French medical student [[w:Ernest Duchesne|Ernest Duchesne]] at École du Service de Santé Militaire (Military Service Health School) in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of ''P. glaucum.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kyle|first=R. A.|date=2005|title=Five decades of therapy for multiple myeloma: a paradigm for therapeutic models|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15800669|journal=Leukemia|volume=19|issue=6|pages=910–912|doi=10.1038/sj.leu.2403728|pmid=15800669}}</ref> He was able to grow the mould on pieces of moist food. When he mixed the mould with the bacterium ''[[w:Escherichia coli|Escherichia coli]]'', he found that the bacteria did not grow, and when he injected the mould juice into guinea pigs experimentally inoculated with [[w:typhoid|typhoid]] bacteria (''[[w:Salmonella enterica|Salmonella enterica]]''), the animals never developed the disease.<ref name=":26">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cIZpyNvjvdcC&newbks=0&hl|title=Explorers of the Body: Dramatic Breakthroughs in Medicine from Ancient Times to Modern Science|last=Lehrer|first=Steven|date=2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595407316|edition=2|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|pages=331-332|language=en|orig-year=1979}}</ref> He described the experiment in his 1897 doctoral dissertation titled ''Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les microorganismes'' (''Contribution to the study of vital competition between microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes'') submitted to the [[w:Pasteur Institute|Pasteur Institute]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1|title=Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes : antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes|last=Duchesne|first=E|vauthors=Duchesne E|date=1897|publisher=Alexandre Rey|location=Lyon, France|language=fr|trans-title=Contribution to the study of the vital competition in microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pouillard|first=Jean|title=Une découverte oubliée : la thèse de médecine du docteur Ernest Duchesne (1874–1912)|trans-title=A Forgotten Discovery : Doctor of Medicine Ernest Duchesne's Thesis (1874-1912)|url=http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|journal=Histoire des Sciences Médicales|language=fr|volume=XXXVI|issue=1|pages=11–20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713144835/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2019|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Unfortunately, his discovery was ignored by the institute and soon forgotten. It was not until 50 years later when a librarian found the thesis, once penicillin had already been discovered.<ref name=":27">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbO4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Natural Products in the Chemical Industry|last1=Schaefer|first1=B.|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642544613|page=231|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54461-3}}</ref> Duchesne could not continue his experiments due to a severe illness (believed to be [[w:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]]) he contracted five years later. He died in 1912 while serving in the French Army.<ref name=":26" /> He was himself using moulds to treat horses, a method learned from Arab stable boys to cure animals' sores; but he did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that it somehow protected the animals.<ref name=":14" /> His conclusion was nonetheless prognostic, stating that competition between bacteria and moulds could be useful in the medical management of infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckett|first=S.|date=1999|title=Ernest Duchesne and the concept of fungal antibiotic therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673699031621|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9195|pages=2068–2071|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)03162-1}}</ref> Penicillin does not cure typhoid as it is ineffective against most Gram-negative bacteria<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080912837001053|title=Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry|last=Luengo|first=José M.|date=1999|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-091283-7|editor-last=Barton|editor-first=D.|pages=239–274|language=en|chapter=Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillins|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091283-7.00105-3|editor-last2=Nakanishi|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Meth-Cohn|editor-first3=O.}}</ref> and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible for Duchesne's cure.{{efn|At the time, the term ''Penicillium glaucum'' was used as a catch-all phrase for a variety of different fungi, though not for ''Penicillium notatum''. Duchesne's specific mold was unfortunately not preserved, which makes it impossible to be certain today which fungus might have been responsible for the cure and, consequently, even less certain which specific antibacterial substance was responsible.}} A similar antibiotic effect of ''Penicillium'' was recorded in 1923 by [[w:Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]n [[w:Clodomiro Picado Twight|Clodomiro Picado Twight]], a Pasteur Institute scientist. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' were non-specifically referred to as ''P. glaucum'', so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth.<ref name=":14" /> The first to discover and isolate an antibiotic compound from ''Penicillium'' was an Italian physician [[w:Bartolomeo Gosio|Bartolomeo Gosio]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Johan T.|date=2009|title=The First Discoverers of Penicillin and of its Application in Therapy|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x|journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=126|issue=1|pages=60–64|doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x}}</ref> Gosio was investigating [[w:Pellagra|pellagra]], which at the time was a common disease in southern Europe and America. It was known that the staple food of people having the disease was corn, and fungal contamination of corn was regarded as the source (American biochemist [[w:Conrad Elvehjem|Conrad Elvehjem]] would identify in 1937 its aetiology as the deficiency of [[w:Niacin|niacin]] or vitamin B₃.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elvehjem|first=C. A.|date=1940|title=Relation of nicotinic acid to pellagra|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249|journal=Physiological Reviews|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=249–271|doi=10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249}}</ref>) In 1893, Gosio identified the mould ''[[w:Penicillium brevicompactum|Penicillium brevicompactum]]'' as one possible cause,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sydenstricker|first=V. P.|date=1958|title=The history of pellagra, its recognition as a disorder of nutrition and its conquest|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13559167|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=6|issue=4|pages=409–414|doi=10.1093/ajcn/6.4.409|pmid=13559167}}</ref> developed a simple culture method to make pure culture extract in crystalline form.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/82_2016_499|title=How to Overcome the Antibiotic Crisis|last=Mohr|first=Kathrin I.|date=2016|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-49282-7|editor-last=Stadler|editor-first=Marc|volume=398|location=Cham|pages=237–272|chapter=History of Antibiotics Research|doi=10.1007/82_2016_499|editor-last2=Dersch|editor-first2=Petra}}</ref> In 1896, he tested the substance on anthrax bacillus and found that it was highly potent against the bacteria.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTXooAEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ricerche batteriologiche e chimiche sulle alterazioni del mais: contributo all'etiologia della pellagra|last=Gosio|first=Bartolomeo|date=1896|publisher=Tip. delle mantellate|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=Kyriacos C.|last2=Rigol|first2=Stephan|date=2018|title=A brief history of antibiotics and select advances in their synthesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28676714|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=71|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1038/ja.2017.62|pmid=28676714}}</ref> Nonetheless, his discovery was largely forgotten as the substance was found not to be the cause of pellagra, and its medicinal potential was not obvious. American scientists, Carl Alsberg and Otis Fisher Black resynthesized Gosio's substance in 1912 giving it the name [[w:Mycophenolic acid|mycophenolic acid]], which is now used as an [[w:Immunosuppressant|immunosuppressant]].<ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halle|first=Mahesh B.|last2=Lee|first2=Woohyun|last3=Yudhistira|first3=Tesla|last4=Kim|first4=Myungseob|last5=Churchill|first5=David G.|date=2019|title=Mycophenolic Acid: Biogenesis, Compound Isolation, Biological Activity, and Historical Advances in Total Synthesis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ejoc.201900245|journal=European Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=2019|issue=13|pages=2315–2334|doi=10.1002/ejoc.201900245}}</ref> In 1924, Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the [[w:Free University of Brussels (1834–1969)|Free University of Brussels]], Belgium, found that dead ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'' cultures were contaminated by a mould, a [[w:streptomycete|streptomycete]]. On further experimentation, they showed that the mould extract could kill not only ''S. aureus'', but also ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[w:Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' and ''Escherichia coli''.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=2000|title=André Gratia (1893–1950): Forgotten Pioneer of Research into Antimicrobial Agents|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096777200000800108|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=39–42|doi=10.1177/096777200000800108|pmid=11608911|s2cid=43285911}}</ref> Gratia called the antibacterial agent "mycolysate" (killer mould). The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit anthrax bacterium (''B. anthracis''). Reporting in ''Comptes Rendus Des Séances de La Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales'', they identified the mould as ''Penicillium glaucum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Scoville|first1=C|last2=Brouwer|first2=C De|last3=Dujardin|first3=M|date=1999|title=Nobel chronicle: Fleming and Gratia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673605663349|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9174|page=258|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66334-9|pmid=10421340|s2cid=11659394}}</ref> In 1927, Gratia reported its medical use:<blockquote>A poor patient who during three years had suffered from [[w:Furuncles|furuncles]] [infection by ''S. aureus''], in spite of all treatments, was sent to us in despair. Jaumain did not hesitate to continue the treatment by a series of injections of the mycolysat. The result was remarkable. Not only was the recovery rapid, but it is now three years that [''sic''] this recovery continues without the slightest relapse. Since that time we have given the mycolysat to a very large number of cases. It is the most effective treatment even of the most resistant types of staphylococcic diseases.<ref name=":22" /></blockquote>Unfortunately, as in the case of Duchesne, these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical values were not fully understood; moreover, Gratia's samples were lost.<ref name=":8" /> ==The breakthrough discovery== ===Background === [[file:Professor Alexander Fleming at work in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London, during the Second World War. D17801.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London. {{attrib|Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer|[[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin as we know it today was "accidentally" discovered by the Scottish physician [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fraser|first=I.|date=1984|title=Penicillin: early trials in war casualties|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6440621|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=289|issue=6460|pages=1723–1725|doi=10.1136/bmj.289.6460.1723|pmc=1444789|pmid=6440621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20120325/penicillin-an-accidental-discovery-changed-the-course-of-medicine|title=Penicillin: An accidental discovery changed the course of medicine|last=Eickhoff|first=Theodore C.|date=2008|website=Endocrine Today|access-date=2021-10-10}}</ref> While working at [[w:St Mary's Hospital, London|St Mary's Hospital, London]], Fleming was investigating the pattern of variation in ''S. aureus'' (Figures 2 and 3).<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=K.|date=2020|title=Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould|journal=Science Vision|volume=20|issue=1|pages=29–42|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.03|doi-access=free|vauthors=Lalchhandama K}}</ref> He was inspired by the recent discovery by the Irish physician [[w:Joseph Warwick Bigger|Joseph Warwick Bigger]] and his two students C.R. Boland and R.A.Q. O’Meara at the [[w:Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College, Dublin]], Ireland, in 1927''.'' Bigger and his students found that a particular strain of ''S. aureus'' (designated "Y") that they isolated a year before from the pus of an axillary abscess (boil on the armpit) from one individual grew into a variety of strains. They published their discovery as "Variant colonies of ''Staphylococcus aureus"'' in ''[[w:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology]],'' by concluding: <blockquote>We were surprised and rather disturbed to find, on a number of plates, various types of colonies which differed completely from the typical ''aureus'' colony. Some of these were quite white; some, either white or of the usual colour were rough on the surface and with crenated margins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bigger|first=Joseph W.|last2=Boland|first2=C. R.|last3=O'meara|first3=R. A. Q.|date=1927|title=Variant colonies ofStaphylococcus aureus|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700300204|journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=261–269|doi=10.1002/path.1700300204}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming and his research scholar Daniel Merlin Pryce pursued this experiment but Pryce was transferred to another laboratory in early 1928. Their experiment had been successful and Fleming was planning and agreed to write a report in the compendium ''A System of Bacteriology'' to be published by the [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] at the end of that year.<ref name=":02" /> === Initial discovery === In August, Fleming spent a vacation with his family at his country home The Dhoon at [[w:Barton Mills|Barton Mills]], Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory (Figures 3 & 4), he inoculated several culture plates with ''S. aureus.'' He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight to allow proper growth of the bacteria. There are two versions of the reason he returned to his laboratory during the vacation. According to some sources, he was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the [[w:St Mary's Hospital Medical School|St Mary's Hospital Medical School]] and had to officially join on Saturday 1 September 1928. The next Monday he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last=Diggins|first=F.W.|date=1999|title=The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature|journal=British Journal of Biomedical Science|volume=56|issue=2|pages=83–93|pmid=10695047|vauthors=Diggins FW}} </ref> Alternative sources say that he went to London "on a flying visit" to help a colleague with the treatment of [[w:Bacillus cereus|haemolytic bacillus]]. It was while waiting for the colleague that he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/S0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933|vauthors=Hare R}}</ref><ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Wyn Jones|first=Emyr|last2=Wyn Jones|first2=R. Gareth|date=2002|title=Merlin Pryce (1902-1976) and penicillin: an abiding mystery|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12713008|journal=Vesalius|volume=8|issue=2|pages=6–25|pmid=12713008}}</ref> At the laboratory, Pryce paid him a visit and found him sorting out the Petri dishes. He and Pryce noticed one culture plate with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming commented as he watched the plate: "That's funny."<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last=Wainright|first=M.|date=1993|title=The mystery of the plate: Fleming's discovery and contribution to the early development of penicillin|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|volume=1|issue=1|pages=59–65|doi=10.1177/096777209300100113|pmid=11639213|vauthors=Wainwright M|s2cid=7578843}}</ref> Pryce remarked to Fleming: "That's how you discovered [[w:lysozyme|lysozyme]]."<ref name=":28" /> === Experiment === [[file:Flemming laboratory (3).JPG|thumb|St Mary's Hospital showing Fleming's lab (on the second floor) and Praed Street, from where Fleming alleged the mould came from. {{attrib|[[w:User:Vera de Kok|Vera de Kok]]|[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] Fleming went off to resume his vacation and returned to his laboratory late in September.<ref name=":02" /> He collected the original mould and grew it in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He later recounted his experience: <blockquote>When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Siang Yong|last2=Tatsumura|first2=Yvonne|date=2015|title=Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=56|issue=7|pages=366–367|doi=10.11622/smedj.2015105|pmc=4520913|pmid=26243971}}</ref></blockquote> He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth, and he produced a culture broth of the mould and subsequently concentrated the antibacterial component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arseculeratne|first=S. N.|last2=Arseculeratne|first2=G.|date=2017|title=A re-appraisal of the conventional history of antibiosis and Penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28144986|journal=Mycoses|volume=60|issue=5|pages=343–347|doi=10.1111/myc.12599|pmid=28144986}}</ref> After testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only specific bacteria. For example, Gram-positive bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus'', ''[[w:Streptococcus|Streptococcus]]'', and diphtheria bacillus (''[[w:Corynebacterium diphtheriae|Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') were easily killed; but there was no effect on Gram-negative species like typhoid bacterium (''[[w:Salmonella typhimurium|Salmonella typhimurium]]'') and influenza bacillus (''[[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Haemophilus influenzae]]''). He prepared a large-culture method from which he could obtain large amounts of the mould juice. On 7 March 1929, he coined the name "penicillin" for the mould extract,<ref name=":5" /> explaining the reason as "to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'Mould broth filtrate', the name 'penicillin' will be used."<ref name="pmid69942002">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprinted as {{cite journal|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref> In his Nobel lecture, he gave a further explanation: <blockquote>I have been frequently asked why I invented the name "Penicillin". I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus ''Penicillium'' just as many years ago the word "[[w:Digitalin|Digitalin]]" was invented for a substance derived from the plant ''Digitalis''.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/fleming-lecture.pdf|title=Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine, 1942-1962|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1999|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-3411-9|location=Singapore|pages=83–93|language=en|chapter=Penicillin: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1945}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming had no training in chemistry so that he left all the chemical works to his new research scholar Stuart Craddock, who joined him in December;<ref name=":2" /> he once remarked: "I am a bacteriologist, not a chemist."<ref name=":02" /> In January 1929, Fleming recruited his former research scholar Frederick Ridley, who had studied biochemistry, to study the chemical properties of the mould.<ref name=":3" /> However,a fucker both Craddock and Ridley left Fleming for other jobs before completing the experiments and isolating penicillin.<ref name=":5" /> Their failure to isolate the compound resulted in Fleming practically abandoning further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Kristin | name-list-style = vanc |date=2019|title=Fleming vs. Florey: It All Comes Down to the Mold|url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/the_histories/vol2/iss1/3|journal=The Histories|volume=2|issue=1|pages=3–10}}</ref> Nonetheless, he continued doing biological tests up to 1939.<ref name=":5" /> === Identification of the mould === [[File:Penicillium rubens (type specimen).png|thumb|''Penicillium rubens'' (type specimen). {{attrib| [https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a matter of speculation for several decades. The [[w:Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry]] believed that it came from a cup of coffee which Fleming left on the table.<ref name=":27" /> In 1945, Fleming himself suggested that the fungal spores came through the window facing [[w:Praed Street|Praed Street]]. This story was regarded as a reliable explanation and was popularised in the literature,<ref name=":2" /> starting with George Lacken's 1945 book ''The Story of Penicillin''.<ref name=":5" /> But it was later disputed by his co-workers, particularly Pryce, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut all the time.<ref name=":28" /> Ronald Hare also agreed in 1970 that the window remain locked as a large table in front of it made it difficult to open. In 1966, Charles John Patrick La Touche told Hare that he had given Fleming 13 specimens of fungi (10 from his lab) and only one from his lab was showing penicillin-like antibacterial activity.<ref name=":2" /> It was therefore concluded that Fleming's mould came from La Touche's lab, located a floor below, and the spores had drifted in the air through the open doors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Curry|first=J.|date=1981|title=Obituary: C. J. La Touche|journal=Sabouraudia|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|page=164|doi=10.1080/00362178185380261|vauthors=Curry J}}</ref> After a structural comparison with different species of ''Penicillium'', Fleming believed that his specimen was ''[[w:Penicillium chrysogenum|Penicillium chrysogenum]],'' a species described by the American microbiologist [[w:Charles Thom|Charles Thom]] in 1910. He was fortunate as Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had just recently joined as a [[w:mycologist|mycologist]] at St Mary's to investigate fungi as the cause of asthma.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingston|first=W.|date=2008|title=Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18347757|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|volume=177|issue=2|pages=87–92|doi=10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x|pmid=18347757}}</ref> La Touche identified the specimen as ''Penicillium rubrum,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henderson|first=J. W.|date=1997|title=The yellow brick road to penicillin: a story of serendipity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9212774|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=72|issue=7|pages=683–687|doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)63577-5|pmid=9212774}}</ref> the identification used by Fleming in his publication of the discovery.<ref name="pmid6994200" /> In 1931, Thom re-examined different species of ''Penicillium'' including that of Fleming's specimen. He came to a confusing conclusion, stating: "Ad. 35 [Fleming's specimen] is ''P. notatum'' WESTLING. This is a member of the ''P. chrysogenum'' series with smaller conidia than ''P. chrysogenum'' itself."<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Thom C |date=1931|title=Appendix. History of species used and Dr. Thom's diagnoses of species|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character|language=en|volume=220|issue=468–473|pages=83–92|doi=10.1098/rstb.1931.0015|doi-access=free}}</ref> From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as ''P. chrysogenum'' and ''P. notatum,'' a species discovered by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. But Thom adopted and popularised the use of ''P. chrysogenum.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thom |first=Charles | name-list-style = vanc |date=1945|title=Mycology Presents Penicillin|journal=Mycologia|volume=37|issue=4|pages=460–475|doi=10.2307/3754632|jstor=3754632}}</ref>'' Adding to the controversial taxonomy, newly discovered species such as ''P. meleagrinum'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum'' were recognised as members of ''P. chrysogenum'' in 1977''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samson|first=R. A.|last2=Hadlok|first2=R.|last3=Stolk|first3=A. C.|date=1977|title=A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/413477|journal=Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek|volume=43|issue=2|pages=169–175|doi=10.1007/BF00395671|pmid=413477}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 2005, the Seventeenth [[w:International Botanical Congress|International Botanical Congress]] held in Vienna, Austria, formally adopted the name ''P. chrysogenum'' as the conserved name (''[[w:nomen conservandum|nomen conservandum]]'') for all related ''Penicilium'' species''.''<ref>{{cite web | date=2006|title=International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE). Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda. B. Fungi|url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/icbn/main.htm|access-date=17 June 2020|website=International Association of Plant Taxonomy}}</ref> In 2011, whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|P. rubens]]'' (Figure 5)'','' a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923, and that ''P. chrysogenum'' is a different species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=Jos|last2=Frisvad|first2=Jens C.|last3=Samson|first3=Robert A.|date=2011|title=Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22679592|journal=IMA fungus|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–95|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12|pmc=3317369|pmid=22679592}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=J.|last2=Frisvad|first2=J. C.|last3=Seifert|first3=K. A.|last4=Overy|first4=D. P.|last5=Tuthill|first5=D. M.|last6=Valdez|first6=J. G.|last7=Samson|first7=R. A.|date=2012|title=New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23606767|journal=Persoonia|volume=29|pages=78–100|doi=10.3767/003158512X660571|pmc=3589797|pmid=23606767}}</ref> === Reception and publication === Initially, Fleming's discovery was not considered important, and as he showed to his his colleagues, all he received was an indifferent response. He described the discovery on 13 February 1929 before the [[w:Medical Research Club|Medical Research Club]] but his presentation titled "A medium for the isolation of [[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Pfeiffer's bacillus]]" did not receive any particular attention.<ref name=":02" /> In May 1929, Fleming reported his findings to the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'' whch published them in the next month's issue.<ref name="pmid6994200">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprint of {{cite journal|vauthors=Fleming A|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> It failed to attract any serious attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application and was more concerned about the application for bacterial isolation, as he concluded: <blockquote>In addition to its possible use in the treatment of bacterial infections penicillin is certainly useful to the bacteriologist for its power of inhibiting unwanted microbes in bacterial cultures so that penicillin insensitive bacteria can readily be isolated. A notable instance of this is the very easy, isolation of Pfeiffers bacillus of influenza when penicillin is used...It is suggested that it may be an efficient antiseptic for application to, or injection into, areas infected with penicillin-sensitive microbes.<ref name="pmid6994200" /></blockquote> G. E. Breen, a fellow member of the [[w:Chelsea Arts Club|Chelsea Arts Club]], once asked Fleming: "I just wanted you to tell me whether you think it will ever be possible to make practical use of the stuff [penicillin]. For instance, could I use it?" Fleming gazed vacantly for a moment and then replied: "I don't know. It's too unstable. It will have to be purified, and I can't do that by myself."<ref name=":02" /> Even as late as in 1941, the ''[[w:The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' reported that "the main facts emerging from a very comprehensive study [of penicillin] in which a large team of workers is engaged... does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Annotations | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4208 | pages = 310–2 | date = August 1941 | pmid = 20783842 | pmc = 2162429 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4208.310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A.|date=1941|title=Penicillin|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4210|page=386|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4210.386|pmc=2162878|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref>{{efn|The statement "does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view" seems to be later deleted, but is still apparent from Fleming's response (''BMJ'', 1941, '''2''' (4210): 386–386).}} ==Isolation == In 1933, [[w:Ernst Boris Chain|Ernst Boris Chain]], a chemist of Jewish-German origin, joined Australian scientist [[w:Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] (later Baron Florey) at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the [[w:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] in 1936 to investigate antibiotics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|date=1972|title=Thirty years of penicillin therapy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4551373|journal=Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London|volume=6|issue=2|pages=103–131|pmc=5366029|pmid=4551373}}</ref> Florey assigned him to work on lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme discovered by Fleming in 1922.<ref name=":24">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A|year=1922|title=On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=93|issue=653|pages=306–317|bibcode=1922RSPSB..93..306F|doi=10.1098/rspb.1922.0023|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1938, he came across Fleming's 1929 paper while writing a research report and informed his supervisor of the potential medical benefits of penicillin.<ref name=":10" /> Although a year before, Florey had concentrated on [[w:Pyocyanase|pyocyanase]] (a pigment from the bacterium ''Bacillus pycyaneus,'' now called ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''), he agreed with Chain that penicillin was medically more promising.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|date=1944|title=The discovery of the chemotherapeutic properties of penicillin|url=https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033|journal=British Medical Bulletin|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033}}</ref> In 1939, Florey and Chain obtained a research grant of $25,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation to study antibiotics,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=H. W.|last2=Abraham|first2=E. P.|date=1951|title=The work on penicillin at Oxford|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24619871|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=302–317|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.302}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Kok-Fai|last2=Schneper|first2=Lisa|last3=Mathee|first3=Kalai|date=2010|title=Beta-lactam antibiotics: from antibiosis to resistance and bacteriology|journal=Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica|volume=118|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02563.x|pmc=2894812|pmid=20041868}}</ref> which allowed them to assemble a research team composed of [[w:Edward Abraham|Edward Abraham]], [[w:Arthur Duncan Gardner|Arthur Duncan Gardner]], [[w:Norman Heatley|Norman Heatley]], [[w:Margaret Jennings (scientist)|Margaret Jennings]], J. Orr-Ewing and G. Sanders.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=David S.|last2=Jones|first2=John H.|date=2014-12-01|title=Sir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999|url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=60|pages=5–22|doi=10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002|issn=0080-4606|doi-access=free|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Landmark">{{cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin|work=International Historic Chemical Landmarks|publisher=American Chemical Society|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> The Oxford team soon prepared a concentrated extract of ''P. rubens'' as "a brown powder" that "has been obtained which is freely soluble in water".<ref name=":9" /> They found that the powder was not only effective ''in vitro'' against bacterial cultures but also and ''[[w:in vivo|in vivo]]'' against bacterial infection in mice. On 5 May 1939, they injected a group of eight mice with a virulent strain of ''S. aureus'', and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. After one day, all the untreated mice died while the penicillin-treated mice survived; "a miracle" in Chain's view.<ref name=":10" /> The team published its findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1940.<ref name=":9" /> The team reported details of the isolation method in 1941 with a scheme for large-scale extraction. They also found that penicillin was most abundant as a yellow concentrate from the mould extract,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Fletcher|first3=C. M.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Gardner|first5=A. D.|last6=Heatley|first6=N. G.|last7=Jennings|first7=M. A.|date=1992|title=Further observations on penicillin. 1941|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1541313|journal=European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=3–9|pmid=1541313}}</ref> but it was able to produce only small quantities. By the early 1942, they could prepare highly purified compound,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1942|title=Purification of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149328b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3777|pages=328|doi=10.1038/149328b0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..328A|s2cid=4122059}}</ref> and derived the empirical chemical formula as C₂₄H₃₂O₁₀N₂Ba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Baker|first2=W.|last3=Chain|first3=E.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Holiday|first5=E. R.|last6=Robinson|first6=R.|date=1942|title=Nitrogenous Character of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149356a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3778|pages=356|doi=10.1038/149356a0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..356A|s2cid=4055617}}</ref> In the June 1942 issue of the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'', Chain, Abraham and E. R. Holiday reported the production of the pure compound concluding that:<blockquote>The penicillin preparation described in this paper is the most powerful antibacterial agent with predominantly bacteriostatic action so far known. Though it has not yet been obtained crystalline there are indications that it possesses a considerable degree of purity... The unusual biological properties of penicillin are linked with an exceptionally unstable chemical configuration. Inactivation by acid, alkali, and by boiling at any pH has been shown to be accompanied by definite chemical changes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Holiday|first3=E. R.|date=1942|title=Purification and Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2065494/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=23|issue=3|pages=103–119|pmc=2065494}}</ref></blockquote> == First medical use == In  January  1929,  Fleming performed the first clinical trial with penicillin on his assistant Craddock. Craddock had developed a severe infection of the [[w:nasal antrum|nasal antrum]] ([[w:sinusitis|sinusitis]]) for which he had undergone surgery. Fleming made use of the surgical opening of the nasal passage and started injecting penicillin on 9 January. Craddock showed no sign of improvement, probably because the infection was caused by influenza bacillus (''Haemophilus influenzae''), the bacterium which he had found not susceptible to penicillin.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/s0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933}}</ref> It seems that Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wainwright|first1=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1987|title=The Sheffield penicillin story|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X87800228|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=28–30|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(87)80022-8}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1990|title=Besredka's "antivirus" in relation to Fleming's initial views on the nature of penicillin|url= |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300050286 |pmc=1036002 |pmid=2405221}}</ref> Although Wright reportedly said that it: "seemed to work satisfactorily,"<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M|date=1987|title=The history of the therapeutic use of crude penicillin. |journal=Medical History |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300046305|pmc=1139683|pmid=3543562}}</ref> there are no records of its specific use. In November 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], was the first to use penicillin for medical treatment successfully.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|language=en|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763}}</ref> He was a former student of Fleming who, after learning about penicillin, requested a sample from Fleming.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dr Cecil George Paine - Unsung Medical Heroes - Blackwell's Bookshop Online|url=https://blackwells.co.uk/jsp/promo/umh.jsp?action=more&id=18|access-date=2020-10-19|website=blackwells.co.uk}}</ref> He initially attempted to treat [[w:sycosis|sycosis]] (eruptions in beard follicles). On 25 November, he then tried it successfully with four patients (one adult, the others infants) who had [[w:ophthalmia neonatorum|ophthalmia neonatorum]], an inflammation of the eye due to infection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1986|title=C.G. Paine and the earliest surviving clinical records of penicillin therapy|journal=Medical History|volume=30|issue=1|pages=42–56|doi=10.1017/S0025727300045026|pmc=1139580|pmid=3511336|vauthors=}}</ref> Thus, penicillin first worked on an eye infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alharbi|first1=Sulaiman Ali|last2=Wainwright|first2=Milton|last3=Alahmadi|first3=Tahani Awad|last4=Salleeh|first4=Hashim Bin|last5=Faden|first5=Asmaa A.|last6=Chinnathambi|first6=Arunachalam|date=2014|title=What if Fleming had not discovered penicillin?|url= |journal=Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=289–293|doi=10.1016/j.sjbs.2013.12.007|pmc=4150221|pmid=25183937}}</ref> Nine years later, the Oxford team showed that ''Penicillium'' extract killed different bacteria (''Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,'' and ''Clostridium septique'') in culture and effectively cured ''Streptococcus'' infection in mice.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> Thus, they reported their findings in the 24 August 1940 issue of ''The Lancet'' under the title "Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent" concluding: <blockquote>The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active ''in vivo'' against at least three of the organisms inhibited ''in vitro''. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution ''in vitro'' will be found to be dealt with ''in vivo''. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with [[w:gas gangrene|gas gangrene]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Chain|first1=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|last3=Adelaide|first3=M. B.|last4=Gardner|first4=A. D.|last5=Heatley|first5=N. G.|last6=Jennings|first6=M. A.|last7=Orr-Ewing|first7=J.|last8=Sanders|first8=A. G.|date=1940|title=Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8403666|journal=The Lancet|volume=236|issue=6104|pages=226–228|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)08728-1|pmid=8403666}}</ref></blockquote> The following year, the Oxford team treated a policeman, [[w:Albert Alexander (police officer)|Albert Alexander]], who had a severe facial infection; his condition improved, but he eventually died as the researchers ran out of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamdy|first=Ronald C.|date=2006|title=Penicillin is 65 years old!|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16509564/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=99|issue=2|pages=192–193|doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000194524.83293.0d|pmid=16509564}}</ref> Subsequently, several other patients were treated successfully,<ref name="SW2">{{cite web|year=2007|title=Making Penicillin Possible: Norman Heatley Remembers|url=http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221041204/http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-date=February 21, 2007|access-date=2007-02-13|work=ScienceWatch|publisher=Thomson Scientific}}</ref> among them the survivors of the [[w:Cocoanut Grove fire|Cocoanut Grove fire]] in Boston (December 1942) who were the first burn patients to be successfully treated with penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Camille L.|date=2015|title=The Fire at Cocoanut Grove:|url=https://academic.oup.com/jbcr/article/36/1/232-235/4568893|journal=Journal of Burn Care & Research|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=232–235|doi=10.1097/BCR.0000000000000111}}</ref> The most important clinical test took place in August 1942 when Fleming cured Harry Lambert (a work associate of Robert, Fleming's brother) of a fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045187004000184|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=58–64|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002|pmid=15175996}}</ref> Fleming asked Florey for a purified penicillin sample, which he immediately injected into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the next day,<ref name=":07">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref> and completely recovered within a week.<ref name=":42">{{Citation |last1=Bennett|first1=Joan W|title=Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin|date=2001|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065216401490137|journal=Advances in Applied Microbiology |volume=49 |pages=163–184 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49013-7 |isbn=978-0-12-002649-4|access-date=2020-10-17|last2=Chung|first2=King-Thom|pmid=11757350}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cairns|first1=H.|last2=Lewin|first2=W. S.|last3=Duthie|first3=E. S.|last4=Smith|first4=HonorV.|date=1944|title=Pneumococcal Meningitis Treated with Penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673600770851|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=243|issue=6299|pages=655–659|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)77085-1}}</ref> Fleming reported his findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1943.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1943|title=Streptococcal Meningitis treated With Penicillin.|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673600874528|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=242|issue=6267|pages=434–438|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)87452-8}}</ref> It was on this medical evidence that the British [[w:War Cabinet|War Cabinet]] set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943 formed by [[w:Cecil Weir|Cecil Weir]], Director General of Equipment, as Chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir [[w:Percival Hartley|Percival Hartley]], Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members.<ref name=":07"/> The establishment of the committee opened the door to the mass production of penicillin the next year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=John A.|date=2008|title=The Birth of the Biotechnology Era: Penicillin in Australia, 1943–80|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08109020802459306 |journal=Prometheus|volume=26|issue=4|pages=317–333|doi=10.1080/08109020802459306|s2cid=143123783}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Baldry|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvs8AAAAIAAJ|title=The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look|date=1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-21268-7|page=115|language=en}}</ref> == Mass production == [[file:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|The cantaloupe strain of ''Penicillum'' (''P. chrysogenum'' or ''P. notatum'') which is the best source of penicillins and was used in the first mass production in US. {{attrib| Crulina 98| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}}]] Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a confined laboratory, the Oxford team tried to persuade the war-torn British government and private companies to undertake mass production, but in vain.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|last=Andrew Carroll|date=2014-06-02|title=Here is Where: Penicillin Comes to Peoria|url=https://www.historynet.com/here-is-where-penicillin-comes-to-peoria.htm|access-date=2021-01-04|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US}}</ref> Florey and Heatley travelled to the United States (US) in June 1941 to persuade the American government and pharmaceutical companies there.<ref name="Chain">{{cite web|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628035235/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-date=28 June 2019|access-date=15 July 2019|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Ton ensure safe transportation of the sample, they smeared their coat pockets with the mould instead of taking it in a vial.<ref name=":10" /> In July, they met with [[w:Andrew Jackson Moyer|Andrew Jackson Moyer]] and Robert D. Coghill at the [[w:USDA|USDA]] Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL, now the [[w:National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research|National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research]]) in [[w:Peoria, Illinois|Peoria, Illinois]], where large-scale fermentations were done.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Neushul|first=P.|date=1993|title=Science, government, and the mass production of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8283024|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=48|issue=4|pages=371–395|doi=10.1093/jhmas/48.4.371|pmid=8283024}}</ref> The Americans showed great interest and were able to make a ''Penicillium'' culture by the end of July<ref name=":12" /> but realised that Fleming's mould was not efficient enough to produce large quantities of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodríguez-Sáiz|first=Marta|last2=Díez|first2=Bruno|last3=Barredo|first3=José Luis|date=2005|title=Why did the Fleming strain fail in penicillin industry?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15809010|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|volume=42|issue=5|pages=464–470|doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.014|pmid=15809010}}</ref> With the help of US Army Transport Command, NRRL mycologist [[w:Kenneth Bryan Raper|Kenneth Bryan Raper]] was able to locate similar but better moulds from Chungkin (China), Bombay (Mumbai, India) and Cape Town (South Africa). However, the single-best sample was obtained in 1943 from [[w:cantaloupe|cantaloupe]] (a type of melon) sold in the Peoria fruit market. The mould was identified to be ''P. chrysogenum'' and designated as "NRRL 1951" or "cantaloupe strain" (Figure 6).<ref name=":13" /><ref name="Barreiro">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barreiro C, Martín JF, García-Estrada C | title = Proteomics shows new faces for the old penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum | journal = Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology | volume = 2012 | page = 105109 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22318718 | pmc = 3270403 | doi = 10.1155/2012/105109 }}</ref> There is a popular story that Mary K. Hunt (or Mary Hunt Stevens<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bentley|first=Ronald|date=2009|title=Different roads to discovery; Prontosil (hence sulfa drugs) and penicillin (hence β-lactams)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|journal=Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology|language=en|volume=36|issue=6|pages=775–786|doi=10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|pmid=19283418|s2cid=35432074}}</ref>), a staff member at NRRL, collected the mould;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kardos|first1=Nelson|last2=Demain|first2=Arnold L.|date=2011|title=Penicillin: the medicine with the greatest impact on therapeutic outcomes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=92|issue=4|pages=677–687|doi=10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|pmid=21964640|s2cid=39223087}}</ref> for which she was popularised as "Mouldy Mary."<ref>{{cite web|last=Bauze|first=Robert|date=1997|title=Editorial: Howard Florey and the penicillin story|url=https://search.proquest.com/openview/d5ed3749f4eb8b5b8bbe9d4ac3d955fd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=11254|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Taylor|first=Robert B.|title=Drugs and Other Remedies|date=2016|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|work=White Coat Tales|pages=67–84|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|isbn=978-3-319-29053-9|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref> However, Raper remarked that this story was "folklore" and that the fruit was delivered to the laboratory by a woman from the local fruit market.<ref name=":13" /> Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the ''Penicillium'' mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1946|title=The development of improved penicillin‐producing molds|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=41–56|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x}}</ref> Simultaneous research by [[w:Jasper H. Kane|Jasper H. Kane]] and other [[w:Pfizer|Pfizer]] scientists in [[w:Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] developed the practical, deep-tank [[w:Industrial fermentation|fermentation]] method for production of large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daemmrich|first=Arthur|date=2009|title=Synthesis by microbes or chemists? Pharmaceutical research and manufacturing in the antibiotic era|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510903083237|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=237–256|doi=10.1080/07341510903083237}}</ref> [[file:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg|thumb|Penicillin ad for World War II servicemen, ''c''. 1944. {{attrib| [[w:National Institute of Health|National Institute of Health]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] When production first began, one-litre containers had a yield of less than 1%, but improved to a yield of 80–90% in 10,000 gallon containers.<ref name="Landmark" /> This increase in efficiency happened between 1941 and 1945 as the result of continuous process innovation (Figure 7 shows one of the first mass applications).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1991|title=Penicillin Production Saga Recalled|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24531093|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=81|issue=3|pages=157–161}}</ref> Orvill May, director of the [[w:Agricultural Research Service|Agricultural Research Service]], had Coghill use his experience with fermentation to increase the efficiency of extracting penicillin from the mould. When Moyer and Coghill replaced sucrose with lactose in the growth media, penicillin yield was increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moyer|first=Andrew J.|last2=Coghill|first2=Robert D.|date=1946|title=Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC518023/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=51|issue=1|pages=79–93|pmc=518023|pmid=16561059|doi=10.1128/jb.51.1.79-93.1946}}</ref> An even larger increase occurred when they added [[w:corn steep liquor|corn steep liquor]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1975|title=Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin in the United States|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24536802|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=65|issue=3|pages=96–101}}</ref> The inefficiency of growing the mould on the surface of their nutrient baths, rather than having it submerged was a major challenge to the scientists. Although a submerged process of growing the mould was more efficient, the strain used was not suitable for the required conditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. E.|last2=Peterson|first2=W. H.|date=1950|title=Factors Affecting Production of Penicillin in Semi-Pilot Plant Equipment|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a025|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1769–1774|doi=10.1021/ie50489a025}}</ref> With the improved fermentation, the cantaloupe strain could produced six times as much penicillin per millilitre of the culture filtrate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Penicillin: its discovery and early development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15175995/|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=15|issue=1|pages=52–57|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001|pmid=15175995}}</ref> To improve on the cantaloupe strain, researchers subjected it to [[w:X-ray|X-ray]]s to facilitate mutations in its genome.<ref name="Landmark" /> The new mutant strain, designated "X-1612", made in in 1946 produced twice as much penicillin as the original strain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Savage|first=George M.|date=1949|title=Improvement in streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus by ultraviolet and X-ray energy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385538/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=57|issue=4|pages=429–441|pmc=385538|pmid=16561716|doi=10.1128/jb.57.4.429-441.1949}}</ref> Another mutant strain, named "Q176", made in 1947 from ultraviolet irradiation further doubled the penicillin productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1952|title=A Decade of Antibiotics in America|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|journal=Mycologia|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=1–59|doi=10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|jstor=4547566}}</ref> Now scientists had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin. The next challenge was to provide the air required by the mould to grow. This problem was solved using an aerator but, due to the use of corn steep, aeration caused  severe  foaming.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stefaniak|first=J. J.|last2=Gailey|first2=F. B.|last3=Brown|first3=C. S.|last4=Johnson|first4=M. J.|date=1946|title=Pilot Plant Equipment for Submerged Production of Penicillin|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50439a010|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=38|issue=7|pages=666–671|doi=10.1021/ie50439a010}}</ref> The  addition  of  an  anti-foaming  agents such as arachis oil, lard oil and other fatty acids solved this problem.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=R. B.|last2=Harris|first2=G. C. M.|date=1949|title=The morphology of Penicillium chrysogenum in submerged fermentations|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007153649800106|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=224–235|doi=10.1016/S0007-1536(49)80010-6}}</ref> These anti-foaming agents further enhanced penicillin production.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldschmidt|first=Millicent C.|last2=Koffler|first2=Henry|date=1950|title=Effect of Surface-Active Agents on Penicillin Yields|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a035|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.1021/ie50489a035}}</ref> == Chemical analysis == The [[w:chemical structure|chemical structure]] of penicillin was first proposed by Edward Abraham in 1942,<ref name=":03" /> and three years later, [[w:Dorothy Hodgkin|Dorothy Hodgkin]], working at Oxford, determined the correct chemical structure using [[w:X-ray crystallography|X-ray crystallography]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hodgkin|first=D. C.|date=1949|title=The X-ray analysis of the structure of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18134678|journal=Advancement of Science|volume=6|issue=22|pages=85–89|pmid=18134678}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400874910-012/html|title=Chemistry of Penicillin|last=Crowfoot|first=D.|last2=Bunn|first2=C. W.|last3=Rogers-Low|first3=B. W.|last4=Turner-Jones|first4=A.|date=1949|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7491-0|editor-last=Clarke|editor-first=Hans T.|pages=310–366|chapter=XI. The X-Ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin|doi=10.1515/9781400874910-012}}</ref> The same year, chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments was published jointly by the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council in the journal ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]''. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds that shared the same structural component called [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Committee on Medical Research|last2=Medical Research Council|date=1945|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17788243|journal=Science|volume=102|issue=2660|pages=627–629|doi=10.1126/science.102.2660.627|pmid=17788243|bibcode=1945Sci...102..627M}}</ref> In the United Kingdom the penicillins were called penicillin I, II, III, and IV (Roman numerals were used according to the order of their discovery) while in the US scientists used letters such as F, G, K, and X that referred to their origins or sources as shown below: {| class="wikitable" !UK nomenclature !US nomenclature !Chemical name |- |Penicillin I |Penicillin F |2-Pentenylpenicillin |- |Penicillin II |Penicillin G |Benzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin III |Penicillin X |''p''-Hydroxybenzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin IV |Penicillin K |''n''-Heptylpenicillin |} The use of two different names for each penicillin caused confusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=F. A.|date=1947|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=an9477200274|journal=The Analyst|language=en|volume=72|issue=856|pages=274|doi=10.1039/an9477200274}}</ref> As the chemical structures came to be known, the chemical names (based on the [[w:Side chain|side chains]] of the compounds<ref name=":25" />) further complicated their identification and application. Thus, penicillin literature became a mixture of three naming systems. Chemists mostly adhered to the chemical names,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=H. E.|last2=Ford|first2=J. H.|date=1950|title=Biochemistry of antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=487–516|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last=Wintersteiner|first=O.|last2=Dutcher|first2=J. D.|date=1949|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=559–594|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015}}</ref> while biologists preferred the classic numbered or lettered names.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ory|first=E. M.|date=1945|title=Penicillin X: Comparison with penicillin g with respect to sensitivity of pathogenic organisms and serum levels|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=257|doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=W. H.|last2=Ward|first2=G. E.|last3=Coghill|first3=R. D.|date=1945|title=Penicillin: VI. Effect of dissociation phases of Bacillus subtilis on penicillin assay|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=49|issue=4|pages=411–412|doi=10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 1948, Chain introduced the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking: "To make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous it was decided to replace the system of numbers or letters by prefixes indicating the chemical nature of the side chain R."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E|date=1948|title=The chemistry of penicillin|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=657–704|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|pmid=18893607}}</ref> Further developments took place. In Austria, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie (now [[w:Sandoz|Sandoz]]) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, [[w:Phenoxymethylpenicillin|penicillin V]] in 1952.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roehr|first=M.|date=2000|title=History of biotechnology in Austria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11036693|journal=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology|volume=69|pages=125–149|doi=10.1007/3-540-44964-7_5|pmid=11036693}}</ref> American chemist [[w:John C. Sheehan|John C. Sheehan]] at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) completed the first chemical [[w:Total synthesis|synthesis]] of penicillin in 1957.<ref name="Sheehan1957">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=H enery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=March 5, 1957|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=79|issue=5|pages=1262–1263|doi=10.1021/ja01562a063|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Sheehan1959">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Loganm|first2=Kenneth R.|date=June 20, 1959|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=81|issue=12|pages=3089–3094|doi=10.1021/ja01521a044|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="NAPSheehan2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&page=jsheehan.html|title=Biographical Memoirs: John Clark Sheehan|last1=Corey|first1=E. J.|last2=Roberts|first2=John D.|publisher=The National Academy Press|access-date=January 28, 2013|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of [[w:peptide|peptides]], as well as new [[w:Protecting group|protecting groups]]—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups.<ref name="NAPSheehan2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=K. C.|last2=Vourloumis|first2=Dionisios|last3=Winssinger|first3=Nicolas|last4=Baran|first4=Phil S.|date=2000|title=The Art and Science of Total Synthesis at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291521-3773%2820000103%2939%3A1%3C44%3A%3AAID-ANIE44%3E3.0.CO%3B2-L|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=39|issue=1|pages=44–122|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000103)39:1<44::AID-ANIE44>3.0.CO;2-L|pmid=10649349}}</ref> Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in his synthesis was [[w:6-APA|6-aminopenicillanic acid]] (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Logan|first2=Kenneth R. Henery|date=1959|title=A general synthesis of the penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=81|issue=21|pages=5838–5839|doi=10.1021/ja01530a079|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=1962|title=The Total and Partial General Syntheses of the Penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=84|issue=15|pages=2983–2990|doi=10.1021/ja00874a029|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> An important moment in the history of penicillin was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at Surrey's Beecham Research Laboratories (now the [[w:Beecham Group|Beecham Group]]) isolated 6-APA from the culture media of ''P. chrysogenum''. As published in ''Nature'' (1959),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Batchelor|first1=F. R.|last2=Doyle|first2=F. P.|last3=Nayler|first3=J. H.|last4=Rolinson|first4=G. N.|date=1959|title=Synthesis of penicillin: 6-aminopenicillanic acid in penicillin fermentations|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13622762|journal=Nature|volume=183|issue=4656|pages=257–258|bibcode=1959Natur.183..257B|doi=10.1038/183257b0|pmid=13622762|s2cid=4268993}}</ref> 6-APA was found to constitute the core 'nucleus' of penicillin (in fact, all β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Molecular Modification in Drug Design|last=Sheehan|first=J.C.|vauthors=|date=1964|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0-8412-0046-3|editor-last=Schueler|editor-first=F.W.|veditors=|series=Advances in Chemistry|volume=45|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=15–24|language=en|chapter=The Synthetic Penicillins|doi=10.1021/ba-1964-0045.ch002}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last=Hamilton-Miller|first=J.M.T.|date=2008|title=Development of the semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=31|issue=3|pages=189–92|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010|pmid=18248798}}</ref> This discovery paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semi-synthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolinson|first1=G. N.|last2=Geddes|first2=A. M.|date=2007|title=The 50th anniversary of the discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17137753|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=29|issue=1|pages=3–8|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.09.003|pmid=17137753}}</ref> The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. It is likely that [[w:Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant forms of ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] already existed at the time.<ref name="Davies2">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J.|last2=Davies|first2=D.|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harkins|first=Catriona P.|last2=Pichon|first2=Bruno|last3=Doumith|first3=Michel|last4=Parkhill|first4=Julian|last5=Westh|first5=Henrik|last6=Tomasz|first6=Alexander|last7=de Lencastre|first7=Herminia|last8=Bentley|first8=Stephen D.|last9=Kearns|first9=Angela M.|date=2017|title=Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerged long before the introduction of methicillin into clinical practice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724393|journal=Genome Biology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=130|doi=10.1186/s13059-017-1252-9|issn=1474-760X|pmc=5517843|pmid=28724393}}</ref> == Outcomes == Penicillin patents became a matter of concern and conflict. Chain had wanted to apply for a patent but Florey and his teammates had objected arguing that penicillin should benefit all.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> He sought the advice of Sir [[w:Henry Hallett Dale|Henry Hallett Dale]] (Chairman of the [[w:Wellcome Trust|Wellcome Trust]] and member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet of British government) and John William Trevan (Director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory). On 26 and 27 March 1941, Dale and Trevan met at Sir William Dunn School of Pathology to discuss the issue. Dale specifically advised that patenting penicillin would be unethical.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Edward Penley|date=1983|title=Ernst Boris Chain, 19 June 1906 - 12 August 1979|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|language=en|volume=29|pages=42–91|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|issn=0080-4606}}</ref> Not giving up, Chain approached Sir Edward Mellanby, then Secretary of the Medical Research Council, who also objected on ethical grounds.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Slinn|first=Judy|date=2008|title=Patents and the UK pharmaceutical industry between 1945 and the 1970s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510701810963|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=191–205|doi=10.1080/07341510701810963|issn=0734-1512}}</ref> As Chain later admitted, he had "many bitter fights" with Mellanby,<ref name=":18" /> but Mellanby's decision was accepted as final.<ref name=":19" /> In 1945, Moyer patented the methods for production and isolation of penicillin.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2442141|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=25 March 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2443989|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=22 June 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2476107|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=12 July 1949|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref> Moyer could not obtain a patent in the US as an employee of the NRRL, and filed his patent at the British Patent Office (now the [[w:Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]). He gave the license to a US company, [[w:Commercial Solvents Corporation|Commercial Solvents Corporation]]. Although completely legal, his colleague Coghill felt it was an injustice for outsiders to have the royalties for the "British discovery." A year later, Moyer asked Coghill for permission to file another patent based on the use of phenylacetic acid that increased penicillin production by 66%, but as the principal researcher, Coghill refused.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyabji|first=Nasir|date=2004|title=Gaining Technical Know-How in an Unequal World: Penicillin Manufacture in Nehru's India|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84236/1/MPRA_paper_84236.pdf|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=45|issue=2|pages=331–349|jstor=40060744|doi=10.1353/tech.2004.0097}}</ref> When Fleming learned of the American patents on penicillin production, he was infuriated and commented:<blockquote>I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?<ref name=":072">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref></blockquote>Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases."<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-26}}</ref> Hodgkin received the 1964 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1964/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref> == Development of penicillin-derivatives == The narrow range of treatable diseases of the penicillins prompted further search for derivatives of penicillin. The isolation of 6-APA allowed preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements in terms of bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirby|first=W. M.|last2=Bulger|first2=R. J.|date=1964|title=The new penicillins and cephalosporins|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14133855|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|volume=15|pages=393–412|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.15.020164.002141|pmid=14133855}}</ref> The first major development was the production of [[w:ampicillin|ampicillin]] by the Beecham Research Laboratories in London in 1961.<ref name="acred">{{cite journal|last=Acred|first=P.|last2=Brown|first2=P.|last3=Turner|first3=D.H.|last4=Wilson|first4=M.J.|date=1962|title=Pharmacology and chemotherapy of ampicillin--a new broad-spectrum penicillin|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|volume=18|issue=2|pages=356–69|doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.1962.tb01416.x|pmc=1482127|pmid=13859205|vauthors=}}</ref> Ampicillin had advantages over the original penicillin as it showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.<ref name="acred" /> Further development yielded [[w:Β-lactam antibiotic|β-lactamase-resistant penicillins]], including [[w:flucloxacillin|flucloxacillin]], [[w:dicloxacillin|dicloxacillin]], and [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], which were specifically active against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but not against the methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' strains that subsequently emerged.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 1965|title=Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in a General Hospital|journal=Lancet|language=en|volume=1|issue=7385|pages=595–7|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(65)91165-7|pmid=14250094|vauthors=Colley EW, Mcnicol MW, Bracken PM}}</ref> Another development in penicillin synthesis was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as [[w:carbenicillin|carbenicillin]], [[w:ticarcillin|ticarcillin]], and [[w:piperacillin|piperacillin]], useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. The penicillins and related β-lactams have become the most widely used antibiotics in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Sousa Coelho|first=F.|last2=Mainardi|first2=J.-L.|date=2021-01-05|title=The multiple benefits of second-generation β-lactamase inhibitors in treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33870896|journal=Infectious Diseases Now|volume=online|doi=10.1016/j.idnow.2020.11.007|pmid=33870896|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[w:Amoxicillin|Amoxicillin]], a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Croydon|first=E. A.|last2=Sutherland|first2=R.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: absorption and excretion in man|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5521362|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=427–430|pmid=5521362}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=R.|last2=Rolinson|first2=G. N.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: in vitro evaluation|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5000265|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=411–415|doi=10.1128/AAC.10.3.411|pmid=5000265}}</ref> is the single-most commonly used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burch|first=D. G. S.|last2=Sperling|first2=D.|date=2018|title=Amoxicillin-current use in swine medicine|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jvp.12482|journal=Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=356–368|doi=10.1111/jvp.12482|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aberer|first=Werner|last2=Macy|first2=Eric|date=2017|title=Moving toward optimizing testing for penicillin allergy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28483319|journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice|volume=5|issue=3|pages=684–685|doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2017.03.020|pmid=28483319|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, the usefulness of these penicillins and later developed antibiotics, including the [[w:Mecillinam|mecillinams]], the [[w:Carbapenem|carbapenems]] and, most important, the [[w:Cephalosporin|cephalosporins]], is limited by the common structure, the [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]] ring,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=James|first=C.W.|last2=Gurk-Turner|first2=C.|date=2001|title=Cross-reactivity of beta-lactam antibiotics|journal=Proceedings|volume=14|issue=1|pages=106–7|doi=10.1080/08998280.2001.11927741|pmc=1291320|pmid=16369597}}</ref> which is not only the antibiotic active part of the chemical compound, but also the target site of bacteria in drug resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lima|first=Lidia Moreira|last2=Silva|first2=Bianca Nascimento Monteiro da|last3=Barbosa|first3=Gisele|last4=Barreiro|first4=Eliezer J.|date=2020|title=β-lactam antibiotics: An overview from a medicinal chemistry perspective|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33002736|journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume=208|pages=112829|doi=10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112829|pmid=33002736}}</ref> == Drug resistance == In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned of the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions:<blockquote>The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.<ref name=":30" /></blockquote>In 1940, Chain and Abraham reported the first indication of [[w:antibiotic resistance|antibiotic resistance]] to penicillin, an ''E. coli'' strain that produced the [[w:penicillinase|penicillinase]] enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect.<ref name="Davies2" /><ref name="Lobanovska">{{cite journal|last=Lobanovska|first=M.|last2=Pilla|first2=G.|date=2017|title=Penicillin's Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the Future?|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=90|issue=1|pages=135–145|pmc=5369031|pmid=28356901}}</ref> They worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'':<blockquote>The conclusion that the active substance is an enzyme is drawn from the fact that it is destroyed by heating at 90° for 5 minutes and by incubation with [[w:papain|papain]] activated with potassium cyanide at pH 6, and that it is non-dialysable through '[[w:Cellophane|Cellophane]]' membranes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E.P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1940|title=An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/146837a0|journal=Nature|volume=10|issue=4|pages=677–8|bibcode=1940Natur.146..837A|doi=10.1038/146837a0|pmid=3055168|vauthors=|s2cid=4070796}}</ref></blockquote>By 1942, some strains of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' had developed a strong resistance to penicillin. Eighteen years later, most of the strains were resistant to penicillin.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lowy|first=F.D.|date=2003|title=Antimicrobial resistance: the example of Staphylococcus aureus|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=111|issue=9|pages=1265–73|doi=10.1172/JCI18535|pmc=154455|pmid=12727914|vauthors=}}</ref> In 1967, ''[[w:Streptococcus pneumoniae|Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' was also reported to be penicillin resistant. Many other strains of bacteria have eventually developed, and continue to develop a resistance to penicillin.<ref name="Davies">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J|last2=Davies|first2=D|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> == Additional information == === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. === Competing interests === The authors have no competing interests. === Ethics statement === No ethics approval applicable. === Funding === None. ==Notes== {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} kbddm3g6054hjniyyx2mm4tuhjw358v 2417109 2417108 2022-08-21T22:20:19Z OhanaUnited 18921 + doi wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | correspondence1 = | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, India | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | submitted = 6/20/2021 | accepted = 10/22/2021 | w1 = History of penicillin | et_al = true | license = | abstract = The history of penicillin was shaped by the contributions of numerous scientists. The ultimate result was the discovery of the [[w:Mold (fungus)|mould]] [[w:Penicillium|''Penicillium's'']] antibacterial activity and the subsequent development of [[w:penicillins|penicillins]], the most widely used [[w:antibiotics|antibiotics]]. Following an accidental discovery of the mould, later identified as ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|Penicillium rubens]]'', as the source of the antibacterial principle (1928) and the production of a pure compound (1942), penicillin became the first naturally derived antibiotic. There is anecdotal evidence of ancient societies using moulds to treat infections and of awareness that various moulds inhibited bacterial growth. However, it is not clear if ''Penicillium'' species were the species traditionally used or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. In 1928, [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] was the first to discover the antibacterial substance secreted by the ''Penicillium'' mould and concentrate the active substance involved, giving it the name penicillin. His success in treating Harry Lambert's streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]], an infection until then fatal, proved to be a critical moment in the medical use of penicillin. Many later scientists were involved in the stabilisation and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of ''Penicillium''. Among the most important were [[w:Ernst Chain|Ernst Chain]] and [[w:Howard Florey|Howard Florey]], who shared with Fleming the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. | keywords = Antibiotic, bacteria, infection, penicillin, ''Penicillium'' }} ==Early history== [[file:Penicillin core.svg|thumb|The core structure of penicillin, where R is a variable group; the central "square" structure is the β-lactam ring, which is the key component for destruction of bacterial cell walls. {{attrib|[[w:User:Yikrazuul|Yikrazuul]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin (Figure 1) is the second antibiotic and the first naturally-occurring antibiotic discovered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aminov|first=Rustam I.|date=2010|title=A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=1|pages=134|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmc=3109405|pmid=21687759}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first antibiotic discovered was arsphenamine, marketed as [[w:Salvarsan|Salvarsan]], by German physician [[w:Paul Ehrlich|Paul Ehrlich]] and his Japanese assistant [[w:Sahachiro Hata|Sahachiro Hata]] in 1909.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4|title=Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen|last=Ehrlich|first=Paul|last2=Hata|first2=S.|date=1910|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-64911-0|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=1-178|language=German|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4}}</ref> It was a modified compound of a highly toxic chemical [[w:Arsenic|arsenic]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=K. J.|date=2009|title=The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19679737|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=102|issue=8|pages=343–348|doi=10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036|pmc=2726818|pmid=19679737}}</ref> that was used for the treatment of sexually transmitted bacterial (''[[w:Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum]]'') infection or [[syphilis]], and became the most commonly prescribed drug in the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swain|first=K.|date=2018|title='Extraordinarily arduous and fraught with danger': syphilis, Salvarsan, and general paresis of the insane|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29866584|journal=The Lancet Psychiatry|volume=5|issue=9|pages=702–703|doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30221-9|pmid=29866584}}</ref> However, it was overshadowed by penicillin, a safer and more efficacious antibiotic, that was effective against a wide range of [[w:Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive bacteria]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=J. T.|last2=Strominger|first2=J. L.|date=1957|title=Mode of action of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13390969|journal=Science|volume=125|issue=3238|pages=99–101|doi=10.1126/science.125.3238.99|pmid=13390969}}</ref> as well as [[w:Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] ''T. pallidum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clement|first=Meredith E.|last2=Okeke|first2=N. Lance|last3=Hicks|first3=Charles B.|date=2014-11-12|title=Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25387188|journal=JAMA|volume=312|issue=18|pages=1905–1917|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.13259|issn=1538-3598|pmc=6690208|pmid=25387188}}</ref> Traditional curative practices preceded the discovery of penicillin as a component of the mould ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' (from the [[Latin]] word ''penicillum'', meaning "painter's brush").<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ji|first=Hong-Fang|last2=Li|first2=Xue-Juan|last3=Zhang|first3=Hong-Yu|date=2009|title=Natural products and drug discovery. Can thousands of years of ancient medical knowledge lead us to new and powerful drug combinations in the fight against cancer and dementia?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229284|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=10|issue=3|pages=194–200|doi=10.1038/embor.2009.12|pmc=2658564|pmid=19229284}}</ref> Ancient Egypt, Greece and India were aware of the curative properties of fungi and plants in treating bacterial [[w:infection|infections]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |title=History of Antibiotics &#124; Steps of the Scientific Method, Research and Experiments |publisher=Experiment-Resources.com |access-date=2012-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806090931/http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> as shown by the 16th-century BCE record of a Greek king of the use of bread moulds by a woman healer to treat wounded soldiers. Around the same time, Chinese traditional practitioners used moulds from soya bean for wound infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|jstor=1260294}}</ref> In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal [[w:spore|spore]]s) to treat wounds, a technique mentioned by [[w:Henryk Sienkiewicz|Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his 1884 book ''[[w:With Fire and Sword|With Fire and Sword]]''. In 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by English apothecaries such as [[w:John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]], royal botanist to [[w:Charles I|Charles I]], who described the use of certain mould (possibly ''Penicillium'') in his book on [[w:pharmacology|pharmacology]] ''Theatrum Botanicum'' (''The Botanical Theatre'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cranch|first=A. G.|date=1943|title=Early use of Penicillin (?)|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=123|issue=15|pages=990|doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|issn=0002-9955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gould|first=Kate|date=2016|title=Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273/|journal=The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|volume=71|issue=3|pages=572–575|doi=10.1093/jac/dkv484|pmid=26851273|doi-access=free}}</ref> One of the common practices for treating [[w:Impetigo|impetigo]] (an infection due to the bacterium ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'') was mould therapy using moulds obtained from bread and [[w:Porridge|porridge]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|last2=Rally|first2=Louise|last3=Ali|first3=Tasneem Adam|date=1992|title=The scientific basis of mould therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X09805879|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=108–110|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80587-9}}</ref> A Canadian biologist A. E. Cliffe provided a vivid description:<blockquote>It was during a visit through central Europe in 1908 that I came across the fact that almost every farmhouse followed the practice of keeping a mouldy loaf on one of the beams in the kitchen. When I asked the reason for this I was told that this was an old custom and that when any member of the family received an injury such as a cut or bruise, a thin slice from the outside of the loaf was cut off, mixed into a paste with water and applied to the wound with a bandage. It was assumed that no infection would result from such a cut.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|title=From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|date=1999|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4613-7182-3|editor-last=Singh|editor-first=Jagjit|location=Boston, MA|pages=11–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|editor-last2=Aneja|editor-first2=K. R.}}</ref></blockquote>One of the most detailed medical narratives was how Brenda Ward (''née'' Whitnear) was cured of her facial impetigo in 1929. After treating an eight-year-old Brenda with all possible medications available, the family physician James Twomey resorted to traditional practice and advised the mother to prepare a starch paste. The paste was was left in the pantry kept at the cellar head for several days until it became very mouldy. It was then applied on the girl's face as an ointment for over a week until she was completely healed.<ref name=":20" /> There is no written record of the treatment except for the receipt of the consultation fee. Ward recalled that the mould initially appeared yellow in colour, grew into bronze colour, and finally turned into blue-green colonies, which indicates it was either ''Penicillium'' or ''[[w:Aspergillus|Aspergillus]].'' Based on Ward's description, in 1989, British microbiologist [[w:Milton Wainright|Milton Wainright]] concluded that most likely the mould was ''Penicillum'' due the growth pattern and antibacterial activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X89800102|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=21–23|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2}}</ref> Traditional treatments often worked because numerous organisms, including many species of moulds, naturally produce [[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]] substances. However, it was not until recently that practitioners were able to identify or isolate the active components in these organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Early scientific evidence=== The modern history of penicillin research began in earnest in the 1870s in the United Kingdom. [[w:John Scott Burdon-Sanderson|Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson]], physiologist and lecturer at St. Mary's Hospital, observed that [[w:microbiological culture|culture]] fluid covered with mould inhibited [[w:bacteria|bacteria]]l growth in his experiments on [[w:Spontaneous generation|spontaneous generation]] in 1870.<ref>Queener, Sherry; Webber, J. Alan; Queener, Stephen; eds. (1986). [https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Beta_Lactam_Antibiotics_for_Clinical_Use/d-vSwAEACAAJ?hl=en ''Beta-lactam Antibiotics for Clinical Use'',] Informa Health Care, {{ISBN|0824773861}}, p. 4. [Refers to : J. B. Sanderson. Appendix No 5. " Further report of researches concerning the intimate pathology of contagion. The origin and distribution of microzymes (bacteria) in water, and the circumstances which determine their existence in the tissue and liquids of the living body ". 13th Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council [John Simon], with Appendix, 1870. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1871, pp. 56–66; reprinted in [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/s2-11/44/323 ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', n. ser., XI, 1871, pp. 323–352].]</ref> His reports in 1871 described: <blockquote>On October 10 glass a was turbid, and was found on microscopical examination to be teeming with bacteria; a thick whitish scum had formed on its surface. Glass h was perfectly clear; there were, however, great numbers of torula [a type of yeast] cells on its surface, but no bacteria. On October 12 6 exhibited numerous tufts of penicillium, but the liquid still remained limpid and free from bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burdon-Sanderson|first=(John)|date=1871|title=Memoirs: The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in Water, and the Circumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body|url=https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323|journal=Journal of Cell Science|volume=s2-11|issue=44|pages=323–352|doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323}}</ref>{{Efn|Unlike his predecessor scientists such as Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur who had experimentally rebutted spontaneous generation, Burdon-Sanderson went further by specifically identifying the types of microbes as bacteria, microzyme, fungi, torula, and ''Penicillium'', including the differences in their growth pattern. His experiment on 11 November 1870 reads: "At the same date all the glasses showed tufts of penicillium; those on 3 and 5 were more advanced than the rest... the liquid in 5 was found to be perfectly limpid and free from microzymes (referring to bacteria)."}} </blockquote>From his experiments, Burdon-Sanderson believed that decomposition or putrefaction was caused by bacteria, and not by moulds. He applied the ''Penicillium'' mould on dissected thigh muscles from a guinea pig and left them in bell jars. After two weeks tissues in sterilised jars and with ''Penicillium'' mould did not show signs of rotting. These experiments indicate that the mould had antibacterial activity, but Burdon-Sanderson failed to notice the importance of this finding.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Selwyn|first=S.|date=1979|title=Pioneer work on the ‘penicillin phenomenon’, 1870–1876|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jac/5.3.249|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1093/jac/5.3.249}}</ref> Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted [[w:Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], an English surgeon and the father of modern [[w:antisepsis|antisepsis]], to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also prevented the growth of bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Majno|first=Guido|last2=Joris|first2=Isabelle|date=1979|title=Billroth and Penicillium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4452384|journal=Reviews of Infectious Diseases|volume=1|issue=5|pages=880–884|doi=10.1093/clinids/1.5.880}}</ref> Lister identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium glaucum|Penicillium glaucum]]'' and found that most bacteria could not grow alongside this mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lister|first=Joseph|date=1875|title=XVI.— A Contribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other Fermentative Changes, and to the Natural History of Torulæ and Bacteria|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0080456800026004/type/journal_article|journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=313–344|doi=10.1017/S0080456800026004}}</ref> He also described the antibacterial action of the mould on human tissue.<ref name=":21" /> In 1877, he treated Ellen Jones, a nurse at [[w:King's College Hospital|King's College Hospital]], whose wounds did not respond to any traditional antiseptic. The nurse was cured when a crude extract of ''P. glaucum'' culture was applied to her wounds. Uncertain of the nature and effect of the mould, Lister did not published his observations.<ref name=":1" /> In 1873, Welsh physician [[w:William Roberts (physician)|William Roberts]], who later coined the term "[[w:enzyme|enzyme]]", also conducted experiments on spontaneous generation and observed that glass tubes were easily contaminated by airborne bacteria and moulds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443/|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref> In his 1874 report in the ''[[w:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', he stated: "I have repeatedly observed that liquids in which the ''Penicillum glaucum'' was growing luxuriantly could with difficulty be artificially infected with ''Bacteria''; it seemed, in fact, as if this fungus played the part of the plants in an aquarium, and held in check the growth of ''Bacteria,'' with their attendant putrefactive changes."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=W.|date=1874|title=Studies on biogenesis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/109106|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=164|pages=457–477|doi=10.1098/rstl.1874.0012}}</ref> This is regarded as "the first unequivocal published statement" on antibacterial activity of any substance.<ref name=":1" /> [[w:John Tyndall|John Tyndall]], professor of physics at the [[w:Royal Institution of Great Britain|Royal Institution of Great Britain]], followed up on Roberts's work on refutation of spontaneous generation and demonstrated in 1875 the antibacterial action of the ''P. glaucum''. His report, read before the Royal Society in 1876 (and published as a monograph in 1881),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doetsch|first=R. N.|date=1963|title=Studies on biogenesis by Sir William Roberts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14028366|journal=Medical History|volume=7|pages=232–240|doi=10.1017/s0025727300028374|pmc=1034828|pmid=14028366}}</ref> stated:<blockquote>[The] two most actively charged tubes were in part crowned by beautiful tufts of Penicilllum Glaucum. This expanded gradually until it covered the entire surface with a thick tough layer, which must have seriously intercepted the oxygen necessary to the Bacterial life. The bacteria lost their translatory power, fell to the bottom, and left the liquid between them and the superficial layer clear.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Landsberg|first=H.|date=1949|title=Prelude to the discovery of penicillin|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/227238|journal=Isis|volume=40|issue=3|pages=225–227|doi=10.1086/349043}}</ref></blockquote> In 1876, German biologist [[w:Robert Koch|Robert Koch]] discovered that ''[[w:Bacillus anthracis|Bacillus anthracis]]'' was the causative pathogen of [[w:anthrax|anthrax]];<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|trans-title=The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}</ref> it was the first time a specific bacterium was proved to cause a specific disease, and the first direct evidence of the [[w:Germ theory of diseases|germ theory of diseases]].<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}</ref> A year later, French biologists [[w:Louis Pasteur|Louis Pasteur]] and Jules Francois Joubert observed that, when contaminated with moulds, cultures of the anthrax bacilli could be successfully inhibited.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=G.|date=2016|title=La Moisissure et la Bactérie: Deconstructing the fable of the discovery of penicillin by Ernest Duchesne|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/21810|journal=Endeavour|volume=40|issue=3|pages=188–200|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.07.005|pmid=27496372|vauthors=Shama G}}</ref> They reported their findings in the ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences'':<blockquote>Neutral or slightly alkaline urine is an excellent medium for the bacteria... But if when the urine is inoculated with these bacteria an aerobic organism, for example one of the "common bacteria," is sown at the same time, the anthrax bacterium makes little or no growth and sooner or later dies out altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the same phenomenon is seen in the body even of those animals most susceptible to anthrax, leading to the astonishing result that anthrax bacteria can be introduced in profusion into an animal, which yet does not develop the disease; it is only necessary to add some "common 'bacteria" at the same time to the liquid containing the suspension of anthrax bacteria. These facts perhaps justify the highest hopes for therapeutics.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=Howard W.|date=1946|title=The Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2602034/|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=19|issue=1|pages=101–118.1|pmc=2602034|pmid=20275724}}</ref></blockquote>The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named as "antibiosis" by French biologist [[w:Jean Paul Vuillemin|Jean Paul Vuillemin]] in 1877<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Brunel|first=J.|date=1951|title=Antibiosis from Pasteur to Fleming|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14873929|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=287–301|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.287|pmid=14873929}}</ref> (the term antibiosis, meaning "against life", was adopted as "[[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]]" by American biologist and later Nobel laureate [[w:Selman Waksman|Selman Waksman]] in 1947<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waksman|first=S. A.|date=1947|title=What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541|journal=Mycologia|volume=39|issue=5|pages=565–569|doi=10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635|pmid=20264541}}</ref>). It has also been asserted that Pasteur identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium notatum|Penicillium notatum]]''. However, [[w:Paul de Kruif|Paul de Kruif]]'s 1926 ''Microbe Hunters'' disagrees, describing this incident as contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kruif|first=Paul De|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&id=pH24vLpivRgC&q|title=Microbe Hunters|date=1996|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602777-9|location=Florida (USA)|pages=144|language=en|quote=At once Pasteur jumped to a fine idea: "If the harmless bugs from the air choke out the anthrax bacilli in the bottle, they will do it in the body too! It is a kind of dog-eat-dog!” shouted Pasteur, (...) Pasteur gravely announced: "That there were high hopes for the cure of disease from this experiment", but that is the last you hear of it, for Pasteur was never a man to give the world of science the benefit of studying his failures.|orig-year=1926}}</ref> Ten years later, in 1887, Swiss physician [[w:Carl Garré|Carl Alois Philipp Garré]] developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results.<ref name=":15" /> Using a gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently; and reported:<blockquote>I inoculated on the untouched cooled [gelatin] plate alternate parallel strokes of ''B. fluorescens'' [''[[w:Pseudomonas fluorescens|Pseudomonas fluorescens]]''] and ''Staph. pyogenes'' [''[[w:Streptococcus pyogenes|Streptococcus pyogenes]]'' ]... B. fluorescens grew more quickly... [This] is not a question of overgrowth or crowding out of one by another quicker-growing species, as in a garden where luxuriantly growing weeds kill the delicate plants. Nor is it due to the utilization of the available foodstuff by the more quickly growing organisms, rather there is an antagonism caused by the secretion of specific, easily diffusible substances which are inhibitory to the growth of some species but completely ineffective against others.<ref name=":17" /></blockquote>At the [[w:University of Naples|University of Naples]], in 1895, physician [[w:Vincenzo Tiberio|Vincenzo Tiberio]] published his research about moulds initially found in a water well in [[w:Arzano|Arzano]].<ref>Tiberio, Vincenzo (1895) [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA24 "Sugli estratti di alcune muffe"] [On the extracts of certain moulds], ''Annali d'Igiene Sperimentale'' (Annals of Experimental Hygiene), 2nd series, '''5''' : 91–103. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false From p. 95:] ''"Risulta chiaro da queste osservazioni che nella sostanza cellulare delle muffe esaminate son contenuti dei principi solubili in acqua, forniti di azione battericida: sotto questo riguardo sono più attivi o in maggior copia quelli dell' ''Asp. flavescens'', meno quelli del ''Mu. mucedo'' e del ''Penn. glaucum''."'' (It follows clearly from these observations that in the cellular substance of the moulds examined are contained some water-soluble substances, provided with bactericidal action: in this respect are more active or in greater abundance those of ''Aspergillus flavescens''; less, those of ''Mucor mucedo'' and ''Penicillium glaucum''.)</ref> He noticed that whenever the moulds on the wall of the well was cleaned, many people had abdominal pain due to infection ([[w:Enteritis|enteritis]]), which was unheard of when the well was mouldy. He believed that there was a link between the infection and the mould.<ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Perciaccante|first=Antonio|last2=Coralli|first2=Alessia|last3=Lippi|first3=Donatella|last4=Appenzeller|first4=Otto|last5=Bianucci|first5=Raffaella|date=2019|title=Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31154612|journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine|volume=14|issue=8|pages=1363–1364|doi=10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1|pmid=31154612}}</ref> After identifying different moulds from the well, he found that ''Penicilium'' and ''Aspergillus'' could kill certain bacteria including ''[[w:Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholerae]]'', and some staphylococci strains.<ref name="Bucci">{{Cite journal|last=Bucci|first=Roberto|last2=Galli|first2=P.|date=2011|title=Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.8253&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Italian Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=404–406}}</ref> From his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action.<ref name="Bucci" /> However, his findings did not receive any attention until the discovery of penicillin.<ref name=":29" /> [[file:Penicillium rubens (Fleming's strain).png|thumb|Fleming's mould, ''Penicillium rubens'' CBS 205.57. A–C. Colonies 7 d old 25 °C. A. CYA. B. MEA. C. YES. D–H. Condiophores. I. Conidia. Bars = 10 µm. {{attrib|[https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] French medical student [[w:Ernest Duchesne|Ernest Duchesne]] at École du Service de Santé Militaire (Military Service Health School) in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of ''P. glaucum.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kyle|first=R. A.|date=2005|title=Five decades of therapy for multiple myeloma: a paradigm for therapeutic models|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15800669|journal=Leukemia|volume=19|issue=6|pages=910–912|doi=10.1038/sj.leu.2403728|pmid=15800669}}</ref> He was able to grow the mould on pieces of moist food. When he mixed the mould with the bacterium ''[[w:Escherichia coli|Escherichia coli]]'', he found that the bacteria did not grow, and when he injected the mould juice into guinea pigs experimentally inoculated with [[w:typhoid|typhoid]] bacteria (''[[w:Salmonella enterica|Salmonella enterica]]''), the animals never developed the disease.<ref name=":26">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cIZpyNvjvdcC&newbks=0&hl|title=Explorers of the Body: Dramatic Breakthroughs in Medicine from Ancient Times to Modern Science|last=Lehrer|first=Steven|date=2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595407316|edition=2|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|pages=331-332|language=en|orig-year=1979}}</ref> He described the experiment in his 1897 doctoral dissertation titled ''Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les microorganismes'' (''Contribution to the study of vital competition between microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes'') submitted to the [[w:Pasteur Institute|Pasteur Institute]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1|title=Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes : antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes|last=Duchesne|first=E|vauthors=Duchesne E|date=1897|publisher=Alexandre Rey|location=Lyon, France|language=fr|trans-title=Contribution to the study of the vital competition in microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pouillard|first=Jean|title=Une découverte oubliée : la thèse de médecine du docteur Ernest Duchesne (1874–1912)|trans-title=A Forgotten Discovery : Doctor of Medicine Ernest Duchesne's Thesis (1874-1912)|url=http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|journal=Histoire des Sciences Médicales|language=fr|volume=XXXVI|issue=1|pages=11–20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713144835/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2019|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Unfortunately, his discovery was ignored by the institute and soon forgotten. It was not until 50 years later when a librarian found the thesis, once penicillin had already been discovered.<ref name=":27">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbO4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Natural Products in the Chemical Industry|last1=Schaefer|first1=B.|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642544613|page=231|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54461-3}}</ref> Duchesne could not continue his experiments due to a severe illness (believed to be [[w:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]]) he contracted five years later. He died in 1912 while serving in the French Army.<ref name=":26" /> He was himself using moulds to treat horses, a method learned from Arab stable boys to cure animals' sores; but he did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that it somehow protected the animals.<ref name=":14" /> His conclusion was nonetheless prognostic, stating that competition between bacteria and moulds could be useful in the medical management of infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckett|first=S.|date=1999|title=Ernest Duchesne and the concept of fungal antibiotic therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673699031621|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9195|pages=2068–2071|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)03162-1}}</ref> Penicillin does not cure typhoid as it is ineffective against most Gram-negative bacteria<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080912837001053|title=Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry|last=Luengo|first=José M.|date=1999|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-091283-7|editor-last=Barton|editor-first=D.|pages=239–274|language=en|chapter=Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillins|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091283-7.00105-3|editor-last2=Nakanishi|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Meth-Cohn|editor-first3=O.}}</ref> and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible for Duchesne's cure.{{efn|At the time, the term ''Penicillium glaucum'' was used as a catch-all phrase for a variety of different fungi, though not for ''Penicillium notatum''. Duchesne's specific mold was unfortunately not preserved, which makes it impossible to be certain today which fungus might have been responsible for the cure and, consequently, even less certain which specific antibacterial substance was responsible.}} A similar antibiotic effect of ''Penicillium'' was recorded in 1923 by [[w:Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]n [[w:Clodomiro Picado Twight|Clodomiro Picado Twight]], a Pasteur Institute scientist. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' were non-specifically referred to as ''P. glaucum'', so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth.<ref name=":14" /> The first to discover and isolate an antibiotic compound from ''Penicillium'' was an Italian physician [[w:Bartolomeo Gosio|Bartolomeo Gosio]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Johan T.|date=2009|title=The First Discoverers of Penicillin and of its Application in Therapy|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x|journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=126|issue=1|pages=60–64|doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x}}</ref> Gosio was investigating [[w:Pellagra|pellagra]], which at the time was a common disease in southern Europe and America. It was known that the staple food of people having the disease was corn, and fungal contamination of corn was regarded as the source (American biochemist [[w:Conrad Elvehjem|Conrad Elvehjem]] would identify in 1937 its aetiology as the deficiency of [[w:Niacin|niacin]] or vitamin B₃.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elvehjem|first=C. A.|date=1940|title=Relation of nicotinic acid to pellagra|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249|journal=Physiological Reviews|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=249–271|doi=10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249}}</ref>) In 1893, Gosio identified the mould ''[[w:Penicillium brevicompactum|Penicillium brevicompactum]]'' as one possible cause,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sydenstricker|first=V. P.|date=1958|title=The history of pellagra, its recognition as a disorder of nutrition and its conquest|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13559167|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=6|issue=4|pages=409–414|doi=10.1093/ajcn/6.4.409|pmid=13559167}}</ref> developed a simple culture method to make pure culture extract in crystalline form.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/82_2016_499|title=How to Overcome the Antibiotic Crisis|last=Mohr|first=Kathrin I.|date=2016|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-49282-7|editor-last=Stadler|editor-first=Marc|volume=398|location=Cham|pages=237–272|chapter=History of Antibiotics Research|doi=10.1007/82_2016_499|editor-last2=Dersch|editor-first2=Petra}}</ref> In 1896, he tested the substance on anthrax bacillus and found that it was highly potent against the bacteria.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTXooAEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ricerche batteriologiche e chimiche sulle alterazioni del mais: contributo all'etiologia della pellagra|last=Gosio|first=Bartolomeo|date=1896|publisher=Tip. delle mantellate|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=Kyriacos C.|last2=Rigol|first2=Stephan|date=2018|title=A brief history of antibiotics and select advances in their synthesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28676714|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=71|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1038/ja.2017.62|pmid=28676714}}</ref> Nonetheless, his discovery was largely forgotten as the substance was found not to be the cause of pellagra, and its medicinal potential was not obvious. American scientists, Carl Alsberg and Otis Fisher Black resynthesized Gosio's substance in 1912 giving it the name [[w:Mycophenolic acid|mycophenolic acid]], which is now used as an [[w:Immunosuppressant|immunosuppressant]].<ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halle|first=Mahesh B.|last2=Lee|first2=Woohyun|last3=Yudhistira|first3=Tesla|last4=Kim|first4=Myungseob|last5=Churchill|first5=David G.|date=2019|title=Mycophenolic Acid: Biogenesis, Compound Isolation, Biological Activity, and Historical Advances in Total Synthesis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ejoc.201900245|journal=European Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=2019|issue=13|pages=2315–2334|doi=10.1002/ejoc.201900245}}</ref> In 1924, Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the [[w:Free University of Brussels (1834–1969)|Free University of Brussels]], Belgium, found that dead ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'' cultures were contaminated by a mould, a [[w:streptomycete|streptomycete]]. On further experimentation, they showed that the mould extract could kill not only ''S. aureus'', but also ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[w:Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' and ''Escherichia coli''.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=2000|title=André Gratia (1893–1950): Forgotten Pioneer of Research into Antimicrobial Agents|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096777200000800108|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=39–42|doi=10.1177/096777200000800108|pmid=11608911|s2cid=43285911}}</ref> Gratia called the antibacterial agent "mycolysate" (killer mould). The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit anthrax bacterium (''B. anthracis''). Reporting in ''Comptes Rendus Des Séances de La Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales'', they identified the mould as ''Penicillium glaucum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Scoville|first1=C|last2=Brouwer|first2=C De|last3=Dujardin|first3=M|date=1999|title=Nobel chronicle: Fleming and Gratia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673605663349|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9174|page=258|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66334-9|pmid=10421340|s2cid=11659394}}</ref> In 1927, Gratia reported its medical use:<blockquote>A poor patient who during three years had suffered from [[w:Furuncles|furuncles]] [infection by ''S. aureus''], in spite of all treatments, was sent to us in despair. Jaumain did not hesitate to continue the treatment by a series of injections of the mycolysat. The result was remarkable. Not only was the recovery rapid, but it is now three years that [''sic''] this recovery continues without the slightest relapse. Since that time we have given the mycolysat to a very large number of cases. It is the most effective treatment even of the most resistant types of staphylococcic diseases.<ref name=":22" /></blockquote>Unfortunately, as in the case of Duchesne, these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical values were not fully understood; moreover, Gratia's samples were lost.<ref name=":8" /> ==The breakthrough discovery== ===Background === [[file:Professor Alexander Fleming at work in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London, during the Second World War. D17801.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London. {{attrib|Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer|[[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin as we know it today was "accidentally" discovered by the Scottish physician [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fraser|first=I.|date=1984|title=Penicillin: early trials in war casualties|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6440621|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=289|issue=6460|pages=1723–1725|doi=10.1136/bmj.289.6460.1723|pmc=1444789|pmid=6440621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20120325/penicillin-an-accidental-discovery-changed-the-course-of-medicine|title=Penicillin: An accidental discovery changed the course of medicine|last=Eickhoff|first=Theodore C.|date=2008|website=Endocrine Today|access-date=2021-10-10}}</ref> While working at [[w:St Mary's Hospital, London|St Mary's Hospital, London]], Fleming was investigating the pattern of variation in ''S. aureus'' (Figures 2 and 3).<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=K.|date=2020|title=Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould|journal=Science Vision|volume=20|issue=1|pages=29–42|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.03|doi-access=free|vauthors=Lalchhandama K}}</ref> He was inspired by the recent discovery by the Irish physician [[w:Joseph Warwick Bigger|Joseph Warwick Bigger]] and his two students C.R. Boland and R.A.Q. O’Meara at the [[w:Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College, Dublin]], Ireland, in 1927''.'' Bigger and his students found that a particular strain of ''S. aureus'' (designated "Y") that they isolated a year before from the pus of an axillary abscess (boil on the armpit) from one individual grew into a variety of strains. They published their discovery as "Variant colonies of ''Staphylococcus aureus"'' in ''[[w:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology]],'' by concluding: <blockquote>We were surprised and rather disturbed to find, on a number of plates, various types of colonies which differed completely from the typical ''aureus'' colony. Some of these were quite white; some, either white or of the usual colour were rough on the surface and with crenated margins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bigger|first=Joseph W.|last2=Boland|first2=C. R.|last3=O'meara|first3=R. A. Q.|date=1927|title=Variant colonies ofStaphylococcus aureus|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700300204|journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=261–269|doi=10.1002/path.1700300204}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming and his research scholar Daniel Merlin Pryce pursued this experiment but Pryce was transferred to another laboratory in early 1928. Their experiment had been successful and Fleming was planning and agreed to write a report in the compendium ''A System of Bacteriology'' to be published by the [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] at the end of that year.<ref name=":02" /> === Initial discovery === In August, Fleming spent a vacation with his family at his country home The Dhoon at [[w:Barton Mills|Barton Mills]], Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory (Figures 3 & 4), he inoculated several culture plates with ''S. aureus.'' He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight to allow proper growth of the bacteria. There are two versions of the reason he returned to his laboratory during the vacation. According to some sources, he was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the [[w:St Mary's Hospital Medical School|St Mary's Hospital Medical School]] and had to officially join on Saturday 1 September 1928. The next Monday he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last=Diggins|first=F.W.|date=1999|title=The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature|journal=British Journal of Biomedical Science|volume=56|issue=2|pages=83–93|pmid=10695047|vauthors=Diggins FW}} </ref> Alternative sources say that he went to London "on a flying visit" to help a colleague with the treatment of [[w:Bacillus cereus|haemolytic bacillus]]. It was while waiting for the colleague that he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/S0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933|vauthors=Hare R}}</ref><ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Wyn Jones|first=Emyr|last2=Wyn Jones|first2=R. Gareth|date=2002|title=Merlin Pryce (1902-1976) and penicillin: an abiding mystery|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12713008|journal=Vesalius|volume=8|issue=2|pages=6–25|pmid=12713008}}</ref> At the laboratory, Pryce paid him a visit and found him sorting out the Petri dishes. He and Pryce noticed one culture plate with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming commented as he watched the plate: "That's funny."<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last=Wainright|first=M.|date=1993|title=The mystery of the plate: Fleming's discovery and contribution to the early development of penicillin|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|volume=1|issue=1|pages=59–65|doi=10.1177/096777209300100113|pmid=11639213|vauthors=Wainwright M|s2cid=7578843}}</ref> Pryce remarked to Fleming: "That's how you discovered [[w:lysozyme|lysozyme]]."<ref name=":28" /> === Experiment === [[file:Flemming laboratory (3).JPG|thumb|St Mary's Hospital showing Fleming's lab (on the second floor) and Praed Street, from where Fleming alleged the mould came from. {{attrib|[[w:User:Vera de Kok|Vera de Kok]]|[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] Fleming went off to resume his vacation and returned to his laboratory late in September.<ref name=":02" /> He collected the original mould and grew it in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He later recounted his experience: <blockquote>When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Siang Yong|last2=Tatsumura|first2=Yvonne|date=2015|title=Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=56|issue=7|pages=366–367|doi=10.11622/smedj.2015105|pmc=4520913|pmid=26243971}}</ref></blockquote> He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth, and he produced a culture broth of the mould and subsequently concentrated the antibacterial component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arseculeratne|first=S. N.|last2=Arseculeratne|first2=G.|date=2017|title=A re-appraisal of the conventional history of antibiosis and Penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28144986|journal=Mycoses|volume=60|issue=5|pages=343–347|doi=10.1111/myc.12599|pmid=28144986}}</ref> After testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only specific bacteria. For example, Gram-positive bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus'', ''[[w:Streptococcus|Streptococcus]]'', and diphtheria bacillus (''[[w:Corynebacterium diphtheriae|Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') were easily killed; but there was no effect on Gram-negative species like typhoid bacterium (''[[w:Salmonella typhimurium|Salmonella typhimurium]]'') and influenza bacillus (''[[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Haemophilus influenzae]]''). He prepared a large-culture method from which he could obtain large amounts of the mould juice. On 7 March 1929, he coined the name "penicillin" for the mould extract,<ref name=":5" /> explaining the reason as "to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'Mould broth filtrate', the name 'penicillin' will be used."<ref name="pmid69942002">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprinted as {{cite journal|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref> In his Nobel lecture, he gave a further explanation: <blockquote>I have been frequently asked why I invented the name "Penicillin". I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus ''Penicillium'' just as many years ago the word "[[w:Digitalin|Digitalin]]" was invented for a substance derived from the plant ''Digitalis''.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/fleming-lecture.pdf|title=Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine, 1942-1962|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1999|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-3411-9|location=Singapore|pages=83–93|language=en|chapter=Penicillin: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1945}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming had no training in chemistry so that he left all the chemical works to his new research scholar Stuart Craddock, who joined him in December;<ref name=":2" /> he once remarked: "I am a bacteriologist, not a chemist."<ref name=":02" /> In January 1929, Fleming recruited his former research scholar Frederick Ridley, who had studied biochemistry, to study the chemical properties of the mould.<ref name=":3" /> However,a fucker both Craddock and Ridley left Fleming for other jobs before completing the experiments and isolating penicillin.<ref name=":5" /> Their failure to isolate the compound resulted in Fleming practically abandoning further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Kristin | name-list-style = vanc |date=2019|title=Fleming vs. Florey: It All Comes Down to the Mold|url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/the_histories/vol2/iss1/3|journal=The Histories|volume=2|issue=1|pages=3–10}}</ref> Nonetheless, he continued doing biological tests up to 1939.<ref name=":5" /> === Identification of the mould === [[File:Penicillium rubens (type specimen).png|thumb|''Penicillium rubens'' (type specimen). {{attrib| [https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a matter of speculation for several decades. The [[w:Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry]] believed that it came from a cup of coffee which Fleming left on the table.<ref name=":27" /> In 1945, Fleming himself suggested that the fungal spores came through the window facing [[w:Praed Street|Praed Street]]. This story was regarded as a reliable explanation and was popularised in the literature,<ref name=":2" /> starting with George Lacken's 1945 book ''The Story of Penicillin''.<ref name=":5" /> But it was later disputed by his co-workers, particularly Pryce, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut all the time.<ref name=":28" /> Ronald Hare also agreed in 1970 that the window remain locked as a large table in front of it made it difficult to open. In 1966, Charles John Patrick La Touche told Hare that he had given Fleming 13 specimens of fungi (10 from his lab) and only one from his lab was showing penicillin-like antibacterial activity.<ref name=":2" /> It was therefore concluded that Fleming's mould came from La Touche's lab, located a floor below, and the spores had drifted in the air through the open doors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Curry|first=J.|date=1981|title=Obituary: C. J. La Touche|journal=Sabouraudia|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|page=164|doi=10.1080/00362178185380261|vauthors=Curry J}}</ref> After a structural comparison with different species of ''Penicillium'', Fleming believed that his specimen was ''[[w:Penicillium chrysogenum|Penicillium chrysogenum]],'' a species described by the American microbiologist [[w:Charles Thom|Charles Thom]] in 1910. He was fortunate as Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had just recently joined as a [[w:mycologist|mycologist]] at St Mary's to investigate fungi as the cause of asthma.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingston|first=W.|date=2008|title=Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18347757|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|volume=177|issue=2|pages=87–92|doi=10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x|pmid=18347757}}</ref> La Touche identified the specimen as ''Penicillium rubrum,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henderson|first=J. W.|date=1997|title=The yellow brick road to penicillin: a story of serendipity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9212774|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=72|issue=7|pages=683–687|doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)63577-5|pmid=9212774}}</ref> the identification used by Fleming in his publication of the discovery.<ref name="pmid6994200" /> In 1931, Thom re-examined different species of ''Penicillium'' including that of Fleming's specimen. He came to a confusing conclusion, stating: "Ad. 35 [Fleming's specimen] is ''P. notatum'' WESTLING. This is a member of the ''P. chrysogenum'' series with smaller conidia than ''P. chrysogenum'' itself."<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Thom C |date=1931|title=Appendix. History of species used and Dr. Thom's diagnoses of species|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character|language=en|volume=220|issue=468–473|pages=83–92|doi=10.1098/rstb.1931.0015|doi-access=free}}</ref> From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as ''P. chrysogenum'' and ''P. notatum,'' a species discovered by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. But Thom adopted and popularised the use of ''P. chrysogenum.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thom |first=Charles | name-list-style = vanc |date=1945|title=Mycology Presents Penicillin|journal=Mycologia|volume=37|issue=4|pages=460–475|doi=10.2307/3754632|jstor=3754632}}</ref>'' Adding to the controversial taxonomy, newly discovered species such as ''P. meleagrinum'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum'' were recognised as members of ''P. chrysogenum'' in 1977''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samson|first=R. A.|last2=Hadlok|first2=R.|last3=Stolk|first3=A. C.|date=1977|title=A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/413477|journal=Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek|volume=43|issue=2|pages=169–175|doi=10.1007/BF00395671|pmid=413477}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 2005, the Seventeenth [[w:International Botanical Congress|International Botanical Congress]] held in Vienna, Austria, formally adopted the name ''P. chrysogenum'' as the conserved name (''[[w:nomen conservandum|nomen conservandum]]'') for all related ''Penicilium'' species''.''<ref>{{cite web | date=2006|title=International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE). Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda. B. Fungi|url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/icbn/main.htm|access-date=17 June 2020|website=International Association of Plant Taxonomy}}</ref> In 2011, whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|P. rubens]]'' (Figure 5)'','' a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923, and that ''P. chrysogenum'' is a different species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=Jos|last2=Frisvad|first2=Jens C.|last3=Samson|first3=Robert A.|date=2011|title=Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22679592|journal=IMA fungus|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–95|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12|pmc=3317369|pmid=22679592}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=J.|last2=Frisvad|first2=J. C.|last3=Seifert|first3=K. A.|last4=Overy|first4=D. P.|last5=Tuthill|first5=D. M.|last6=Valdez|first6=J. G.|last7=Samson|first7=R. A.|date=2012|title=New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23606767|journal=Persoonia|volume=29|pages=78–100|doi=10.3767/003158512X660571|pmc=3589797|pmid=23606767}}</ref> === Reception and publication === Initially, Fleming's discovery was not considered important, and as he showed to his his colleagues, all he received was an indifferent response. He described the discovery on 13 February 1929 before the [[w:Medical Research Club|Medical Research Club]] but his presentation titled "A medium for the isolation of [[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Pfeiffer's bacillus]]" did not receive any particular attention.<ref name=":02" /> In May 1929, Fleming reported his findings to the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'' whch published them in the next month's issue.<ref name="pmid6994200">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprint of {{cite journal|vauthors=Fleming A|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> It failed to attract any serious attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application and was more concerned about the application for bacterial isolation, as he concluded: <blockquote>In addition to its possible use in the treatment of bacterial infections penicillin is certainly useful to the bacteriologist for its power of inhibiting unwanted microbes in bacterial cultures so that penicillin insensitive bacteria can readily be isolated. A notable instance of this is the very easy, isolation of Pfeiffers bacillus of influenza when penicillin is used...It is suggested that it may be an efficient antiseptic for application to, or injection into, areas infected with penicillin-sensitive microbes.<ref name="pmid6994200" /></blockquote> G. E. Breen, a fellow member of the [[w:Chelsea Arts Club|Chelsea Arts Club]], once asked Fleming: "I just wanted you to tell me whether you think it will ever be possible to make practical use of the stuff [penicillin]. For instance, could I use it?" Fleming gazed vacantly for a moment and then replied: "I don't know. It's too unstable. It will have to be purified, and I can't do that by myself."<ref name=":02" /> Even as late as in 1941, the ''[[w:The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' reported that "the main facts emerging from a very comprehensive study [of penicillin] in which a large team of workers is engaged... does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Annotations | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4208 | pages = 310–2 | date = August 1941 | pmid = 20783842 | pmc = 2162429 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4208.310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A.|date=1941|title=Penicillin|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4210|page=386|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4210.386|pmc=2162878|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref>{{efn|The statement "does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view" seems to be later deleted, but is still apparent from Fleming's response (''BMJ'', 1941, '''2''' (4210): 386–386).}} ==Isolation == In 1933, [[w:Ernst Boris Chain|Ernst Boris Chain]], a chemist of Jewish-German origin, joined Australian scientist [[w:Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] (later Baron Florey) at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the [[w:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] in 1936 to investigate antibiotics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|date=1972|title=Thirty years of penicillin therapy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4551373|journal=Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London|volume=6|issue=2|pages=103–131|pmc=5366029|pmid=4551373|doi=10.1098/rspb.1971.0098}}</ref> Florey assigned him to work on lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme discovered by Fleming in 1922.<ref name=":24">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A|year=1922|title=On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=93|issue=653|pages=306–317|bibcode=1922RSPSB..93..306F|doi=10.1098/rspb.1922.0023|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1938, he came across Fleming's 1929 paper while writing a research report and informed his supervisor of the potential medical benefits of penicillin.<ref name=":10" /> Although a year before, Florey had concentrated on [[w:Pyocyanase|pyocyanase]] (a pigment from the bacterium ''Bacillus pycyaneus,'' now called ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''), he agreed with Chain that penicillin was medically more promising.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|date=1944|title=The discovery of the chemotherapeutic properties of penicillin|url=https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033|journal=British Medical Bulletin|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033}}</ref> In 1939, Florey and Chain obtained a research grant of $25,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation to study antibiotics,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=H. W.|last2=Abraham|first2=E. P.|date=1951|title=The work on penicillin at Oxford|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24619871|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=302–317|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.302}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Kok-Fai|last2=Schneper|first2=Lisa|last3=Mathee|first3=Kalai|date=2010|title=Beta-lactam antibiotics: from antibiosis to resistance and bacteriology|journal=Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica|volume=118|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02563.x|pmc=2894812|pmid=20041868}}</ref> which allowed them to assemble a research team composed of [[w:Edward Abraham|Edward Abraham]], [[w:Arthur Duncan Gardner|Arthur Duncan Gardner]], [[w:Norman Heatley|Norman Heatley]], [[w:Margaret Jennings (scientist)|Margaret Jennings]], J. Orr-Ewing and G. Sanders.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=David S.|last2=Jones|first2=John H.|date=2014-12-01|title=Sir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999|url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=60|pages=5–22|doi=10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002|issn=0080-4606|doi-access=free|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Landmark">{{cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin|work=International Historic Chemical Landmarks|publisher=American Chemical Society|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> The Oxford team soon prepared a concentrated extract of ''P. rubens'' as "a brown powder" that "has been obtained which is freely soluble in water".<ref name=":9" /> They found that the powder was not only effective ''in vitro'' against bacterial cultures but also and ''[[w:in vivo|in vivo]]'' against bacterial infection in mice. On 5 May 1939, they injected a group of eight mice with a virulent strain of ''S. aureus'', and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. After one day, all the untreated mice died while the penicillin-treated mice survived; "a miracle" in Chain's view.<ref name=":10" /> The team published its findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1940.<ref name=":9" /> The team reported details of the isolation method in 1941 with a scheme for large-scale extraction. They also found that penicillin was most abundant as a yellow concentrate from the mould extract,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Fletcher|first3=C. M.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Gardner|first5=A. D.|last6=Heatley|first6=N. G.|last7=Jennings|first7=M. A.|date=1992|title=Further observations on penicillin. 1941|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1541313|journal=European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=3–9|pmid=1541313}}</ref> but it was able to produce only small quantities. By the early 1942, they could prepare highly purified compound,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1942|title=Purification of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149328b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3777|pages=328|doi=10.1038/149328b0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..328A|s2cid=4122059}}</ref> and derived the empirical chemical formula as C₂₄H₃₂O₁₀N₂Ba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Baker|first2=W.|last3=Chain|first3=E.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Holiday|first5=E. R.|last6=Robinson|first6=R.|date=1942|title=Nitrogenous Character of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149356a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3778|pages=356|doi=10.1038/149356a0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..356A|s2cid=4055617}}</ref> In the June 1942 issue of the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'', Chain, Abraham and E. R. Holiday reported the production of the pure compound concluding that:<blockquote>The penicillin preparation described in this paper is the most powerful antibacterial agent with predominantly bacteriostatic action so far known. Though it has not yet been obtained crystalline there are indications that it possesses a considerable degree of purity... The unusual biological properties of penicillin are linked with an exceptionally unstable chemical configuration. Inactivation by acid, alkali, and by boiling at any pH has been shown to be accompanied by definite chemical changes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Holiday|first3=E. R.|date=1942|title=Purification and Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2065494/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=23|issue=3|pages=103–119|pmc=2065494}}</ref></blockquote> == First medical use == In  January  1929,  Fleming performed the first clinical trial with penicillin on his assistant Craddock. Craddock had developed a severe infection of the [[w:nasal antrum|nasal antrum]] ([[w:sinusitis|sinusitis]]) for which he had undergone surgery. Fleming made use of the surgical opening of the nasal passage and started injecting penicillin on 9 January. Craddock showed no sign of improvement, probably because the infection was caused by influenza bacillus (''Haemophilus influenzae''), the bacterium which he had found not susceptible to penicillin.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/s0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933}}</ref> It seems that Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wainwright|first1=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1987|title=The Sheffield penicillin story|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X87800228|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=28–30|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(87)80022-8}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1990|title=Besredka's "antivirus" in relation to Fleming's initial views on the nature of penicillin|url= |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300050286 |pmc=1036002 |pmid=2405221}}</ref> Although Wright reportedly said that it: "seemed to work satisfactorily,"<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M|date=1987|title=The history of the therapeutic use of crude penicillin. |journal=Medical History |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300046305|pmc=1139683|pmid=3543562}}</ref> there are no records of its specific use. In November 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], was the first to use penicillin for medical treatment successfully.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|language=en|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763}}</ref> He was a former student of Fleming who, after learning about penicillin, requested a sample from Fleming.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dr Cecil George Paine - Unsung Medical Heroes - Blackwell's Bookshop Online|url=https://blackwells.co.uk/jsp/promo/umh.jsp?action=more&id=18|access-date=2020-10-19|website=blackwells.co.uk}}</ref> He initially attempted to treat [[w:sycosis|sycosis]] (eruptions in beard follicles). On 25 November, he then tried it successfully with four patients (one adult, the others infants) who had [[w:ophthalmia neonatorum|ophthalmia neonatorum]], an inflammation of the eye due to infection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1986|title=C.G. Paine and the earliest surviving clinical records of penicillin therapy|journal=Medical History|volume=30|issue=1|pages=42–56|doi=10.1017/S0025727300045026|pmc=1139580|pmid=3511336|vauthors=}}</ref> Thus, penicillin first worked on an eye infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alharbi|first1=Sulaiman Ali|last2=Wainwright|first2=Milton|last3=Alahmadi|first3=Tahani Awad|last4=Salleeh|first4=Hashim Bin|last5=Faden|first5=Asmaa A.|last6=Chinnathambi|first6=Arunachalam|date=2014|title=What if Fleming had not discovered penicillin?|url= |journal=Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=289–293|doi=10.1016/j.sjbs.2013.12.007|pmc=4150221|pmid=25183937}}</ref> Nine years later, the Oxford team showed that ''Penicillium'' extract killed different bacteria (''Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,'' and ''Clostridium septique'') in culture and effectively cured ''Streptococcus'' infection in mice.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> Thus, they reported their findings in the 24 August 1940 issue of ''The Lancet'' under the title "Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent" concluding: <blockquote>The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active ''in vivo'' against at least three of the organisms inhibited ''in vitro''. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution ''in vitro'' will be found to be dealt with ''in vivo''. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with [[w:gas gangrene|gas gangrene]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Chain|first1=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|last3=Adelaide|first3=M. B.|last4=Gardner|first4=A. D.|last5=Heatley|first5=N. G.|last6=Jennings|first6=M. A.|last7=Orr-Ewing|first7=J.|last8=Sanders|first8=A. G.|date=1940|title=Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8403666|journal=The Lancet|volume=236|issue=6104|pages=226–228|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)08728-1|pmid=8403666}}</ref></blockquote> The following year, the Oxford team treated a policeman, [[w:Albert Alexander (police officer)|Albert Alexander]], who had a severe facial infection; his condition improved, but he eventually died as the researchers ran out of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamdy|first=Ronald C.|date=2006|title=Penicillin is 65 years old!|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16509564/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=99|issue=2|pages=192–193|doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000194524.83293.0d|pmid=16509564}}</ref> Subsequently, several other patients were treated successfully,<ref name="SW2">{{cite web|year=2007|title=Making Penicillin Possible: Norman Heatley Remembers|url=http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221041204/http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-date=February 21, 2007|access-date=2007-02-13|work=ScienceWatch|publisher=Thomson Scientific}}</ref> among them the survivors of the [[w:Cocoanut Grove fire|Cocoanut Grove fire]] in Boston (December 1942) who were the first burn patients to be successfully treated with penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Camille L.|date=2015|title=The Fire at Cocoanut Grove:|url=https://academic.oup.com/jbcr/article/36/1/232-235/4568893|journal=Journal of Burn Care & Research|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=232–235|doi=10.1097/BCR.0000000000000111}}</ref> The most important clinical test took place in August 1942 when Fleming cured Harry Lambert (a work associate of Robert, Fleming's brother) of a fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045187004000184|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=58–64|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002|pmid=15175996}}</ref> Fleming asked Florey for a purified penicillin sample, which he immediately injected into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the next day,<ref name=":07">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref> and completely recovered within a week.<ref name=":42">{{Citation |last1=Bennett|first1=Joan W|title=Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin|date=2001|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065216401490137|journal=Advances in Applied Microbiology |volume=49 |pages=163–184 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49013-7 |isbn=978-0-12-002649-4|access-date=2020-10-17|last2=Chung|first2=King-Thom|pmid=11757350}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cairns|first1=H.|last2=Lewin|first2=W. S.|last3=Duthie|first3=E. S.|last4=Smith|first4=HonorV.|date=1944|title=Pneumococcal Meningitis Treated with Penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673600770851|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=243|issue=6299|pages=655–659|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)77085-1}}</ref> Fleming reported his findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1943.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1943|title=Streptococcal Meningitis treated With Penicillin.|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673600874528|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=242|issue=6267|pages=434–438|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)87452-8}}</ref> It was on this medical evidence that the British [[w:War Cabinet|War Cabinet]] set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943 formed by [[w:Cecil Weir|Cecil Weir]], Director General of Equipment, as Chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir [[w:Percival Hartley|Percival Hartley]], Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members.<ref name=":07"/> The establishment of the committee opened the door to the mass production of penicillin the next year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=John A.|date=2008|title=The Birth of the Biotechnology Era: Penicillin in Australia, 1943–80|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08109020802459306 |journal=Prometheus|volume=26|issue=4|pages=317–333|doi=10.1080/08109020802459306|s2cid=143123783}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Baldry|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvs8AAAAIAAJ|title=The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look|date=1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-21268-7|page=115|language=en}}</ref> == Mass production == [[file:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|The cantaloupe strain of ''Penicillum'' (''P. chrysogenum'' or ''P. notatum'') which is the best source of penicillins and was used in the first mass production in US. {{attrib| Crulina 98| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}}]] Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a confined laboratory, the Oxford team tried to persuade the war-torn British government and private companies to undertake mass production, but in vain.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|last=Andrew Carroll|date=2014-06-02|title=Here is Where: Penicillin Comes to Peoria|url=https://www.historynet.com/here-is-where-penicillin-comes-to-peoria.htm|access-date=2021-01-04|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US}}</ref> Florey and Heatley travelled to the United States (US) in June 1941 to persuade the American government and pharmaceutical companies there.<ref name="Chain">{{cite web|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628035235/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-date=28 June 2019|access-date=15 July 2019|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Ton ensure safe transportation of the sample, they smeared their coat pockets with the mould instead of taking it in a vial.<ref name=":10" /> In July, they met with [[w:Andrew Jackson Moyer|Andrew Jackson Moyer]] and Robert D. Coghill at the [[w:USDA|USDA]] Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL, now the [[w:National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research|National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research]]) in [[w:Peoria, Illinois|Peoria, Illinois]], where large-scale fermentations were done.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Neushul|first=P.|date=1993|title=Science, government, and the mass production of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8283024|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=48|issue=4|pages=371–395|doi=10.1093/jhmas/48.4.371|pmid=8283024}}</ref> The Americans showed great interest and were able to make a ''Penicillium'' culture by the end of July<ref name=":12" /> but realised that Fleming's mould was not efficient enough to produce large quantities of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodríguez-Sáiz|first=Marta|last2=Díez|first2=Bruno|last3=Barredo|first3=José Luis|date=2005|title=Why did the Fleming strain fail in penicillin industry?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15809010|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|volume=42|issue=5|pages=464–470|doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.014|pmid=15809010}}</ref> With the help of US Army Transport Command, NRRL mycologist [[w:Kenneth Bryan Raper|Kenneth Bryan Raper]] was able to locate similar but better moulds from Chungkin (China), Bombay (Mumbai, India) and Cape Town (South Africa). However, the single-best sample was obtained in 1943 from [[w:cantaloupe|cantaloupe]] (a type of melon) sold in the Peoria fruit market. The mould was identified to be ''P. chrysogenum'' and designated as "NRRL 1951" or "cantaloupe strain" (Figure 6).<ref name=":13" /><ref name="Barreiro">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barreiro C, Martín JF, García-Estrada C | title = Proteomics shows new faces for the old penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum | journal = Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology | volume = 2012 | page = 105109 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22318718 | pmc = 3270403 | doi = 10.1155/2012/105109 }}</ref> There is a popular story that Mary K. Hunt (or Mary Hunt Stevens<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bentley|first=Ronald|date=2009|title=Different roads to discovery; Prontosil (hence sulfa drugs) and penicillin (hence β-lactams)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|journal=Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology|language=en|volume=36|issue=6|pages=775–786|doi=10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|pmid=19283418|s2cid=35432074}}</ref>), a staff member at NRRL, collected the mould;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kardos|first1=Nelson|last2=Demain|first2=Arnold L.|date=2011|title=Penicillin: the medicine with the greatest impact on therapeutic outcomes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=92|issue=4|pages=677–687|doi=10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|pmid=21964640|s2cid=39223087}}</ref> for which she was popularised as "Mouldy Mary."<ref>{{cite web|last=Bauze|first=Robert|date=1997|title=Editorial: Howard Florey and the penicillin story|url=https://search.proquest.com/openview/d5ed3749f4eb8b5b8bbe9d4ac3d955fd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=11254|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Taylor|first=Robert B.|title=Drugs and Other Remedies|date=2016|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|work=White Coat Tales|pages=67–84|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|isbn=978-3-319-29053-9|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref> However, Raper remarked that this story was "folklore" and that the fruit was delivered to the laboratory by a woman from the local fruit market.<ref name=":13" /> Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the ''Penicillium'' mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1946|title=The development of improved penicillin‐producing molds|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=41–56|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x}}</ref> Simultaneous research by [[w:Jasper H. Kane|Jasper H. Kane]] and other [[w:Pfizer|Pfizer]] scientists in [[w:Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] developed the practical, deep-tank [[w:Industrial fermentation|fermentation]] method for production of large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daemmrich|first=Arthur|date=2009|title=Synthesis by microbes or chemists? Pharmaceutical research and manufacturing in the antibiotic era|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510903083237|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=237–256|doi=10.1080/07341510903083237}}</ref> [[file:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg|thumb|Penicillin ad for World War II servicemen, ''c''. 1944. {{attrib| [[w:National Institute of Health|National Institute of Health]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] When production first began, one-litre containers had a yield of less than 1%, but improved to a yield of 80–90% in 10,000 gallon containers.<ref name="Landmark" /> This increase in efficiency happened between 1941 and 1945 as the result of continuous process innovation (Figure 7 shows one of the first mass applications).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1991|title=Penicillin Production Saga Recalled|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24531093|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=81|issue=3|pages=157–161}}</ref> Orvill May, director of the [[w:Agricultural Research Service|Agricultural Research Service]], had Coghill use his experience with fermentation to increase the efficiency of extracting penicillin from the mould. When Moyer and Coghill replaced sucrose with lactose in the growth media, penicillin yield was increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moyer|first=Andrew J.|last2=Coghill|first2=Robert D.|date=1946|title=Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC518023/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=51|issue=1|pages=79–93|pmc=518023|pmid=16561059|doi=10.1128/jb.51.1.79-93.1946}}</ref> An even larger increase occurred when they added [[w:corn steep liquor|corn steep liquor]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1975|title=Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin in the United States|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24536802|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=65|issue=3|pages=96–101}}</ref> The inefficiency of growing the mould on the surface of their nutrient baths, rather than having it submerged was a major challenge to the scientists. Although a submerged process of growing the mould was more efficient, the strain used was not suitable for the required conditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. E.|last2=Peterson|first2=W. H.|date=1950|title=Factors Affecting Production of Penicillin in Semi-Pilot Plant Equipment|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a025|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1769–1774|doi=10.1021/ie50489a025}}</ref> With the improved fermentation, the cantaloupe strain could produced six times as much penicillin per millilitre of the culture filtrate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Penicillin: its discovery and early development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15175995/|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=15|issue=1|pages=52–57|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001|pmid=15175995}}</ref> To improve on the cantaloupe strain, researchers subjected it to [[w:X-ray|X-ray]]s to facilitate mutations in its genome.<ref name="Landmark" /> The new mutant strain, designated "X-1612", made in in 1946 produced twice as much penicillin as the original strain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Savage|first=George M.|date=1949|title=Improvement in streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus by ultraviolet and X-ray energy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385538/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=57|issue=4|pages=429–441|pmc=385538|pmid=16561716|doi=10.1128/jb.57.4.429-441.1949}}</ref> Another mutant strain, named "Q176", made in 1947 from ultraviolet irradiation further doubled the penicillin productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1952|title=A Decade of Antibiotics in America|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|journal=Mycologia|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=1–59|doi=10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|jstor=4547566}}</ref> Now scientists had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin. The next challenge was to provide the air required by the mould to grow. This problem was solved using an aerator but, due to the use of corn steep, aeration caused  severe  foaming.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stefaniak|first=J. J.|last2=Gailey|first2=F. B.|last3=Brown|first3=C. S.|last4=Johnson|first4=M. J.|date=1946|title=Pilot Plant Equipment for Submerged Production of Penicillin|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50439a010|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=38|issue=7|pages=666–671|doi=10.1021/ie50439a010}}</ref> The  addition  of  an  anti-foaming  agents such as arachis oil, lard oil and other fatty acids solved this problem.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=R. B.|last2=Harris|first2=G. C. M.|date=1949|title=The morphology of Penicillium chrysogenum in submerged fermentations|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007153649800106|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=224–235|doi=10.1016/S0007-1536(49)80010-6}}</ref> These anti-foaming agents further enhanced penicillin production.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldschmidt|first=Millicent C.|last2=Koffler|first2=Henry|date=1950|title=Effect of Surface-Active Agents on Penicillin Yields|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a035|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.1021/ie50489a035}}</ref> == Chemical analysis == The [[w:chemical structure|chemical structure]] of penicillin was first proposed by Edward Abraham in 1942,<ref name=":03" /> and three years later, [[w:Dorothy Hodgkin|Dorothy Hodgkin]], working at Oxford, determined the correct chemical structure using [[w:X-ray crystallography|X-ray crystallography]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hodgkin|first=D. C.|date=1949|title=The X-ray analysis of the structure of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18134678|journal=Advancement of Science|volume=6|issue=22|pages=85–89|pmid=18134678}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400874910-012/html|title=Chemistry of Penicillin|last=Crowfoot|first=D.|last2=Bunn|first2=C. W.|last3=Rogers-Low|first3=B. W.|last4=Turner-Jones|first4=A.|date=1949|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7491-0|editor-last=Clarke|editor-first=Hans T.|pages=310–366|chapter=XI. The X-Ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin|doi=10.1515/9781400874910-012}}</ref> The same year, chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments was published jointly by the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council in the journal ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]''. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds that shared the same structural component called [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Committee on Medical Research|last2=Medical Research Council|date=1945|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17788243|journal=Science|volume=102|issue=2660|pages=627–629|doi=10.1126/science.102.2660.627|pmid=17788243|bibcode=1945Sci...102..627M}}</ref> In the United Kingdom the penicillins were called penicillin I, II, III, and IV (Roman numerals were used according to the order of their discovery) while in the US scientists used letters such as F, G, K, and X that referred to their origins or sources as shown below: {| class="wikitable" !UK nomenclature !US nomenclature !Chemical name |- |Penicillin I |Penicillin F |2-Pentenylpenicillin |- |Penicillin II |Penicillin G |Benzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin III |Penicillin X |''p''-Hydroxybenzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin IV |Penicillin K |''n''-Heptylpenicillin |} The use of two different names for each penicillin caused confusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=F. A.|date=1947|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=an9477200274|journal=The Analyst|language=en|volume=72|issue=856|pages=274|doi=10.1039/an9477200274}}</ref> As the chemical structures came to be known, the chemical names (based on the [[w:Side chain|side chains]] of the compounds<ref name=":25" />) further complicated their identification and application. Thus, penicillin literature became a mixture of three naming systems. Chemists mostly adhered to the chemical names,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=H. E.|last2=Ford|first2=J. H.|date=1950|title=Biochemistry of antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=487–516|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last=Wintersteiner|first=O.|last2=Dutcher|first2=J. D.|date=1949|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=559–594|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015}}</ref> while biologists preferred the classic numbered or lettered names.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ory|first=E. M.|date=1945|title=Penicillin X: Comparison with penicillin g with respect to sensitivity of pathogenic organisms and serum levels|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=257|doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=W. H.|last2=Ward|first2=G. E.|last3=Coghill|first3=R. D.|date=1945|title=Penicillin: VI. Effect of dissociation phases of Bacillus subtilis on penicillin assay|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=49|issue=4|pages=411–412|doi=10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 1948, Chain introduced the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking: "To make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous it was decided to replace the system of numbers or letters by prefixes indicating the chemical nature of the side chain R."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E|date=1948|title=The chemistry of penicillin|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=657–704|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|pmid=18893607}}</ref> Further developments took place. In Austria, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie (now [[w:Sandoz|Sandoz]]) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, [[w:Phenoxymethylpenicillin|penicillin V]] in 1952.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roehr|first=M.|date=2000|title=History of biotechnology in Austria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11036693|journal=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology|volume=69|pages=125–149|doi=10.1007/3-540-44964-7_5|pmid=11036693}}</ref> American chemist [[w:John C. Sheehan|John C. Sheehan]] at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) completed the first chemical [[w:Total synthesis|synthesis]] of penicillin in 1957.<ref name="Sheehan1957">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=H enery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=March 5, 1957|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=79|issue=5|pages=1262–1263|doi=10.1021/ja01562a063|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Sheehan1959">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Loganm|first2=Kenneth R.|date=June 20, 1959|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=81|issue=12|pages=3089–3094|doi=10.1021/ja01521a044|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="NAPSheehan2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&page=jsheehan.html|title=Biographical Memoirs: John Clark Sheehan|last1=Corey|first1=E. J.|last2=Roberts|first2=John D.|publisher=The National Academy Press|access-date=January 28, 2013|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of [[w:peptide|peptides]], as well as new [[w:Protecting group|protecting groups]]—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups.<ref name="NAPSheehan2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=K. C.|last2=Vourloumis|first2=Dionisios|last3=Winssinger|first3=Nicolas|last4=Baran|first4=Phil S.|date=2000|title=The Art and Science of Total Synthesis at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291521-3773%2820000103%2939%3A1%3C44%3A%3AAID-ANIE44%3E3.0.CO%3B2-L|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=39|issue=1|pages=44–122|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000103)39:1<44::AID-ANIE44>3.0.CO;2-L|pmid=10649349}}</ref> Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in his synthesis was [[w:6-APA|6-aminopenicillanic acid]] (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Logan|first2=Kenneth R. Henery|date=1959|title=A general synthesis of the penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=81|issue=21|pages=5838–5839|doi=10.1021/ja01530a079|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=1962|title=The Total and Partial General Syntheses of the Penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=84|issue=15|pages=2983–2990|doi=10.1021/ja00874a029|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> An important moment in the history of penicillin was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at Surrey's Beecham Research Laboratories (now the [[w:Beecham Group|Beecham Group]]) isolated 6-APA from the culture media of ''P. chrysogenum''. As published in ''Nature'' (1959),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Batchelor|first1=F. R.|last2=Doyle|first2=F. P.|last3=Nayler|first3=J. H.|last4=Rolinson|first4=G. N.|date=1959|title=Synthesis of penicillin: 6-aminopenicillanic acid in penicillin fermentations|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13622762|journal=Nature|volume=183|issue=4656|pages=257–258|bibcode=1959Natur.183..257B|doi=10.1038/183257b0|pmid=13622762|s2cid=4268993}}</ref> 6-APA was found to constitute the core 'nucleus' of penicillin (in fact, all β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Molecular Modification in Drug Design|last=Sheehan|first=J.C.|vauthors=|date=1964|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0-8412-0046-3|editor-last=Schueler|editor-first=F.W.|veditors=|series=Advances in Chemistry|volume=45|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=15–24|language=en|chapter=The Synthetic Penicillins|doi=10.1021/ba-1964-0045.ch002}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last=Hamilton-Miller|first=J.M.T.|date=2008|title=Development of the semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=31|issue=3|pages=189–92|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010|pmid=18248798}}</ref> This discovery paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semi-synthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolinson|first1=G. N.|last2=Geddes|first2=A. M.|date=2007|title=The 50th anniversary of the discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17137753|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=29|issue=1|pages=3–8|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.09.003|pmid=17137753}}</ref> The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. It is likely that [[w:Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant forms of ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] already existed at the time.<ref name="Davies2">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J.|last2=Davies|first2=D.|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harkins|first=Catriona P.|last2=Pichon|first2=Bruno|last3=Doumith|first3=Michel|last4=Parkhill|first4=Julian|last5=Westh|first5=Henrik|last6=Tomasz|first6=Alexander|last7=de Lencastre|first7=Herminia|last8=Bentley|first8=Stephen D.|last9=Kearns|first9=Angela M.|date=2017|title=Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerged long before the introduction of methicillin into clinical practice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724393|journal=Genome Biology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=130|doi=10.1186/s13059-017-1252-9|issn=1474-760X|pmc=5517843|pmid=28724393}}</ref> == Outcomes == Penicillin patents became a matter of concern and conflict. Chain had wanted to apply for a patent but Florey and his teammates had objected arguing that penicillin should benefit all.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> He sought the advice of Sir [[w:Henry Hallett Dale|Henry Hallett Dale]] (Chairman of the [[w:Wellcome Trust|Wellcome Trust]] and member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet of British government) and John William Trevan (Director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory). On 26 and 27 March 1941, Dale and Trevan met at Sir William Dunn School of Pathology to discuss the issue. Dale specifically advised that patenting penicillin would be unethical.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Edward Penley|date=1983|title=Ernst Boris Chain, 19 June 1906 - 12 August 1979|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|language=en|volume=29|pages=42–91|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|issn=0080-4606}}</ref> Not giving up, Chain approached Sir Edward Mellanby, then Secretary of the Medical Research Council, who also objected on ethical grounds.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Slinn|first=Judy|date=2008|title=Patents and the UK pharmaceutical industry between 1945 and the 1970s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510701810963|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=191–205|doi=10.1080/07341510701810963|issn=0734-1512}}</ref> As Chain later admitted, he had "many bitter fights" with Mellanby,<ref name=":18" /> but Mellanby's decision was accepted as final.<ref name=":19" /> In 1945, Moyer patented the methods for production and isolation of penicillin.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2442141|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=25 March 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2443989|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=22 June 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2476107|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=12 July 1949|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref> Moyer could not obtain a patent in the US as an employee of the NRRL, and filed his patent at the British Patent Office (now the [[w:Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]). He gave the license to a US company, [[w:Commercial Solvents Corporation|Commercial Solvents Corporation]]. Although completely legal, his colleague Coghill felt it was an injustice for outsiders to have the royalties for the "British discovery." A year later, Moyer asked Coghill for permission to file another patent based on the use of phenylacetic acid that increased penicillin production by 66%, but as the principal researcher, Coghill refused.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyabji|first=Nasir|date=2004|title=Gaining Technical Know-How in an Unequal World: Penicillin Manufacture in Nehru's India|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84236/1/MPRA_paper_84236.pdf|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=45|issue=2|pages=331–349|jstor=40060744|doi=10.1353/tech.2004.0097}}</ref> When Fleming learned of the American patents on penicillin production, he was infuriated and commented:<blockquote>I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?<ref name=":072">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref></blockquote>Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases."<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-26}}</ref> Hodgkin received the 1964 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1964/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref> == Development of penicillin-derivatives == The narrow range of treatable diseases of the penicillins prompted further search for derivatives of penicillin. The isolation of 6-APA allowed preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements in terms of bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirby|first=W. M.|last2=Bulger|first2=R. J.|date=1964|title=The new penicillins and cephalosporins|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14133855|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|volume=15|pages=393–412|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.15.020164.002141|pmid=14133855}}</ref> The first major development was the production of [[w:ampicillin|ampicillin]] by the Beecham Research Laboratories in London in 1961.<ref name="acred">{{cite journal|last=Acred|first=P.|last2=Brown|first2=P.|last3=Turner|first3=D.H.|last4=Wilson|first4=M.J.|date=1962|title=Pharmacology and chemotherapy of ampicillin--a new broad-spectrum penicillin|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|volume=18|issue=2|pages=356–69|doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.1962.tb01416.x|pmc=1482127|pmid=13859205|vauthors=}}</ref> Ampicillin had advantages over the original penicillin as it showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.<ref name="acred" /> Further development yielded [[w:Β-lactam antibiotic|β-lactamase-resistant penicillins]], including [[w:flucloxacillin|flucloxacillin]], [[w:dicloxacillin|dicloxacillin]], and [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], which were specifically active against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but not against the methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' strains that subsequently emerged.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 1965|title=Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in a General Hospital|journal=Lancet|language=en|volume=1|issue=7385|pages=595–7|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(65)91165-7|pmid=14250094|vauthors=Colley EW, Mcnicol MW, Bracken PM}}</ref> Another development in penicillin synthesis was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as [[w:carbenicillin|carbenicillin]], [[w:ticarcillin|ticarcillin]], and [[w:piperacillin|piperacillin]], useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. The penicillins and related β-lactams have become the most widely used antibiotics in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Sousa Coelho|first=F.|last2=Mainardi|first2=J.-L.|date=2021-01-05|title=The multiple benefits of second-generation β-lactamase inhibitors in treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33870896|journal=Infectious Diseases Now|volume=online|doi=10.1016/j.idnow.2020.11.007|pmid=33870896|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[w:Amoxicillin|Amoxicillin]], a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Croydon|first=E. A.|last2=Sutherland|first2=R.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: absorption and excretion in man|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5521362|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=427–430|pmid=5521362}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=R.|last2=Rolinson|first2=G. N.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: in vitro evaluation|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5000265|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=411–415|doi=10.1128/AAC.10.3.411|pmid=5000265}}</ref> is the single-most commonly used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burch|first=D. G. S.|last2=Sperling|first2=D.|date=2018|title=Amoxicillin-current use in swine medicine|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jvp.12482|journal=Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=356–368|doi=10.1111/jvp.12482|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aberer|first=Werner|last2=Macy|first2=Eric|date=2017|title=Moving toward optimizing testing for penicillin allergy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28483319|journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice|volume=5|issue=3|pages=684–685|doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2017.03.020|pmid=28483319|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, the usefulness of these penicillins and later developed antibiotics, including the [[w:Mecillinam|mecillinams]], the [[w:Carbapenem|carbapenems]] and, most important, the [[w:Cephalosporin|cephalosporins]], is limited by the common structure, the [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]] ring,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=James|first=C.W.|last2=Gurk-Turner|first2=C.|date=2001|title=Cross-reactivity of beta-lactam antibiotics|journal=Proceedings|volume=14|issue=1|pages=106–7|doi=10.1080/08998280.2001.11927741|pmc=1291320|pmid=16369597}}</ref> which is not only the antibiotic active part of the chemical compound, but also the target site of bacteria in drug resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lima|first=Lidia Moreira|last2=Silva|first2=Bianca Nascimento Monteiro da|last3=Barbosa|first3=Gisele|last4=Barreiro|first4=Eliezer J.|date=2020|title=β-lactam antibiotics: An overview from a medicinal chemistry perspective|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33002736|journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume=208|pages=112829|doi=10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112829|pmid=33002736}}</ref> == Drug resistance == In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned of the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions:<blockquote>The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.<ref name=":30" /></blockquote>In 1940, Chain and Abraham reported the first indication of [[w:antibiotic resistance|antibiotic resistance]] to penicillin, an ''E. coli'' strain that produced the [[w:penicillinase|penicillinase]] enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect.<ref name="Davies2" /><ref name="Lobanovska">{{cite journal|last=Lobanovska|first=M.|last2=Pilla|first2=G.|date=2017|title=Penicillin's Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the Future?|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=90|issue=1|pages=135–145|pmc=5369031|pmid=28356901}}</ref> They worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'':<blockquote>The conclusion that the active substance is an enzyme is drawn from the fact that it is destroyed by heating at 90° for 5 minutes and by incubation with [[w:papain|papain]] activated with potassium cyanide at pH 6, and that it is non-dialysable through '[[w:Cellophane|Cellophane]]' membranes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E.P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1940|title=An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/146837a0|journal=Nature|volume=10|issue=4|pages=677–8|bibcode=1940Natur.146..837A|doi=10.1038/146837a0|pmid=3055168|vauthors=|s2cid=4070796}}</ref></blockquote>By 1942, some strains of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' had developed a strong resistance to penicillin. Eighteen years later, most of the strains were resistant to penicillin.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lowy|first=F.D.|date=2003|title=Antimicrobial resistance: the example of Staphylococcus aureus|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=111|issue=9|pages=1265–73|doi=10.1172/JCI18535|pmc=154455|pmid=12727914|vauthors=}}</ref> In 1967, ''[[w:Streptococcus pneumoniae|Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' was also reported to be penicillin resistant. Many other strains of bacteria have eventually developed, and continue to develop a resistance to penicillin.<ref name="Davies">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J|last2=Davies|first2=D|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> == Additional information == === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. === Competing interests === The authors have no competing interests. === Ethics statement === No ethics approval applicable. === Funding === None. ==Notes== {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} 97ap9s5fmlvzxwio6v7qbca7k8hce79 2417110 2417109 2022-08-21T22:22:25Z OhanaUnited 18921 - wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info | first1 = Kholhring | last1 = Lalchhandama | correspondence1 = | orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703 | affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, India | journal = WikiJournal of Medicine | correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in | submitted = 6/20/2021 | accepted = 10/22/2021 | w1 = History of penicillin | et_al = true | license = | abstract = The history of penicillin was shaped by the contributions of numerous scientists. The ultimate result was the discovery of the [[w:Mold (fungus)|mould]] [[w:Penicillium|''Penicillium's'']] antibacterial activity and the subsequent development of [[w:penicillins|penicillins]], the most widely used [[w:antibiotics|antibiotics]]. Following an accidental discovery of the mould, later identified as ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|Penicillium rubens]]'', as the source of the antibacterial principle (1928) and the production of a pure compound (1942), penicillin became the first naturally derived antibiotic. There is anecdotal evidence of ancient societies using moulds to treat infections and of awareness that various moulds inhibited bacterial growth. However, it is not clear if ''Penicillium'' species were the species traditionally used or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. In 1928, [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] was the first to discover the antibacterial substance secreted by the ''Penicillium'' mould and concentrate the active substance involved, giving it the name penicillin. His success in treating Harry Lambert's streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]], an infection until then fatal, proved to be a critical moment in the medical use of penicillin. Many later scientists were involved in the stabilisation and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of ''Penicillium''. Among the most important were [[w:Ernst Chain|Ernst Chain]] and [[w:Howard Florey|Howard Florey]], who shared with Fleming the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. | keywords = Antibiotic, bacteria, infection, penicillin, ''Penicillium'' }} ==Early history== [[file:Penicillin core.svg|thumb|The core structure of penicillin, where R is a variable group; the central "square" structure is the β-lactam ring, which is the key component for destruction of bacterial cell walls. {{attrib|[[w:User:Yikrazuul|Yikrazuul]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin (Figure 1) is the second antibiotic and the first naturally-occurring antibiotic discovered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aminov|first=Rustam I.|date=2010|title=A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=1|pages=134|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmc=3109405|pmid=21687759}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> The first antibiotic discovered was arsphenamine, marketed as [[w:Salvarsan|Salvarsan]], by German physician [[w:Paul Ehrlich|Paul Ehrlich]] and his Japanese assistant [[w:Sahachiro Hata|Sahachiro Hata]] in 1909.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4|title=Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen|last=Ehrlich|first=Paul|last2=Hata|first2=S.|date=1910|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-64911-0|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=1-178|language=German|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4}}</ref> It was a modified compound of a highly toxic chemical [[w:Arsenic|arsenic]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=K. J.|date=2009|title=The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19679737|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=102|issue=8|pages=343–348|doi=10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036|pmc=2726818|pmid=19679737}}</ref> that was used for the treatment of sexually transmitted bacterial (''[[w:Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum]]'') infection or [[syphilis]], and became the most commonly prescribed drug in the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swain|first=K.|date=2018|title='Extraordinarily arduous and fraught with danger': syphilis, Salvarsan, and general paresis of the insane|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29866584|journal=The Lancet Psychiatry|volume=5|issue=9|pages=702–703|doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30221-9|pmid=29866584}}</ref> However, it was overshadowed by penicillin, a safer and more efficacious antibiotic, that was effective against a wide range of [[w:Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive bacteria]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=J. T.|last2=Strominger|first2=J. L.|date=1957|title=Mode of action of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13390969|journal=Science|volume=125|issue=3238|pages=99–101|doi=10.1126/science.125.3238.99|pmid=13390969}}</ref> as well as [[w:Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] ''T. pallidum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clement|first=Meredith E.|last2=Okeke|first2=N. Lance|last3=Hicks|first3=Charles B.|date=2014-11-12|title=Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25387188|journal=JAMA|volume=312|issue=18|pages=1905–1917|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.13259|issn=1538-3598|pmc=6690208|pmid=25387188}}</ref> Traditional curative practices preceded the discovery of penicillin as a component of the mould ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' (from the [[Latin]] word ''penicillum'', meaning "painter's brush").<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ji|first=Hong-Fang|last2=Li|first2=Xue-Juan|last3=Zhang|first3=Hong-Yu|date=2009|title=Natural products and drug discovery. Can thousands of years of ancient medical knowledge lead us to new and powerful drug combinations in the fight against cancer and dementia?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229284|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=10|issue=3|pages=194–200|doi=10.1038/embor.2009.12|pmc=2658564|pmid=19229284}}</ref> Ancient Egypt, Greece and India were aware of the curative properties of fungi and plants in treating bacterial [[w:infection|infections]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |title=History of Antibiotics &#124; Steps of the Scientific Method, Research and Experiments |publisher=Experiment-Resources.com |access-date=2012-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806090931/http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> as shown by the 16th-century BCE record of a Greek king of the use of bread moulds by a woman healer to treat wounded soldiers. Around the same time, Chinese traditional practitioners used moulds from soya bean for wound infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|jstor=1260294}}</ref> In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal [[w:spore|spore]]s) to treat wounds, a technique mentioned by [[w:Henryk Sienkiewicz|Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his 1884 book ''[[w:With Fire and Sword|With Fire and Sword]]''. In 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by English apothecaries such as [[w:John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]], royal botanist to [[w:Charles I|Charles I]], who described the use of certain mould (possibly ''Penicillium'') in his book on [[w:pharmacology|pharmacology]] ''Theatrum Botanicum'' (''The Botanical Theatre'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cranch|first=A. G.|date=1943|title=Early use of Penicillin (?)|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=123|issue=15|pages=990|doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|issn=0002-9955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gould|first=Kate|date=2016|title=Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273/|journal=The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|volume=71|issue=3|pages=572–575|doi=10.1093/jac/dkv484|pmid=26851273|doi-access=free}}</ref> One of the common practices for treating [[w:Impetigo|impetigo]] (an infection due to the bacterium ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'') was mould therapy using moulds obtained from bread and [[w:Porridge|porridge]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|last2=Rally|first2=Louise|last3=Ali|first3=Tasneem Adam|date=1992|title=The scientific basis of mould therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X09805879|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=108–110|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80587-9}}</ref> A Canadian biologist A. E. Cliffe provided a vivid description:<blockquote>It was during a visit through central Europe in 1908 that I came across the fact that almost every farmhouse followed the practice of keeping a mouldy loaf on one of the beams in the kitchen. When I asked the reason for this I was told that this was an old custom and that when any member of the family received an injury such as a cut or bruise, a thin slice from the outside of the loaf was cut off, mixed into a paste with water and applied to the wound with a bandage. It was assumed that no infection would result from such a cut.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|title=From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|date=1999|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4613-7182-3|editor-last=Singh|editor-first=Jagjit|location=Boston, MA|pages=11–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|editor-last2=Aneja|editor-first2=K. R.}}</ref></blockquote>One of the most detailed medical narratives was how Brenda Ward (''née'' Whitnear) was cured of her facial impetigo in 1929. After treating an eight-year-old Brenda with all possible medications available, the family physician James Twomey resorted to traditional practice and advised the mother to prepare a starch paste. The paste was was left in the pantry kept at the cellar head for several days until it became very mouldy. It was then applied on the girl's face as an ointment for over a week until she was completely healed.<ref name=":20" /> There is no written record of the treatment except for the receipt of the consultation fee. Ward recalled that the mould initially appeared yellow in colour, grew into bronze colour, and finally turned into blue-green colonies, which indicates it was either ''Penicillium'' or ''[[w:Aspergillus|Aspergillus]].'' Based on Ward's description, in 1989, British microbiologist [[w:Milton Wainright|Milton Wainright]] concluded that most likely the mould was ''Penicillum'' due the growth pattern and antibacterial activity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X89800102|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=21–23|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2}}</ref> Traditional treatments often worked because numerous organisms, including many species of moulds, naturally produce [[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]] substances. However, it was not until recently that practitioners were able to identify or isolate the active components in these organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Early scientific evidence=== The modern history of penicillin research began in earnest in the 1870s in the United Kingdom. [[w:John Scott Burdon-Sanderson|Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson]], physiologist and lecturer at St. Mary's Hospital, observed that [[w:microbiological culture|culture]] fluid covered with mould inhibited [[w:bacteria|bacteria]]l growth in his experiments on [[w:Spontaneous generation|spontaneous generation]] in 1870.<ref>Queener, Sherry; Webber, J. Alan; Queener, Stephen; eds. (1986). [https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Beta_Lactam_Antibiotics_for_Clinical_Use/d-vSwAEACAAJ?hl=en ''Beta-lactam Antibiotics for Clinical Use'',] Informa Health Care, {{ISBN|0824773861}}, p. 4. [Refers to : J. B. Sanderson. Appendix No 5. " Further report of researches concerning the intimate pathology of contagion. The origin and distribution of microzymes (bacteria) in water, and the circumstances which determine their existence in the tissue and liquids of the living body ". 13th Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council [John Simon], with Appendix, 1870. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1871, pp. 56–66; reprinted in [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/s2-11/44/323 ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', n. ser., XI, 1871, pp. 323–352].]</ref> His reports in 1871 described: <blockquote>On October 10 glass a was turbid, and was found on microscopical examination to be teeming with bacteria; a thick whitish scum had formed on its surface. Glass h was perfectly clear; there were, however, great numbers of torula [a type of yeast] cells on its surface, but no bacteria. On October 12 6 exhibited numerous tufts of penicillium, but the liquid still remained limpid and free from bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burdon-Sanderson|first=(John)|date=1871|title=Memoirs: The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in Water, and the Circumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body|url=https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323|journal=Journal of Cell Science|volume=s2-11|issue=44|pages=323–352|doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323}}</ref>{{Efn|Unlike his predecessor scientists such as Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur who had experimentally rebutted spontaneous generation, Burdon-Sanderson went further by specifically identifying the types of microbes as bacteria, microzyme, fungi, torula, and ''Penicillium'', including the differences in their growth pattern. His experiment on 11 November 1870 reads: "At the same date all the glasses showed tufts of penicillium; those on 3 and 5 were more advanced than the rest... the liquid in 5 was found to be perfectly limpid and free from microzymes (referring to bacteria)."}} </blockquote>From his experiments, Burdon-Sanderson believed that decomposition or putrefaction was caused by bacteria, and not by moulds. He applied the ''Penicillium'' mould on dissected thigh muscles from a guinea pig and left them in bell jars. After two weeks tissues in sterilised jars and with ''Penicillium'' mould did not show signs of rotting. These experiments indicate that the mould had antibacterial activity, but Burdon-Sanderson failed to notice the importance of this finding.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Selwyn|first=S.|date=1979|title=Pioneer work on the ‘penicillin phenomenon’, 1870–1876|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jac/5.3.249|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1093/jac/5.3.249}}</ref> Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted [[w:Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], an English surgeon and the father of modern [[w:antisepsis|antisepsis]], to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also prevented the growth of bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Majno|first=Guido|last2=Joris|first2=Isabelle|date=1979|title=Billroth and Penicillium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4452384|journal=Reviews of Infectious Diseases|volume=1|issue=5|pages=880–884|doi=10.1093/clinids/1.5.880}}</ref> Lister identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium glaucum|Penicillium glaucum]]'' and found that most bacteria could not grow alongside this mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lister|first=Joseph|date=1875|title=XVI.— A Contribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other Fermentative Changes, and to the Natural History of Torulæ and Bacteria|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0080456800026004/type/journal_article|journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=313–344|doi=10.1017/S0080456800026004}}</ref> He also described the antibacterial action of the mould on human tissue.<ref name=":21" /> In 1877, he treated Ellen Jones, a nurse at [[w:King's College Hospital|King's College Hospital]], whose wounds did not respond to any traditional antiseptic. The nurse was cured when a crude extract of ''P. glaucum'' culture was applied to her wounds. Uncertain of the nature and effect of the mould, Lister did not published his observations.<ref name=":1" /> In 1873, Welsh physician [[w:William Roberts (physician)|William Roberts]], who later coined the term "[[w:enzyme|enzyme]]", also conducted experiments on spontaneous generation and observed that glass tubes were easily contaminated by airborne bacteria and moulds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443/|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref> In his 1874 report in the ''[[w:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', he stated: "I have repeatedly observed that liquids in which the ''Penicillum glaucum'' was growing luxuriantly could with difficulty be artificially infected with ''Bacteria''; it seemed, in fact, as if this fungus played the part of the plants in an aquarium, and held in check the growth of ''Bacteria,'' with their attendant putrefactive changes."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=W.|date=1874|title=Studies on biogenesis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/109106|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=164|pages=457–477|doi=10.1098/rstl.1874.0012}}</ref> This is regarded as "the first unequivocal published statement" on antibacterial activity of any substance.<ref name=":1" /> [[w:John Tyndall|John Tyndall]], professor of physics at the [[w:Royal Institution of Great Britain|Royal Institution of Great Britain]], followed up on Roberts's work on refutation of spontaneous generation and demonstrated in 1875 the antibacterial action of the ''P. glaucum''. His report, read before the Royal Society in 1876 (and published as a monograph in 1881),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doetsch|first=R. N.|date=1963|title=Studies on biogenesis by Sir William Roberts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14028366|journal=Medical History|volume=7|pages=232–240|doi=10.1017/s0025727300028374|pmc=1034828|pmid=14028366}}</ref> stated:<blockquote>[The] two most actively charged tubes were in part crowned by beautiful tufts of Penicilllum Glaucum. This expanded gradually until it covered the entire surface with a thick tough layer, which must have seriously intercepted the oxygen necessary to the Bacterial life. The bacteria lost their translatory power, fell to the bottom, and left the liquid between them and the superficial layer clear.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Landsberg|first=H.|date=1949|title=Prelude to the discovery of penicillin|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/227238|journal=Isis|volume=40|issue=3|pages=225–227|doi=10.1086/349043}}</ref></blockquote> In 1876, German biologist [[w:Robert Koch|Robert Koch]] discovered that ''[[w:Bacillus anthracis|Bacillus anthracis]]'' was the causative pathogen of [[w:anthrax|anthrax]];<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|trans-title=The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}</ref> it was the first time a specific bacterium was proved to cause a specific disease, and the first direct evidence of the [[w:Germ theory of diseases|germ theory of diseases]].<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}</ref> A year later, French biologists [[w:Louis Pasteur|Louis Pasteur]] and Jules Francois Joubert observed that, when contaminated with moulds, cultures of the anthrax bacilli could be successfully inhibited.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=G.|date=2016|title=La Moisissure et la Bactérie: Deconstructing the fable of the discovery of penicillin by Ernest Duchesne|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/21810|journal=Endeavour|volume=40|issue=3|pages=188–200|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.07.005|pmid=27496372|vauthors=Shama G}}</ref> They reported their findings in the ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences'':<blockquote>Neutral or slightly alkaline urine is an excellent medium for the bacteria... But if when the urine is inoculated with these bacteria an aerobic organism, for example one of the "common bacteria," is sown at the same time, the anthrax bacterium makes little or no growth and sooner or later dies out altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the same phenomenon is seen in the body even of those animals most susceptible to anthrax, leading to the astonishing result that anthrax bacteria can be introduced in profusion into an animal, which yet does not develop the disease; it is only necessary to add some "common 'bacteria" at the same time to the liquid containing the suspension of anthrax bacteria. These facts perhaps justify the highest hopes for therapeutics.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=Howard W.|date=1946|title=The Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2602034/|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=19|issue=1|pages=101–118.1|pmc=2602034|pmid=20275724}}</ref></blockquote>The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named as "antibiosis" by French biologist [[w:Jean Paul Vuillemin|Jean Paul Vuillemin]] in 1877<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Brunel|first=J.|date=1951|title=Antibiosis from Pasteur to Fleming|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14873929|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=287–301|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.287|pmid=14873929}}</ref> (the term antibiosis, meaning "against life", was adopted as "[[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]]" by American biologist and later Nobel laureate [[w:Selman Waksman|Selman Waksman]] in 1947<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Waksman|first=S. A.|date=1947|title=What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541|journal=Mycologia|volume=39|issue=5|pages=565–569|doi=10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635|pmid=20264541}}</ref>). It has also been asserted that Pasteur identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium notatum|Penicillium notatum]]''. However, [[w:Paul de Kruif|Paul de Kruif]]'s 1926 ''Microbe Hunters'' disagrees, describing this incident as contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kruif|first=Paul De|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&id=pH24vLpivRgC&q|title=Microbe Hunters|date=1996|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602777-9|location=Florida (USA)|pages=144|language=en|quote=At once Pasteur jumped to a fine idea: "If the harmless bugs from the air choke out the anthrax bacilli in the bottle, they will do it in the body too! It is a kind of dog-eat-dog!” shouted Pasteur, (...) Pasteur gravely announced: "That there were high hopes for the cure of disease from this experiment", but that is the last you hear of it, for Pasteur was never a man to give the world of science the benefit of studying his failures.|orig-year=1926}}</ref> Ten years later, in 1887, Swiss physician [[w:Carl Garré|Carl Alois Philipp Garré]] developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results.<ref name=":15" /> Using a gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently; and reported:<blockquote>I inoculated on the untouched cooled [gelatin] plate alternate parallel strokes of ''B. fluorescens'' [''[[w:Pseudomonas fluorescens|Pseudomonas fluorescens]]''] and ''Staph. pyogenes'' [''[[w:Streptococcus pyogenes|Streptococcus pyogenes]]'' ]... B. fluorescens grew more quickly... [This] is not a question of overgrowth or crowding out of one by another quicker-growing species, as in a garden where luxuriantly growing weeds kill the delicate plants. Nor is it due to the utilization of the available foodstuff by the more quickly growing organisms, rather there is an antagonism caused by the secretion of specific, easily diffusible substances which are inhibitory to the growth of some species but completely ineffective against others.<ref name=":17" /></blockquote>At the [[w:University of Naples|University of Naples]], in 1895, physician [[w:Vincenzo Tiberio|Vincenzo Tiberio]] published his research about moulds initially found in a water well in [[w:Arzano|Arzano]].<ref>Tiberio, Vincenzo (1895) [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA24 "Sugli estratti di alcune muffe"] [On the extracts of certain moulds], ''Annali d'Igiene Sperimentale'' (Annals of Experimental Hygiene), 2nd series, '''5''' : 91–103. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false From p. 95:] ''"Risulta chiaro da queste osservazioni che nella sostanza cellulare delle muffe esaminate son contenuti dei principi solubili in acqua, forniti di azione battericida: sotto questo riguardo sono più attivi o in maggior copia quelli dell' ''Asp. flavescens'', meno quelli del ''Mu. mucedo'' e del ''Penn. glaucum''."'' (It follows clearly from these observations that in the cellular substance of the moulds examined are contained some water-soluble substances, provided with bactericidal action: in this respect are more active or in greater abundance those of ''Aspergillus flavescens''; less, those of ''Mucor mucedo'' and ''Penicillium glaucum''.)</ref> He noticed that whenever the moulds on the wall of the well was cleaned, many people had abdominal pain due to infection ([[w:Enteritis|enteritis]]), which was unheard of when the well was mouldy. He believed that there was a link between the infection and the mould.<ref name=":29">{{Cite journal|last=Perciaccante|first=Antonio|last2=Coralli|first2=Alessia|last3=Lippi|first3=Donatella|last4=Appenzeller|first4=Otto|last5=Bianucci|first5=Raffaella|date=2019|title=Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31154612|journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine|volume=14|issue=8|pages=1363–1364|doi=10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1|pmid=31154612}}</ref> After identifying different moulds from the well, he found that ''Penicilium'' and ''Aspergillus'' could kill certain bacteria including ''[[w:Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholerae]]'', and some staphylococci strains.<ref name="Bucci">{{Cite journal|last=Bucci|first=Roberto|last2=Galli|first2=P.|date=2011|title=Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.8253&rep=rep1&type=pdf|journal=Italian Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=404–406}}</ref> From his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action.<ref name="Bucci" /> However, his findings did not receive any attention until the discovery of penicillin.<ref name=":29" /> [[file:Penicillium rubens (Fleming's strain).png|thumb|Fleming's mould, ''Penicillium rubens'' CBS 205.57. A–C. Colonies 7 d old 25 °C. A. CYA. B. MEA. C. YES. D–H. Condiophores. I. Conidia. Bars = 10 µm. {{attrib|[https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] French medical student [[w:Ernest Duchesne|Ernest Duchesne]] at École du Service de Santé Militaire (Military Service Health School) in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of ''P. glaucum.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kyle|first=R. A.|date=2005|title=Five decades of therapy for multiple myeloma: a paradigm for therapeutic models|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15800669|journal=Leukemia|volume=19|issue=6|pages=910–912|doi=10.1038/sj.leu.2403728|pmid=15800669}}</ref> He was able to grow the mould on pieces of moist food. When he mixed the mould with the bacterium ''[[w:Escherichia coli|Escherichia coli]]'', he found that the bacteria did not grow, and when he injected the mould juice into guinea pigs experimentally inoculated with [[w:typhoid|typhoid]] bacteria (''[[w:Salmonella enterica|Salmonella enterica]]''), the animals never developed the disease.<ref name=":26">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cIZpyNvjvdcC&newbks=0&hl|title=Explorers of the Body: Dramatic Breakthroughs in Medicine from Ancient Times to Modern Science|last=Lehrer|first=Steven|date=2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595407316|edition=2|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|pages=331-332|language=en|orig-year=1979}}</ref> He described the experiment in his 1897 doctoral dissertation titled ''Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les microorganismes'' (''Contribution to the study of vital competition between microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes'') submitted to the [[w:Pasteur Institute|Pasteur Institute]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1|title=Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes : antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes|last=Duchesne|first=E|vauthors=Duchesne E|date=1897|publisher=Alexandre Rey|location=Lyon, France|language=fr|trans-title=Contribution to the study of the vital competition in microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pouillard|first=Jean|title=Une découverte oubliée : la thèse de médecine du docteur Ernest Duchesne (1874–1912)|trans-title=A Forgotten Discovery : Doctor of Medicine Ernest Duchesne's Thesis (1874-1912)|url=http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|journal=Histoire des Sciences Médicales|language=fr|volume=XXXVI|issue=1|pages=11–20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713144835/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2019|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Unfortunately, his discovery was ignored by the institute and soon forgotten. It was not until 50 years later when a librarian found the thesis, once penicillin had already been discovered.<ref name=":27">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbO4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Natural Products in the Chemical Industry|last1=Schaefer|first1=B.|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642544613|page=231|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54461-3}}</ref> Duchesne could not continue his experiments due to a severe illness (believed to be [[w:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]]) he contracted five years later. He died in 1912 while serving in the French Army.<ref name=":26" /> He was himself using moulds to treat horses, a method learned from Arab stable boys to cure animals' sores; but he did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that it somehow protected the animals.<ref name=":14" /> His conclusion was nonetheless prognostic, stating that competition between bacteria and moulds could be useful in the medical management of infections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckett|first=S.|date=1999|title=Ernest Duchesne and the concept of fungal antibiotic therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673699031621|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9195|pages=2068–2071|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)03162-1}}</ref> Penicillin does not cure typhoid as it is ineffective against most Gram-negative bacteria<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080912837001053|title=Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry|last=Luengo|first=José M.|date=1999|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-091283-7|editor-last=Barton|editor-first=D.|pages=239–274|language=en|chapter=Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillins|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091283-7.00105-3|editor-last2=Nakanishi|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Meth-Cohn|editor-first3=O.}}</ref> and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible for Duchesne's cure.{{efn|At the time, the term ''Penicillium glaucum'' was used as a catch-all phrase for a variety of different fungi, though not for ''Penicillium notatum''. Duchesne's specific mold was unfortunately not preserved, which makes it impossible to be certain today which fungus might have been responsible for the cure and, consequently, even less certain which specific antibacterial substance was responsible.}} A similar antibiotic effect of ''Penicillium'' was recorded in 1923 by [[w:Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]n [[w:Clodomiro Picado Twight|Clodomiro Picado Twight]], a Pasteur Institute scientist. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' were non-specifically referred to as ''P. glaucum'', so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth.<ref name=":14" /> The first to discover and isolate an antibiotic compound from ''Penicillium'' was an Italian physician [[w:Bartolomeo Gosio|Bartolomeo Gosio]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Johan T.|date=2009|title=The First Discoverers of Penicillin and of its Application in Therapy|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x|journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=126|issue=1|pages=60–64|doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x}}</ref> Gosio was investigating [[w:Pellagra|pellagra]], which at the time was a common disease in southern Europe and America. It was known that the staple food of people having the disease was corn, and fungal contamination of corn was regarded as the source (American biochemist [[w:Conrad Elvehjem|Conrad Elvehjem]] would identify in 1937 its aetiology as the deficiency of [[w:Niacin|niacin]] or vitamin B₃.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elvehjem|first=C. A.|date=1940|title=Relation of nicotinic acid to pellagra|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249|journal=Physiological Reviews|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=249–271|doi=10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249}}</ref>) In 1893, Gosio identified the mould ''[[w:Penicillium brevicompactum|Penicillium brevicompactum]]'' as one possible cause,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sydenstricker|first=V. P.|date=1958|title=The history of pellagra, its recognition as a disorder of nutrition and its conquest|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13559167|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=6|issue=4|pages=409–414|doi=10.1093/ajcn/6.4.409|pmid=13559167}}</ref> developed a simple culture method to make pure culture extract in crystalline form.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/82_2016_499|title=How to Overcome the Antibiotic Crisis|last=Mohr|first=Kathrin I.|date=2016|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-49282-7|editor-last=Stadler|editor-first=Marc|volume=398|location=Cham|pages=237–272|chapter=History of Antibiotics Research|doi=10.1007/82_2016_499|editor-last2=Dersch|editor-first2=Petra}}</ref> In 1896, he tested the substance on anthrax bacillus and found that it was highly potent against the bacteria.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTXooAEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en|title=Ricerche batteriologiche e chimiche sulle alterazioni del mais: contributo all'etiologia della pellagra|last=Gosio|first=Bartolomeo|date=1896|publisher=Tip. delle mantellate|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=Kyriacos C.|last2=Rigol|first2=Stephan|date=2018|title=A brief history of antibiotics and select advances in their synthesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28676714|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=71|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1038/ja.2017.62|pmid=28676714}}</ref> Nonetheless, his discovery was largely forgotten as the substance was found not to be the cause of pellagra, and its medicinal potential was not obvious. American scientists, Carl Alsberg and Otis Fisher Black resynthesized Gosio's substance in 1912 giving it the name [[w:Mycophenolic acid|mycophenolic acid]], which is now used as an [[w:Immunosuppressant|immunosuppressant]].<ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Halle|first=Mahesh B.|last2=Lee|first2=Woohyun|last3=Yudhistira|first3=Tesla|last4=Kim|first4=Myungseob|last5=Churchill|first5=David G.|date=2019|title=Mycophenolic Acid: Biogenesis, Compound Isolation, Biological Activity, and Historical Advances in Total Synthesis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ejoc.201900245|journal=European Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=2019|issue=13|pages=2315–2334|doi=10.1002/ejoc.201900245}}</ref> In 1924, Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the [[w:Free University of Brussels (1834–1969)|Free University of Brussels]], Belgium, found that dead ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'' cultures were contaminated by a mould, a [[w:streptomycete|streptomycete]]. On further experimentation, they showed that the mould extract could kill not only ''S. aureus'', but also ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[w:Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' and ''Escherichia coli''.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=2000|title=André Gratia (1893–1950): Forgotten Pioneer of Research into Antimicrobial Agents|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096777200000800108|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=39–42|doi=10.1177/096777200000800108|pmid=11608911|s2cid=43285911}}</ref> Gratia called the antibacterial agent "mycolysate" (killer mould). The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit anthrax bacterium (''B. anthracis''). Reporting in ''Comptes Rendus Des Séances de La Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales'', they identified the mould as ''Penicillium glaucum''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Scoville|first1=C|last2=Brouwer|first2=C De|last3=Dujardin|first3=M|date=1999|title=Nobel chronicle: Fleming and Gratia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673605663349|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9174|page=258|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66334-9|pmid=10421340|s2cid=11659394}}</ref> In 1927, Gratia reported its medical use:<blockquote>A poor patient who during three years had suffered from [[w:Furuncles|furuncles]] [infection by ''S. aureus''], in spite of all treatments, was sent to us in despair. Jaumain did not hesitate to continue the treatment by a series of injections of the mycolysat. The result was remarkable. Not only was the recovery rapid, but it is now three years that [''sic''] this recovery continues without the slightest relapse. Since that time we have given the mycolysat to a very large number of cases. It is the most effective treatment even of the most resistant types of staphylococcic diseases.<ref name=":22" /></blockquote>Unfortunately, as in the case of Duchesne, these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical values were not fully understood; moreover, Gratia's samples were lost.<ref name=":8" /> ==The breakthrough discovery== ===Background === [[file:Professor Alexander Fleming at work in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London, during the Second World War. D17801.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London. {{attrib|Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer|[[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] Penicillin as we know it today was "accidentally" discovered by the Scottish physician [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fraser|first=I.|date=1984|title=Penicillin: early trials in war casualties|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6440621|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=289|issue=6460|pages=1723–1725|doi=10.1136/bmj.289.6460.1723|pmc=1444789|pmid=6440621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20120325/penicillin-an-accidental-discovery-changed-the-course-of-medicine|title=Penicillin: An accidental discovery changed the course of medicine|last=Eickhoff|first=Theodore C.|date=2008|website=Endocrine Today|access-date=2021-10-10}}</ref> While working at [[w:St Mary's Hospital, London|St Mary's Hospital, London]], Fleming was investigating the pattern of variation in ''S. aureus'' (Figures 2 and 3).<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=K.|date=2020|title=Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould|journal=Science Vision|volume=20|issue=1|pages=29–42|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.03|doi-access=free|vauthors=Lalchhandama K}}</ref> He was inspired by the recent discovery by the Irish physician [[w:Joseph Warwick Bigger|Joseph Warwick Bigger]] and his two students C.R. Boland and R.A.Q. O’Meara at the [[w:Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College, Dublin]], Ireland, in 1927''.'' Bigger and his students found that a particular strain of ''S. aureus'' (designated "Y") that they isolated a year before from the pus of an axillary abscess (boil on the armpit) from one individual grew into a variety of strains. They published their discovery as "Variant colonies of ''Staphylococcus aureus"'' in ''[[w:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology]],'' by concluding: <blockquote>We were surprised and rather disturbed to find, on a number of plates, various types of colonies which differed completely from the typical ''aureus'' colony. Some of these were quite white; some, either white or of the usual colour were rough on the surface and with crenated margins.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bigger|first=Joseph W.|last2=Boland|first2=C. R.|last3=O'meara|first3=R. A. Q.|date=1927|title=Variant colonies ofStaphylococcus aureus|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700300204|journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=261–269|doi=10.1002/path.1700300204}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming and his research scholar Daniel Merlin Pryce pursued this experiment but Pryce was transferred to another laboratory in early 1928. Their experiment had been successful and Fleming was planning and agreed to write a report in the compendium ''A System of Bacteriology'' to be published by the [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] at the end of that year.<ref name=":02" /> === Initial discovery === In August, Fleming spent a vacation with his family at his country home The Dhoon at [[w:Barton Mills|Barton Mills]], Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory (Figures 3 & 4), he inoculated several culture plates with ''S. aureus.'' He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight to allow proper growth of the bacteria. There are two versions of the reason he returned to his laboratory during the vacation. According to some sources, he was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the [[w:St Mary's Hospital Medical School|St Mary's Hospital Medical School]] and had to officially join on Saturday 1 September 1928. The next Monday he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last=Diggins|first=F.W.|date=1999|title=The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature|journal=British Journal of Biomedical Science|volume=56|issue=2|pages=83–93|pmid=10695047|vauthors=Diggins FW}} </ref> Alternative sources say that he went to London "on a flying visit" to help a colleague with the treatment of [[w:Bacillus cereus|haemolytic bacillus]]. It was while waiting for the colleague that he visited the laboratory.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/S0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933|vauthors=Hare R}}</ref><ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Wyn Jones|first=Emyr|last2=Wyn Jones|first2=R. Gareth|date=2002|title=Merlin Pryce (1902-1976) and penicillin: an abiding mystery|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12713008|journal=Vesalius|volume=8|issue=2|pages=6–25|pmid=12713008}}</ref> At the laboratory, Pryce paid him a visit and found him sorting out the Petri dishes. He and Pryce noticed one culture plate with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming commented as he watched the plate: "That's funny."<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last=Wainright|first=M.|date=1993|title=The mystery of the plate: Fleming's discovery and contribution to the early development of penicillin|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|volume=1|issue=1|pages=59–65|doi=10.1177/096777209300100113|pmid=11639213|vauthors=Wainwright M|s2cid=7578843}}</ref> Pryce remarked to Fleming: "That's how you discovered [[w:lysozyme|lysozyme]]."<ref name=":28" /> === Experiment === [[file:Flemming laboratory (3).JPG|thumb|St Mary's Hospital showing Fleming's lab (on the second floor) and Praed Street, from where Fleming alleged the mould came from. {{attrib|[[w:User:Vera de Kok|Vera de Kok]]|[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] Fleming went off to resume his vacation and returned to his laboratory late in September.<ref name=":02" /> He collected the original mould and grew it in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He later recounted his experience: <blockquote>When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Siang Yong|last2=Tatsumura|first2=Yvonne|date=2015|title=Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=56|issue=7|pages=366–367|doi=10.11622/smedj.2015105|pmc=4520913|pmid=26243971}}</ref></blockquote> He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth, and he produced a culture broth of the mould and subsequently concentrated the antibacterial component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arseculeratne|first=S. N.|last2=Arseculeratne|first2=G.|date=2017|title=A re-appraisal of the conventional history of antibiosis and Penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28144986|journal=Mycoses|volume=60|issue=5|pages=343–347|doi=10.1111/myc.12599|pmid=28144986}}</ref> After testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only specific bacteria. For example, Gram-positive bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus'', ''[[w:Streptococcus|Streptococcus]]'', and diphtheria bacillus (''[[w:Corynebacterium diphtheriae|Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') were easily killed; but there was no effect on Gram-negative species like typhoid bacterium (''[[w:Salmonella typhimurium|Salmonella typhimurium]]'') and influenza bacillus (''[[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Haemophilus influenzae]]''). He prepared a large-culture method from which he could obtain large amounts of the mould juice. On 7 March 1929, he coined the name "penicillin" for the mould extract,<ref name=":5" /> explaining the reason as "to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'Mould broth filtrate', the name 'penicillin' will be used."<ref name="pmid69942002">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprinted as {{cite journal|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref> In his Nobel lecture, he gave a further explanation: <blockquote>I have been frequently asked why I invented the name "Penicillin". I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus ''Penicillium'' just as many years ago the word "[[w:Digitalin|Digitalin]]" was invented for a substance derived from the plant ''Digitalis''.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/fleming-lecture.pdf|title=Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine, 1942-1962|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1999|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-3411-9|location=Singapore|pages=83–93|language=en|chapter=Penicillin: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1945}}</ref></blockquote> Fleming had no training in chemistry so that he left all the chemical works to his new research scholar Stuart Craddock, who joined him in December;<ref name=":2" /> he once remarked: "I am a bacteriologist, not a chemist."<ref name=":02" /> In January 1929, Fleming recruited his former research scholar Frederick Ridley, who had studied biochemistry, to study the chemical properties of the mould.<ref name=":3" /> However,a fucker both Craddock and Ridley left Fleming for other jobs before completing the experiments and isolating penicillin.<ref name=":5" /> Their failure to isolate the compound resulted in Fleming practically abandoning further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Kristin | name-list-style = vanc |date=2019|title=Fleming vs. Florey: It All Comes Down to the Mold|url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/the_histories/vol2/iss1/3|journal=The Histories|volume=2|issue=1|pages=3–10}}</ref> Nonetheless, he continued doing biological tests up to 1939.<ref name=":5" /> === Identification of the mould === [[File:Penicillium rubens (type specimen).png|thumb|''Penicillium rubens'' (type specimen). {{attrib| [https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]] The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a matter of speculation for several decades. The [[w:Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry]] believed that it came from a cup of coffee which Fleming left on the table.<ref name=":27" /> In 1945, Fleming himself suggested that the fungal spores came through the window facing [[w:Praed Street|Praed Street]]. This story was regarded as a reliable explanation and was popularised in the literature,<ref name=":2" /> starting with George Lacken's 1945 book ''The Story of Penicillin''.<ref name=":5" /> But it was later disputed by his co-workers, particularly Pryce, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut all the time.<ref name=":28" /> Ronald Hare also agreed in 1970 that the window remain locked as a large table in front of it made it difficult to open. In 1966, Charles John Patrick La Touche told Hare that he had given Fleming 13 specimens of fungi (10 from his lab) and only one from his lab was showing penicillin-like antibacterial activity.<ref name=":2" /> It was therefore concluded that Fleming's mould came from La Touche's lab, located a floor below, and the spores had drifted in the air through the open doors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Curry|first=J.|date=1981|title=Obituary: C. J. La Touche|journal=Sabouraudia|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|page=164|doi=10.1080/00362178185380261|vauthors=Curry J}}</ref> After a structural comparison with different species of ''Penicillium'', Fleming believed that his specimen was ''[[w:Penicillium chrysogenum|Penicillium chrysogenum]],'' a species described by the American microbiologist [[w:Charles Thom|Charles Thom]] in 1910. He was fortunate as Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had just recently joined as a [[w:mycologist|mycologist]] at St Mary's to investigate fungi as the cause of asthma.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kingston|first=W.|date=2008|title=Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18347757|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|volume=177|issue=2|pages=87–92|doi=10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x|pmid=18347757}}</ref> La Touche identified the specimen as ''Penicillium rubrum,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henderson|first=J. W.|date=1997|title=The yellow brick road to penicillin: a story of serendipity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9212774|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=72|issue=7|pages=683–687|doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)63577-5|pmid=9212774}}</ref> the identification used by Fleming in his publication of the discovery.<ref name="pmid6994200" /> In 1931, Thom re-examined different species of ''Penicillium'' including that of Fleming's specimen. He came to a confusing conclusion, stating: "Ad. 35 [Fleming's specimen] is ''P. notatum'' WESTLING. This is a member of the ''P. chrysogenum'' series with smaller conidia than ''P. chrysogenum'' itself."<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Thom C |date=1931|title=Appendix. History of species used and Dr. Thom's diagnoses of species|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character|language=en|volume=220|issue=468–473|pages=83–92|doi=10.1098/rstb.1931.0015|doi-access=free}}</ref> From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as ''P. chrysogenum'' and ''P. notatum,'' a species discovered by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. But Thom adopted and popularised the use of ''P. chrysogenum.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thom |first=Charles | name-list-style = vanc |date=1945|title=Mycology Presents Penicillin|journal=Mycologia|volume=37|issue=4|pages=460–475|doi=10.2307/3754632|jstor=3754632}}</ref>'' Adding to the controversial taxonomy, newly discovered species such as ''P. meleagrinum'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum'' were recognised as members of ''P. chrysogenum'' in 1977''.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Samson|first=R. A.|last2=Hadlok|first2=R.|last3=Stolk|first3=A. C.|date=1977|title=A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/413477|journal=Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek|volume=43|issue=2|pages=169–175|doi=10.1007/BF00395671|pmid=413477}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 2005, the Seventeenth [[w:International Botanical Congress|International Botanical Congress]] held in Vienna, Austria, formally adopted the name ''P. chrysogenum'' as the conserved name (''[[w:nomen conservandum|nomen conservandum]]'') for all related ''Penicilium'' species''.''<ref>{{cite web | date=2006|title=International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE). Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda. B. Fungi|url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/icbn/main.htm|access-date=17 June 2020|website=International Association of Plant Taxonomy}}</ref> In 2011, whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|P. rubens]]'' (Figure 5)'','' a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923, and that ''P. chrysogenum'' is a different species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=Jos|last2=Frisvad|first2=Jens C.|last3=Samson|first3=Robert A.|date=2011|title=Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22679592|journal=IMA fungus|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–95|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12|pmc=3317369|pmid=22679592}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=J.|last2=Frisvad|first2=J. C.|last3=Seifert|first3=K. A.|last4=Overy|first4=D. P.|last5=Tuthill|first5=D. M.|last6=Valdez|first6=J. G.|last7=Samson|first7=R. A.|date=2012|title=New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23606767|journal=Persoonia|volume=29|pages=78–100|doi=10.3767/003158512X660571|pmc=3589797|pmid=23606767}}</ref> === Reception and publication === Initially, Fleming's discovery was not considered important, and as he showed to his his colleagues, all he received was an indifferent response. He described the discovery on 13 February 1929 before the [[w:Medical Research Club|Medical Research Club]] but his presentation titled "A medium for the isolation of [[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Pfeiffer's bacillus]]" did not receive any particular attention.<ref name=":02" /> In May 1929, Fleming reported his findings to the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'' whch published them in the next month's issue.<ref name="pmid6994200">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprint of {{cite journal|vauthors=Fleming A|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> It failed to attract any serious attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application and was more concerned about the application for bacterial isolation, as he concluded: <blockquote>In addition to its possible use in the treatment of bacterial infections penicillin is certainly useful to the bacteriologist for its power of inhibiting unwanted microbes in bacterial cultures so that penicillin insensitive bacteria can readily be isolated. A notable instance of this is the very easy, isolation of Pfeiffers bacillus of influenza when penicillin is used...It is suggested that it may be an efficient antiseptic for application to, or injection into, areas infected with penicillin-sensitive microbes.<ref name="pmid6994200" /></blockquote> G. E. Breen, a fellow member of the [[w:Chelsea Arts Club|Chelsea Arts Club]], once asked Fleming: "I just wanted you to tell me whether you think it will ever be possible to make practical use of the stuff [penicillin]. For instance, could I use it?" Fleming gazed vacantly for a moment and then replied: "I don't know. It's too unstable. It will have to be purified, and I can't do that by myself."<ref name=":02" /> Even as late as in 1941, the ''[[w:The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' reported that "the main facts emerging from a very comprehensive study [of penicillin] in which a large team of workers is engaged... does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."<ref>{{cite journal | title = Annotations | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4208 | pages = 310–2 | date = August 1941 | pmid = 20783842 | pmc = 2162429 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4208.310 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A.|date=1941|title=Penicillin|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4210|page=386|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4210.386|pmc=2162878|vauthors=Fleming A}}</ref>{{efn|The statement "does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view" seems to be later deleted, but is still apparent from Fleming's response (''BMJ'', 1941, '''2''' (4210): 386–386).}} ==Isolation == In 1933, [[w:Ernst Boris Chain|Ernst Boris Chain]], a chemist of Jewish-German origin, joined Australian scientist [[w:Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] (later Baron Florey) at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the [[w:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] in 1936 to investigate antibiotics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|date=1972|title=Thirty years of penicillin therapy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4551373|journal=Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London|volume=6|issue=2|pages=103–131|pmc=5366029|pmid=4551373|doi=10.1098/rspb.1971.0098}}</ref> Florey assigned him to work on lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme discovered by Fleming in 1922.<ref name=":24">{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A|year=1922|title=On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=93|issue=653|pages=306–317|bibcode=1922RSPSB..93..306F|doi=10.1098/rspb.1922.0023|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1938, he came across Fleming's 1929 paper while writing a research report and informed his supervisor of the potential medical benefits of penicillin.<ref name=":10" /> Although a year before, Florey had concentrated on [[w:Pyocyanase|pyocyanase]] (a pigment from the bacterium ''Bacillus pycyaneus,'' now called ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''), he agreed with Chain that penicillin was medically more promising.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|date=1944|title=The discovery of the chemotherapeutic properties of penicillin|url=https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033|journal=British Medical Bulletin|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033}}</ref> In 1939, Florey and Chain obtained a research grant of $25,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation to study antibiotics,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=H. W.|last2=Abraham|first2=E. P.|date=1951|title=The work on penicillin at Oxford|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24619871|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=302–317|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.302}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Kok-Fai|last2=Schneper|first2=Lisa|last3=Mathee|first3=Kalai|date=2010|title=Beta-lactam antibiotics: from antibiosis to resistance and bacteriology|journal=Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica|volume=118|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02563.x|pmc=2894812|pmid=20041868}}</ref> which allowed them to assemble a research team composed of [[w:Edward Abraham|Edward Abraham]], [[w:Arthur Duncan Gardner|Arthur Duncan Gardner]], [[w:Norman Heatley|Norman Heatley]], [[w:Margaret Jennings (scientist)|Margaret Jennings]], J. Orr-Ewing and G. Sanders.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=David S.|last2=Jones|first2=John H.|date=2014-12-01|title=Sir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999|url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=60|pages=5–22|doi=10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002|issn=0080-4606|doi-access=free|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Landmark">{{cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin|work=International Historic Chemical Landmarks|publisher=American Chemical Society|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> The Oxford team soon prepared a concentrated extract of ''P. rubens'' as "a brown powder" that "has been obtained which is freely soluble in water".<ref name=":9" /> They found that the powder was not only effective ''in vitro'' against bacterial cultures but also and ''[[w:in vivo|in vivo]]'' against bacterial infection in mice. On 5 May 1939, they injected a group of eight mice with a virulent strain of ''S. aureus'', and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. After one day, all the untreated mice died while the penicillin-treated mice survived; "a miracle" in Chain's view.<ref name=":10" /> The team published its findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1940.<ref name=":9" /> The team reported details of the isolation method in 1941 with a scheme for large-scale extraction. They also found that penicillin was most abundant as a yellow concentrate from the mould extract,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Fletcher|first3=C. M.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Gardner|first5=A. D.|last6=Heatley|first6=N. G.|last7=Jennings|first7=M. A.|date=1992|title=Further observations on penicillin. 1941|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1541313|journal=European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=3–9|pmid=1541313}}</ref> but it was able to produce only small quantities. By the early 1942, they could prepare highly purified compound,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1942|title=Purification of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149328b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3777|pages=328|doi=10.1038/149328b0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..328A|s2cid=4122059}}</ref> and derived the empirical chemical formula as C₂₄H₃₂O₁₀N₂Ba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Baker|first2=W.|last3=Chain|first3=E.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Holiday|first5=E. R.|last6=Robinson|first6=R.|date=1942|title=Nitrogenous Character of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149356a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3778|pages=356|doi=10.1038/149356a0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..356A|s2cid=4055617}}</ref> In the June 1942 issue of the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'', Chain, Abraham and E. R. Holiday reported the production of the pure compound concluding that:<blockquote>The penicillin preparation described in this paper is the most powerful antibacterial agent with predominantly bacteriostatic action so far known. Though it has not yet been obtained crystalline there are indications that it possesses a considerable degree of purity... The unusual biological properties of penicillin are linked with an exceptionally unstable chemical configuration. Inactivation by acid, alkali, and by boiling at any pH has been shown to be accompanied by definite chemical changes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Holiday|first3=E. R.|date=1942|title=Purification and Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2065494/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=23|issue=3|pages=103–119|pmc=2065494}}</ref></blockquote> == First medical use == In  January  1929,  Fleming performed the first clinical trial with penicillin on his assistant Craddock. Craddock had developed a severe infection of the [[w:nasal antrum|nasal antrum]] ([[w:sinusitis|sinusitis]]) for which he had undergone surgery. Fleming made use of the surgical opening of the nasal passage and started injecting penicillin on 9 January. Craddock showed no sign of improvement, probably because the infection was caused by influenza bacillus (''Haemophilus influenzae''), the bacterium which he had found not susceptible to penicillin.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/s0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933}}</ref> It seems that Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wainwright|first1=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1987|title=The Sheffield penicillin story|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X87800228|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=28–30|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(87)80022-8}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1990|title=Besredka's "antivirus" in relation to Fleming's initial views on the nature of penicillin|url= |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300050286 |pmc=1036002 |pmid=2405221}}</ref> Although Wright reportedly said that it: "seemed to work satisfactorily,"<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M|date=1987|title=The history of the therapeutic use of crude penicillin. |journal=Medical History |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300046305|pmc=1139683|pmid=3543562}}</ref> there are no records of its specific use. In November 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], was the first to use penicillin for medical treatment successfully.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|language=en|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763}}</ref> He was a former student of Fleming who, after learning about penicillin, requested a sample from Fleming.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dr Cecil George Paine - Unsung Medical Heroes - Blackwell's Bookshop Online|url=https://blackwells.co.uk/jsp/promo/umh.jsp?action=more&id=18|access-date=2020-10-19|website=blackwells.co.uk}}</ref> He initially attempted to treat [[w:sycosis|sycosis]] (eruptions in beard follicles). On 25 November, he then tried it successfully with four patients (one adult, the others infants) who had [[w:ophthalmia neonatorum|ophthalmia neonatorum]], an inflammation of the eye due to infection.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1986|title=C.G. Paine and the earliest surviving clinical records of penicillin therapy|journal=Medical History|volume=30|issue=1|pages=42–56|doi=10.1017/S0025727300045026|pmc=1139580|pmid=3511336|vauthors=}}</ref> Thus, penicillin first worked on an eye infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alharbi|first1=Sulaiman Ali|last2=Wainwright|first2=Milton|last3=Alahmadi|first3=Tahani Awad|last4=Salleeh|first4=Hashim Bin|last5=Faden|first5=Asmaa A.|last6=Chinnathambi|first6=Arunachalam|date=2014|title=What if Fleming had not discovered penicillin?|url= |journal=Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=289–293|doi=10.1016/j.sjbs.2013.12.007|pmc=4150221|pmid=25183937}}</ref> Nine years later, the Oxford team showed that ''Penicillium'' extract killed different bacteria (''Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,'' and ''Clostridium septique'') in culture and effectively cured ''Streptococcus'' infection in mice.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> Thus, they reported their findings in the 24 August 1940 issue of ''The Lancet'' under the title "Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent" concluding: <blockquote>The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active ''in vivo'' against at least three of the organisms inhibited ''in vitro''. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution ''in vitro'' will be found to be dealt with ''in vivo''. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with [[w:gas gangrene|gas gangrene]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Chain|first1=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|last3=Adelaide|first3=M. B.|last4=Gardner|first4=A. D.|last5=Heatley|first5=N. G.|last6=Jennings|first6=M. A.|last7=Orr-Ewing|first7=J.|last8=Sanders|first8=A. G.|date=1940|title=Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8403666|journal=The Lancet|volume=236|issue=6104|pages=226–228|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)08728-1|pmid=8403666}}</ref></blockquote> The following year, the Oxford team treated a policeman, [[w:Albert Alexander (police officer)|Albert Alexander]], who had a severe facial infection; his condition improved, but he eventually died as the researchers ran out of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamdy|first=Ronald C.|date=2006|title=Penicillin is 65 years old!|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16509564/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=99|issue=2|pages=192–193|doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000194524.83293.0d|pmid=16509564}}</ref> Subsequently, several other patients were treated successfully,<ref name="SW2">{{cite web|year=2007|title=Making Penicillin Possible: Norman Heatley Remembers|url=http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221041204/http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-date=February 21, 2007|access-date=2007-02-13|work=ScienceWatch|publisher=Thomson Scientific}}</ref> among them the survivors of the [[w:Cocoanut Grove fire|Cocoanut Grove fire]] in Boston (December 1942) who were the first burn patients to be successfully treated with penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Camille L.|date=2015|title=The Fire at Cocoanut Grove:|url=https://academic.oup.com/jbcr/article/36/1/232-235/4568893|journal=Journal of Burn Care & Research|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=232–235|doi=10.1097/BCR.0000000000000111}}</ref> The most important clinical test took place in August 1942 when Fleming cured Harry Lambert (a work associate of Robert, Fleming's brother) of a fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045187004000184|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=58–64|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002|pmid=15175996}}</ref> Fleming asked Florey for a purified penicillin sample, which he immediately injected into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the next day,<ref name=":07">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref> and completely recovered within a week.<ref name=":42">{{Citation |last1=Bennett|first1=Joan W|title=Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin|date=2001|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065216401490137|journal=Advances in Applied Microbiology |volume=49 |pages=163–184 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49013-7 |isbn=978-0-12-002649-4|access-date=2020-10-17|last2=Chung|first2=King-Thom|pmid=11757350}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cairns|first1=H.|last2=Lewin|first2=W. S.|last3=Duthie|first3=E. S.|last4=Smith|first4=HonorV.|date=1944|title=Pneumococcal Meningitis Treated with Penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673600770851|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=243|issue=6299|pages=655–659|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)77085-1}}</ref> Fleming reported his findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1943.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1943|title=Streptococcal Meningitis treated With Penicillin.|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673600874528|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=242|issue=6267|pages=434–438|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)87452-8}}</ref> It was on this medical evidence that the British [[w:War Cabinet|War Cabinet]] set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943 formed by [[w:Cecil Weir|Cecil Weir]], Director General of Equipment, as Chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir [[w:Percival Hartley|Percival Hartley]], Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members.<ref name=":07"/> The establishment of the committee opened the door to the mass production of penicillin the next year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=John A.|date=2008|title=The Birth of the Biotechnology Era: Penicillin in Australia, 1943–80|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08109020802459306 |journal=Prometheus|volume=26|issue=4|pages=317–333|doi=10.1080/08109020802459306|s2cid=143123783}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Baldry|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvs8AAAAIAAJ|title=The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look|date=1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-21268-7|page=115|language=en}}</ref> == Mass production == [[file:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|The cantaloupe strain of ''Penicillum'' (''P. chrysogenum'' or ''P. notatum'') which is the best source of penicillins and was used in the first mass production in US. {{attrib| Crulina 98| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}}]] Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a confined laboratory, the Oxford team tried to persuade the war-torn British government and private companies to undertake mass production, but in vain.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|last=Andrew Carroll|date=2014-06-02|title=Here is Where: Penicillin Comes to Peoria|url=https://www.historynet.com/here-is-where-penicillin-comes-to-peoria.htm|access-date=2021-01-04|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US}}</ref> Florey and Heatley travelled to the United States (US) in June 1941 to persuade the American government and pharmaceutical companies there.<ref name="Chain">{{cite web|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628035235/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-date=28 June 2019|access-date=15 July 2019|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Ton ensure safe transportation of the sample, they smeared their coat pockets with the mould instead of taking it in a vial.<ref name=":10" /> In July, they met with [[w:Andrew Jackson Moyer|Andrew Jackson Moyer]] and Robert D. Coghill at the [[w:USDA|USDA]] Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL, now the [[w:National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research|National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research]]) in [[w:Peoria, Illinois|Peoria, Illinois]], where large-scale fermentations were done.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Neushul|first=P.|date=1993|title=Science, government, and the mass production of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8283024|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=48|issue=4|pages=371–395|doi=10.1093/jhmas/48.4.371|pmid=8283024}}</ref> The Americans showed great interest and were able to make a ''Penicillium'' culture by the end of July<ref name=":12" /> but realised that Fleming's mould was not efficient enough to produce large quantities of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rodríguez-Sáiz|first=Marta|last2=Díez|first2=Bruno|last3=Barredo|first3=José Luis|date=2005|title=Why did the Fleming strain fail in penicillin industry?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15809010|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|volume=42|issue=5|pages=464–470|doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.014|pmid=15809010}}</ref> With the help of US Army Transport Command, NRRL mycologist [[w:Kenneth Bryan Raper|Kenneth Bryan Raper]] was able to locate similar but better moulds from Chungkin (China), Bombay (Mumbai, India) and Cape Town (South Africa). However, the single-best sample was obtained in 1943 from [[w:cantaloupe|cantaloupe]] (a type of melon) sold in the Peoria fruit market. The mould was identified to be ''P. chrysogenum'' and designated as "NRRL 1951" or "cantaloupe strain" (Figure 6).<ref name=":13" /><ref name="Barreiro">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barreiro C, Martín JF, García-Estrada C | title = Proteomics shows new faces for the old penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum | journal = Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology | volume = 2012 | page = 105109 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22318718 | pmc = 3270403 | doi = 10.1155/2012/105109 }}</ref> There is a popular story that Mary K. Hunt (or Mary Hunt Stevens<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bentley|first=Ronald|date=2009|title=Different roads to discovery; Prontosil (hence sulfa drugs) and penicillin (hence β-lactams)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|journal=Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology|language=en|volume=36|issue=6|pages=775–786|doi=10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|pmid=19283418|s2cid=35432074}}</ref>), a staff member at NRRL, collected the mould;<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kardos|first1=Nelson|last2=Demain|first2=Arnold L.|date=2011|title=Penicillin: the medicine with the greatest impact on therapeutic outcomes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=92|issue=4|pages=677–687|doi=10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|pmid=21964640|s2cid=39223087}}</ref> for which she was popularised as "Mouldy Mary."<ref>{{cite web|last=Bauze|first=Robert|date=1997|title=Editorial: Howard Florey and the penicillin story|url=https://search.proquest.com/openview/d5ed3749f4eb8b5b8bbe9d4ac3d955fd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=11254|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Taylor|first=Robert B.|title=Drugs and Other Remedies|date=2016|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|work=White Coat Tales|pages=67–84|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|isbn=978-3-319-29053-9|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref> However, Raper remarked that this story was "folklore" and that the fruit was delivered to the laboratory by a woman from the local fruit market.<ref name=":13" /> Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the ''Penicillium'' mould.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1946|title=The development of improved penicillin‐producing molds|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=41–56|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x}}</ref> Simultaneous research by [[w:Jasper H. Kane|Jasper H. Kane]] and other [[w:Pfizer|Pfizer]] scientists in [[w:Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] developed the practical, deep-tank [[w:Industrial fermentation|fermentation]] method for production of large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daemmrich|first=Arthur|date=2009|title=Synthesis by microbes or chemists? Pharmaceutical research and manufacturing in the antibiotic era|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510903083237|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=237–256|doi=10.1080/07341510903083237}}</ref> [[file:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg|thumb|Penicillin ad for World War II servicemen, ''c''. 1944. {{attrib| [[w:National Institute of Health|National Institute of Health]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]] When production first began, one-litre containers had a yield of less than 1%, but improved to a yield of 80–90% in 10,000 gallon containers.<ref name="Landmark" /> This increase in efficiency happened between 1941 and 1945 as the result of continuous process innovation (Figure 7 shows one of the first mass applications).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1991|title=Penicillin Production Saga Recalled|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24531093|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=81|issue=3|pages=157–161}}</ref> Orvill May, director of the [[w:Agricultural Research Service|Agricultural Research Service]], had Coghill use his experience with fermentation to increase the efficiency of extracting penicillin from the mould. When Moyer and Coghill replaced sucrose with lactose in the growth media, penicillin yield was increased.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moyer|first=Andrew J.|last2=Coghill|first2=Robert D.|date=1946|title=Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC518023/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=51|issue=1|pages=79–93|pmc=518023|pmid=16561059|doi=10.1128/jb.51.1.79-93.1946}}</ref> An even larger increase occurred when they added [[w:corn steep liquor|corn steep liquor]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1975|title=Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin in the United States|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24536802|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=65|issue=3|pages=96–101}}</ref> The inefficiency of growing the mould on the surface of their nutrient baths, rather than having it submerged was a major challenge to the scientists. Although a submerged process of growing the mould was more efficient, the strain used was not suitable for the required conditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. E.|last2=Peterson|first2=W. H.|date=1950|title=Factors Affecting Production of Penicillin in Semi-Pilot Plant Equipment|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a025|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1769–1774|doi=10.1021/ie50489a025}}</ref> With the improved fermentation, the cantaloupe strain could produced six times as much penicillin per millilitre of the culture filtrate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Penicillin: its discovery and early development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15175995/|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=15|issue=1|pages=52–57|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001|pmid=15175995}}</ref> To improve on the cantaloupe strain, researchers subjected it to [[w:X-ray|X-ray]]s to facilitate mutations in its genome.<ref name="Landmark" /> The new mutant strain, designated "X-1612", made in in 1946 produced twice as much penicillin as the original strain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Savage|first=George M.|date=1949|title=Improvement in streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus by ultraviolet and X-ray energy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385538/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=57|issue=4|pages=429–441|pmc=385538|pmid=16561716|doi=10.1128/jb.57.4.429-441.1949}}</ref> Another mutant strain, named "Q176", made in 1947 from ultraviolet irradiation further doubled the penicillin productivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1952|title=A Decade of Antibiotics in America|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|journal=Mycologia|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=1–59|doi=10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|jstor=4547566}}</ref> Now scientists had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin. The next challenge was to provide the air required by the mould to grow. This problem was solved using an aerator but, due to the use of corn steep, aeration caused  severe  foaming.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stefaniak|first=J. J.|last2=Gailey|first2=F. B.|last3=Brown|first3=C. S.|last4=Johnson|first4=M. J.|date=1946|title=Pilot Plant Equipment for Submerged Production of Penicillin|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50439a010|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=38|issue=7|pages=666–671|doi=10.1021/ie50439a010}}</ref> The  addition  of  an  anti-foaming  agents such as arachis oil, lard oil and other fatty acids solved this problem.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=R. B.|last2=Harris|first2=G. C. M.|date=1949|title=The morphology of Penicillium chrysogenum in submerged fermentations|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007153649800106|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=224–235|doi=10.1016/S0007-1536(49)80010-6}}</ref> These anti-foaming agents further enhanced penicillin production.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldschmidt|first=Millicent C.|last2=Koffler|first2=Henry|date=1950|title=Effect of Surface-Active Agents on Penicillin Yields|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a035|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.1021/ie50489a035}}</ref> == Chemical analysis == The [[w:chemical structure|chemical structure]] of penicillin was first proposed by Edward Abraham in 1942,<ref name=":03" /> and three years later, [[w:Dorothy Hodgkin|Dorothy Hodgkin]], working at Oxford, determined the correct chemical structure using [[w:X-ray crystallography|X-ray crystallography]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hodgkin|first=D. C.|date=1949|title=The X-ray analysis of the structure of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18134678|journal=Advancement of Science|volume=6|issue=22|pages=85–89|pmid=18134678}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400874910-012/html|title=Chemistry of Penicillin|last=Crowfoot|first=D.|last2=Bunn|first2=C. W.|last3=Rogers-Low|first3=B. W.|last4=Turner-Jones|first4=A.|date=1949|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7491-0|editor-last=Clarke|editor-first=Hans T.|pages=310–366|chapter=XI. The X-Ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin|doi=10.1515/9781400874910-012}}</ref> The same year, chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments was published jointly by the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council in the journal ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]''. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds that shared the same structural component called [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Committee on Medical Research|last2=Medical Research Council|date=1945|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17788243|journal=Science|volume=102|issue=2660|pages=627–629|doi=10.1126/science.102.2660.627|pmid=17788243|bibcode=1945Sci...102..627M}}</ref> In the United Kingdom the penicillins were called penicillin I, II, III, and IV (Roman numerals were used according to the order of their discovery) while in the US scientists used letters such as F, G, K, and X that referred to their origins or sources as shown below: {| class="wikitable" !UK nomenclature !US nomenclature !Chemical name |- |Penicillin I |Penicillin F |2-Pentenylpenicillin |- |Penicillin II |Penicillin G |Benzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin III |Penicillin X |''p''-Hydroxybenzylpenicillin |- |Penicillin IV |Penicillin K |''n''-Heptylpenicillin |} The use of two different names for each penicillin caused confusion.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=F. A.|date=1947|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=an9477200274|journal=The Analyst|language=en|volume=72|issue=856|pages=274|doi=10.1039/an9477200274}}</ref> As the chemical structures came to be known, the chemical names (based on the [[w:Side chain|side chains]] of the compounds<ref name=":25" />) further complicated their identification and application. Thus, penicillin literature became a mixture of three naming systems. Chemists mostly adhered to the chemical names,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=H. E.|last2=Ford|first2=J. H.|date=1950|title=Biochemistry of antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=487–516|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last=Wintersteiner|first=O.|last2=Dutcher|first2=J. D.|date=1949|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=559–594|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015}}</ref> while biologists preferred the classic numbered or lettered names.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ory|first=E. M.|date=1945|title=Penicillin X: Comparison with penicillin g with respect to sensitivity of pathogenic organisms and serum levels|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=257|doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=W. H.|last2=Ward|first2=G. E.|last3=Coghill|first3=R. D.|date=1945|title=Penicillin: VI. Effect of dissociation phases of Bacillus subtilis on penicillin assay|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=49|issue=4|pages=411–412|doi=10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945}}</ref> To resolve the confusion, in 1948, Chain introduced the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking: "To make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous it was decided to replace the system of numbers or letters by prefixes indicating the chemical nature of the side chain R."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E|date=1948|title=The chemistry of penicillin|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=657–704|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|pmid=18893607}}</ref> Further developments took place. In Austria, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie (now [[w:Sandoz|Sandoz]]) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, [[w:Phenoxymethylpenicillin|penicillin V]] in 1952.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roehr|first=M.|date=2000|title=History of biotechnology in Austria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11036693|journal=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology|volume=69|pages=125–149|doi=10.1007/3-540-44964-7_5|pmid=11036693}}</ref> American chemist [[w:John C. Sheehan|John C. Sheehan]] at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) completed the first chemical [[w:Total synthesis|synthesis]] of penicillin in 1957.<ref name="Sheehan1957">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=H enery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=March 5, 1957|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=79|issue=5|pages=1262–1263|doi=10.1021/ja01562a063|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="Sheehan1959">{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Loganm|first2=Kenneth R.|date=June 20, 1959|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=81|issue=12|pages=3089–3094|doi=10.1021/ja01521a044|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref name="NAPSheehan2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&page=jsheehan.html|title=Biographical Memoirs: John Clark Sheehan|last1=Corey|first1=E. J.|last2=Roberts|first2=John D.|publisher=The National Academy Press|access-date=January 28, 2013|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of [[w:peptide|peptides]], as well as new [[w:Protecting group|protecting groups]]—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups.<ref name="NAPSheehan2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=K. C.|last2=Vourloumis|first2=Dionisios|last3=Winssinger|first3=Nicolas|last4=Baran|first4=Phil S.|date=2000|title=The Art and Science of Total Synthesis at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291521-3773%2820000103%2939%3A1%3C44%3A%3AAID-ANIE44%3E3.0.CO%3B2-L|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=39|issue=1|pages=44–122|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000103)39:1<44::AID-ANIE44>3.0.CO;2-L|pmid=10649349}}</ref> Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in his synthesis was [[w:6-APA|6-aminopenicillanic acid]] (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Logan|first2=Kenneth R. Henery|date=1959|title=A general synthesis of the penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=81|issue=21|pages=5838–5839|doi=10.1021/ja01530a079|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=1962|title=The Total and Partial General Syntheses of the Penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=84|issue=15|pages=2983–2990|doi=10.1021/ja00874a029|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> An important moment in the history of penicillin was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at Surrey's Beecham Research Laboratories (now the [[w:Beecham Group|Beecham Group]]) isolated 6-APA from the culture media of ''P. chrysogenum''. As published in ''Nature'' (1959),<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Batchelor|first1=F. R.|last2=Doyle|first2=F. P.|last3=Nayler|first3=J. H.|last4=Rolinson|first4=G. N.|date=1959|title=Synthesis of penicillin: 6-aminopenicillanic acid in penicillin fermentations|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13622762|journal=Nature|volume=183|issue=4656|pages=257–258|bibcode=1959Natur.183..257B|doi=10.1038/183257b0|pmid=13622762|s2cid=4268993}}</ref> 6-APA was found to constitute the core 'nucleus' of penicillin (in fact, all β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Molecular Modification in Drug Design|last=Sheehan|first=J.C.|vauthors=|date=1964|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0-8412-0046-3|editor-last=Schueler|editor-first=F.W.|veditors=|series=Advances in Chemistry|volume=45|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=15–24|language=en|chapter=The Synthetic Penicillins|doi=10.1021/ba-1964-0045.ch002}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|last=Hamilton-Miller|first=J.M.T.|date=2008|title=Development of the semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=31|issue=3|pages=189–92|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010|pmid=18248798}}</ref> This discovery paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semi-synthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rolinson|first1=G. N.|last2=Geddes|first2=A. M.|date=2007|title=The 50th anniversary of the discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17137753|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=29|issue=1|pages=3–8|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.09.003|pmid=17137753}}</ref> The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. It is likely that [[w:Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant forms of ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] already existed at the time.<ref name="Davies2">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J.|last2=Davies|first2=D.|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harkins|first=Catriona P.|last2=Pichon|first2=Bruno|last3=Doumith|first3=Michel|last4=Parkhill|first4=Julian|last5=Westh|first5=Henrik|last6=Tomasz|first6=Alexander|last7=de Lencastre|first7=Herminia|last8=Bentley|first8=Stephen D.|last9=Kearns|first9=Angela M.|date=2017|title=Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerged long before the introduction of methicillin into clinical practice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724393|journal=Genome Biology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=130|doi=10.1186/s13059-017-1252-9|issn=1474-760X|pmc=5517843|pmid=28724393}}</ref> == Outcomes == Penicillin patents became a matter of concern and conflict. Chain had wanted to apply for a patent but Florey and his teammates had objected arguing that penicillin should benefit all.<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}</ref> He sought the advice of Sir [[w:Henry Hallett Dale|Henry Hallett Dale]] (Chairman of the [[w:Wellcome Trust|Wellcome Trust]] and member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet of British government) and John William Trevan (Director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory). On 26 and 27 March 1941, Dale and Trevan met at Sir William Dunn School of Pathology to discuss the issue. Dale specifically advised that patenting penicillin would be unethical.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Edward Penley|date=1983|title=Ernst Boris Chain, 19 June 1906 - 12 August 1979|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|language=en|volume=29|pages=42–91|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|issn=0080-4606}}</ref> Not giving up, Chain approached Sir Edward Mellanby, then Secretary of the Medical Research Council, who also objected on ethical grounds.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Slinn|first=Judy|date=2008|title=Patents and the UK pharmaceutical industry between 1945 and the 1970s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510701810963|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=191–205|doi=10.1080/07341510701810963|issn=0734-1512}}</ref> As Chain later admitted, he had "many bitter fights" with Mellanby,<ref name=":18" /> but Mellanby's decision was accepted as final.<ref name=":19" /> In 1945, Moyer patented the methods for production and isolation of penicillin.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2442141|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=25 March 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2443989|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=22 June 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=2476107|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=12 July 1949|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}</ref> Moyer could not obtain a patent in the US as an employee of the NRRL, and filed his patent at the British Patent Office (now the [[w:Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]). He gave the license to a US company, [[w:Commercial Solvents Corporation|Commercial Solvents Corporation]]. Although completely legal, his colleague Coghill felt it was an injustice for outsiders to have the royalties for the "British discovery." A year later, Moyer asked Coghill for permission to file another patent based on the use of phenylacetic acid that increased penicillin production by 66%, but as the principal researcher, Coghill refused.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyabji|first=Nasir|date=2004|title=Gaining Technical Know-How in an Unequal World: Penicillin Manufacture in Nehru's India|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84236/1/MPRA_paper_84236.pdf|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=45|issue=2|pages=331–349|jstor=40060744|doi=10.1353/tech.2004.0097}}</ref> When Fleming learned of the American patents on penicillin production, he was infuriated and commented:<blockquote>I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?<ref name=":072">{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}</ref></blockquote>Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases."<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-26}}</ref> Hodgkin received the 1964 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1964/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref> == Development of penicillin-derivatives == The narrow range of treatable diseases of the penicillins prompted further search for derivatives of penicillin. The isolation of 6-APA allowed preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements in terms of bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirby|first=W. M.|last2=Bulger|first2=R. J.|date=1964|title=The new penicillins and cephalosporins|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14133855|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|volume=15|pages=393–412|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.15.020164.002141|pmid=14133855}}</ref> The first major development was the production of [[w:ampicillin|ampicillin]] by the Beecham Research Laboratories in London in 1961.<ref name="acred">{{cite journal|last=Acred|first=P.|last2=Brown|first2=P.|last3=Turner|first3=D.H.|last4=Wilson|first4=M.J.|date=1962|title=Pharmacology and chemotherapy of ampicillin--a new broad-spectrum penicillin|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|volume=18|issue=2|pages=356–69|doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.1962.tb01416.x|pmc=1482127|pmid=13859205|vauthors=}}</ref> Ampicillin had advantages over the original penicillin as it showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.<ref name="acred" /> Further development yielded [[w:Β-lactam antibiotic|β-lactamase-resistant penicillins]], including [[w:flucloxacillin|flucloxacillin]], [[w:dicloxacillin|dicloxacillin]], and [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], which were specifically active against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but not against the methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' strains that subsequently emerged.<ref>{{cite journal|date=March 1965|title=Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in a General Hospital|journal=Lancet|language=en|volume=1|issue=7385|pages=595–7|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(65)91165-7|pmid=14250094|vauthors=Colley EW, Mcnicol MW, Bracken PM}}</ref> Another development in penicillin synthesis was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as [[w:carbenicillin|carbenicillin]], [[w:ticarcillin|ticarcillin]], and [[w:piperacillin|piperacillin]], useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. The penicillins and related β-lactams have become the most widely used antibiotics in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=de Sousa Coelho|first=F.|last2=Mainardi|first2=J.-L.|date=2021-01-05|title=The multiple benefits of second-generation β-lactamase inhibitors in treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33870896|journal=Infectious Diseases Now|volume=online|doi=10.1016/j.idnow.2020.11.007|pmid=33870896|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[w:Amoxicillin|Amoxicillin]], a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Croydon|first=E. A.|last2=Sutherland|first2=R.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: absorption and excretion in man|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5521362|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=427–430|pmid=5521362}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=R.|last2=Rolinson|first2=G. N.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: in vitro evaluation|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5000265|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=411–415|doi=10.1128/AAC.10.3.411|pmid=5000265}}</ref> is the single-most commonly used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burch|first=D. G. S.|last2=Sperling|first2=D.|date=2018|title=Amoxicillin-current use in swine medicine|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jvp.12482|journal=Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=356–368|doi=10.1111/jvp.12482|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aberer|first=Werner|last2=Macy|first2=Eric|date=2017|title=Moving toward optimizing testing for penicillin allergy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28483319|journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice|volume=5|issue=3|pages=684–685|doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2017.03.020|pmid=28483319|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, the usefulness of these penicillins and later developed antibiotics, including the [[w:Mecillinam|mecillinams]], the [[w:Carbapenem|carbapenems]] and, most important, the [[w:Cephalosporin|cephalosporins]], is limited by the common structure, the [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]] ring,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=James|first=C.W.|last2=Gurk-Turner|first2=C.|date=2001|title=Cross-reactivity of beta-lactam antibiotics|journal=Proceedings|volume=14|issue=1|pages=106–7|doi=10.1080/08998280.2001.11927741|pmc=1291320|pmid=16369597}}</ref> which is not only the antibiotic active part of the chemical compound, but also the target site of bacteria in drug resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lima|first=Lidia Moreira|last2=Silva|first2=Bianca Nascimento Monteiro da|last3=Barbosa|first3=Gisele|last4=Barreiro|first4=Eliezer J.|date=2020|title=β-lactam antibiotics: An overview from a medicinal chemistry perspective|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33002736|journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume=208|pages=112829|doi=10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112829|pmid=33002736}}</ref> == Drug resistance == In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned of the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions:<blockquote>The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.<ref name=":30" /></blockquote>In 1940, Chain and Abraham reported the first indication of [[w:antibiotic resistance|antibiotic resistance]] to penicillin, an ''E. coli'' strain that produced the [[w:penicillinase|penicillinase]] enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect.<ref name="Davies2" /><ref name="Lobanovska">{{cite journal|last=Lobanovska|first=M.|last2=Pilla|first2=G.|date=2017|title=Penicillin's Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the Future?|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=90|issue=1|pages=135–145|pmc=5369031|pmid=28356901}}</ref> They worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'':<blockquote>The conclusion that the active substance is an enzyme is drawn from the fact that it is destroyed by heating at 90° for 5 minutes and by incubation with [[w:papain|papain]] activated with potassium cyanide at pH 6, and that it is non-dialysable through '[[w:Cellophane|Cellophane]]' membranes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E.P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1940|title=An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/146837a0|journal=Nature|volume=10|issue=4|pages=677–8|bibcode=1940Natur.146..837A|doi=10.1038/146837a0|pmid=3055168|vauthors=|s2cid=4070796}}</ref></blockquote>By 1942, some strains of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' had developed a strong resistance to penicillin. Eighteen years later, most of the strains were resistant to penicillin.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lowy|first=F.D.|date=2003|title=Antimicrobial resistance: the example of Staphylococcus aureus|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=111|issue=9|pages=1265–73|doi=10.1172/JCI18535|pmc=154455|pmid=12727914|vauthors=}}</ref> In 1967, ''[[w:Streptococcus pneumoniae|Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' was also reported to be penicillin resistant. Many other strains of bacteria have eventually developed, and continue to develop a resistance to penicillin.<ref name="Davies">{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J|last2=Davies|first2=D|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}</ref><ref name="Lobanovska"/> == Additional information == === Acknowledgement === Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]]. === Competing interests === The authors have no competing interests. === Ethics statement === No ethics approval applicable. === Funding === None. ==Notes== {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} f4b2uxdq6fh4pfjuy7rpwsuxq0swxy1 2 276312 2417105 2412695 2022-08-21T21:54:39Z U3189442 - K.Ryan 2924719 /* About Me */ Age wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sunflower in Canada and the Bee1.JPG|thumb|250x250px|''Figure 1.'' An illustration of my favourite flower (Laslovarga, 2013).<ref>{{Citation|title=English: Sunflower in Canada, Ontario|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sunflower_in_Canada_and_the_Bee1.JPG|date=2013-07-27|accessdate=2021-08-29|last=Laslovarga}}</ref>]] == About Me == Hi, my name is Kate and I am 23 years old. I am in my third year of study at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I have completed a Diploma of Health and I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I am doing two majors: Counselling and Forensic and Legal Studies (Psychology). I am currently using my degree in the field of out-of-home care, providing healthcare and social assistance for foster children. I am employed full-time as a caseworker for Everyday CareSouth within the Southern Tablelands region. == Book Chapter == I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] ''(7124)'' unit for Semester 2, 2022. I am completing a Book Chapter on the relationship between physical and psychological needs: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Physical and psychological needs]]. == Social Contributions == == Links == LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/in/katelyn-ryan-17411b21b/ YouTube Channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCT713liQh_yZ8le1mZrcWxw <references /> j4aal1ajzkp65agqy6rhhxr3ld2vjbs 0 277657 2417057 2417019 2022-08-21T13:30:31Z Somer Gellatly 2948643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - Somer Gellatly # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[u3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[u3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] esif6jxjvlbrs7er6siuhoxsm97ogyn 2417058 2417057 2022-08-21T13:33:04Z Somer Gellatly 2948643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[u3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[u3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] eohhmaptj8oadynvcbpp36m1n8g353z 2417065 2417058 2022-08-21T14:04:25Z Somer Gellatly 2948643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[u3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[u3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] i5ecaq32izu79j4hw978cv6n9xtvg0d 2417112 2417065 2022-08-21T22:41:15Z Jnoth 2948662 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? -U3100451 # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[u3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[u3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] rf998ptqgjel67fki2e1iu64is3sckp 2417116 2417112 2022-08-21T22:59:34Z U3196624 2948663 /* Motivation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? -U3100451 # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[U3196624]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[u3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[u3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] brestfjx8ahu7jxlrtzerc9fmnae6cl 2417177 2417116 2022-08-22T04:10:39Z Jtneill 10242 Fix user names wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] p5zg4cjaheov4cdybmpivsfhj17dzdq 2417217 2417177 2022-08-22T04:55:57Z Jtneill 10242 # [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AanaStuart]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AanaStuart]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] frybrff2y8huok087xpgmmtqniadk8d 2417218 2417217 2022-08-22T04:56:34Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] kz312sgbq02h70mpwpf7gic06xs1hnp 2417220 2417218 2022-08-22T05:00:00Z Jtneill 10242 # [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:Somer Gellatly|Somer Gellatly]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Grit and achievement/]] - How does grit affect achievement? - [[User:AnaStuart|AnaStuart]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[MyUsername|myusername]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Self-help/]] - What is self-help and what motivates people to engage in it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Emily.desilva|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:Jnoth|Jnoth]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|U3216502]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:U3196624|U3196624]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:U3214260|U3214260]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:U3213568|U3213568]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:U3195233|U3195233]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Neuroimaging and mood disorders/]] - How can neuroimaging assist in diagnosing and treating mood disorders? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3195332|U3195332]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:U3025906|U3025906]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how it be applied? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] qin488bducm9schcoa2ttdbkmyij6tk 0 279841 2417263 2413587 2022-08-22T05:44:50Z U3193000 2948031 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Climate change helplessness - Motivation and Emotion}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Climate change helplessness|Climate change helplessness]] (Book chapter, 2021) fm8ul69kecqmths434zdcwi4g4cwvrf 2417264 2417263 2022-08-22T05:45:27Z U3193000 2948031 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Climate change helplessness - Motivation and Emotion}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == What is helplessness? == ss{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Climate change helplessness|Climate change helplessness]] (Book chapter, 2021) hfq8aig8i0qc7jm811ef96h5gdgb06m 2417265 2417264 2022-08-22T05:45:53Z U3193000 2948031 /* Main headings */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Climate change helplessness - Motivation and Emotion}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is Climate Change>== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == What is Helplessness? == ss{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Climate change helplessness|Climate change helplessness]] (Book chapter, 2021) 4p5dmclu1pv78yl9xyhzodemadgo3mx 0 279851 2417161 2416369 2022-08-22T03:38:52Z U3216389 2947531 Overview expanded wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * A quick overview of Resentment (as it will be discussed in further detail later) * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? * Where does the emotion derive from? == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences? == == Resentment and Morality == == Ressentiment == ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] a8dl2vrgvozmo7gmrkbh5ss8h0nxauq 2417176 2417161 2022-08-22T04:08:48Z U3216389 2947531 More information regarding overview wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? (Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment) Still to be discussed in overview: * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? * Where does the emotion derive from? == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences? == == Resentment and Morality == == Ressentiment == ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] l81zie9t0zoj42ynlbbyx6bkwipw088 2417183 2417176 2022-08-22T04:12:35Z U3216389 2947531 Updated headings wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? (Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment) Still to be discussed in overview: * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences == == Basic Emotion Theory == == Expressive Suppression Theory == == Ressentiment == ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ims0zkdm6n4wzxwbw0z62hq3tlezwqc 2417319 2417183 2022-08-22T08:01:35Z U3216389 2947531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? (Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment) Still to be discussed in overview: * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? (Angenot, 2010) * By-products of resentment * Flesh out the general definition of resentment before getting into the theory behind resentment == Basic Emotion Theory == * Appraisal Approach ‌(Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker, 2016) * Primary emotions ‌(TenHouten, 2018) * Resentment as a tertiary emotion ‌(TenHouten, 2018) == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences == * == Ressentiment == * What is Ressentiment ‌(Magnus Hörnqvist, 2021) * Collective resentment ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 821ioyywlosakt5jc5e24j3j92l123v 2417327 2417319 2022-08-22T08:16:31Z U3216389 2947531 /* What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? (Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment) Still to be discussed in overview: * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? (Angenot, 2010) * By-products of resentment * Flesh out the general definition of resentment before getting into the theory behind resentment == Basic Emotion Theory == * Appraisal Approach ‌(Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker, 2016) * Primary emotions ‌(TenHouten, 2018) * Resentment as a tertiary emotion ‌(TenHouten, 2018) == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences == *Resentment is a combination of '''disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear'''. *It is caused by the feelings of wrongdoing and unfair treatment *The consequences of resentment (Relationships, personal health and touch upon collective resentment) == Ressentiment == * What is Ressentiment? Where did the term originate? (Magnus Hörnqvist, 2021) * Underlying psychological theories of ressentiment ‌ * Collective resentment * Examples of groups that have experienced ressentiment ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ax11ceholsqcscdemwpqyx69jqpfubp 2417333 2417327 2022-08-22T08:20:35Z U3216389 2947531 got rid of the template info wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Resentment|Resentment]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==External links== * [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/overcoming-resentment-with-gratitude/13660930 Overcoming resentment with gratitude] (All in the Mind, 2021) == Link to User Page (U3216389) == [[User:U3216389|My User Page]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resentment]] {{title|Resentment<br>What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Resentment is an emotion that is viewed as typically negative, and defined as a feeling of bitterness, animosity, or hostility elicited by something or someone perceived as insulting or injurious (APA, 2022). There seems to be no single cause of resentment, however, most cases have the sense of mistreatment and wrongdoing from another person, group or thing associated with it. The more I study resentment the more I am fascinated by it, as it is a truly unique emotion that has an interrelatedness with violence and trauma as well as a large influence upon our interpersonal connections. So where does Resentment stem from? (Possible draft overview briefly describing resentment) Still to be discussed in overview: * Where does resentment come from? * Use an example of resentment so the reader has a clear conception of resentment * Discuss the current research that has been conducted on resentment - Why is this topic important? * Briefly outline the specific topics that will be discussed i.e: # Causes of Resentment & its Consequences # Resentment and Morality # Ressentiment [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|Figure 1. A diagram of the primary emotions that we all experience, with resentment sitting under anger. ]] ==Resentment == * What is Resentment? (Angenot, 2010) * By-products of resentment * Flesh out the general definition of resentment before getting into the theory behind resentment == Basic Emotion Theory == * Appraisal Approach ‌(Rhonda Maria Stoertebecker, 2016) * Primary emotions ‌(TenHouten, 2018) * Resentment as a tertiary emotion ‌(TenHouten, 2018) == What Causes Resentment and What are its Consequences == *Resentment is a combination of '''disappointment, disgust, anger, and fear'''. *It is caused by the feelings of wrongdoing and unfair treatment *The consequences of resentment (Relationships, personal health and touch upon collective resentment) == Ressentiment == * What is Ressentiment? Where did the term originate? (Magnus Hörnqvist, 2021) * Underlying psychological theories of ressentiment ‌ * Collective resentment * Examples of groups that have experienced ressentiment ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] l950fwll7p2flw4cod80ei1ripiq88x 0 280326 2417201 2411760 2022-08-22T04:37:45Z U3207458 2947626 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == Heading == ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ijpljtlm3bxk1rrdud143rjfb9wom38 2417202 2417201 2022-08-22T04:38:47Z U3207458 2947626 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Heading 2 == == Heading 3 == ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) mv52rhrj1gpypk7k5ojzsfp2kl1b9w0 2417205 2417202 2022-08-22T04:40:33Z U3207458 2947626 /* Conclusion */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Heading 2 == == Heading 3 == == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * rmc0hrcoctqeghe60e6p5umyz77j2nd 2417231 2417205 2022-08-22T05:09:22Z U3207458 2947626 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:To Do List Scene Vector.svg|alt=A top view scene of someone checking off all four items on a to-do list. The scene happens on a brown wooden desk, where we there is also a gray keyboard, an eraser, a smartphone and a notebook|thumb|Figure 1. A scene of someone checking off their to-do list]] You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Heading 2 == == Heading 3 == == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://friday.app/p/to-do-list-anxiety How Do You Solve To-Do List Anxiety? How To Overcome It & Get Things Done] (Friday) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * 2695skg0vfk9749y12yoevhxux3bwuw 2417234 2417231 2022-08-22T05:14:24Z U3207458 2947626 /* Heading 2 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:To Do List Scene Vector.svg|alt=A top view scene of someone checking off all four items on a to-do list. The scene happens on a brown wooden desk, where we there is also a gray keyboard, an eraser, a smartphone and a notebook|thumb|Figure 1. A scene of someone checking off their to-do list]] You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Eisenhower Matrix == == Heading 3 == == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://friday.app/p/to-do-list-anxiety How Do You Solve To-Do List Anxiety? How To Overcome It & Get Things Done] (Friday) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * t7p10i26vzmj375d8yen130cjzlziil 2417236 2417234 2022-08-22T05:19:11Z U3207458 2947626 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:To Do List Scene Vector.svg|alt=A top view scene of someone checking off all four items on a to-do list. The scene happens on a brown wooden desk, where we there is also a gray keyboard, an eraser, a smartphone and a notebook|thumb|Figure 1. A scene of someone checking off their to-do list]] You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * Are to-do lists a good idea? * What are their pros and cons? * How can they be used effectively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Heading 2 == == Heading 3 == == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://friday.app/p/to-do-list-anxiety How Do You Solve To-Do List Anxiety? How To Overcome It & Get Things Done] (Friday) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * 0e6beg2d9i7g04sapxt1adlo5mephub 2417237 2417236 2022-08-22T05:20:21Z U3207458 2947626 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|To-do Lists<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:To Do List Scene Vector.svg|alt=A top view scene of someone checking off all four items on a to-do list. The scene happens on a brown wooden desk, where we there is also a gray keyboard, an eraser, a smartphone and a notebook|thumb|Figure 1. A scene of someone checking off their to-do list]] You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * Are to-do lists a good idea? * What are their pros and cons? * How can they be used effectively? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are to-do lists?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Heading 2 == == Heading 3 == == Conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://friday.app/p/to-do-list-anxiety How Do You Solve To-Do List Anxiety? How To Overcome It & Get Things Done] (Friday) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/To-do lists|To-do lists]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] * jkg0qdmrn8hrzrpcv3bj7dk6mxq7c78 0 280810 2417154 2416581 2022-08-22T03:14:52Z U3183466 2947633 Added image from personal page to chapter page wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 2c7tv4qm4l9gbxkw6c5f2ba92iqir00 2417157 2417154 2022-08-22T03:22:24Z U3183466 2947633 Added point to Framework wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j4nvzug1dy7pmgp1f0yvvutg5rjj4zf 2417272 2417157 2022-08-22T05:59:22Z U3183466 2947633 /* References */ added Pessoa reference wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006 Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m9njh6ovg19w1m65kzijrdd8ombxvaa 2417274 2417272 2022-08-22T06:17:50Z U3183466 2947633 /* References */ added Lesiuk reference wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650 Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006 Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] c8xe4hqbfkc71v5qs5ymhm1bwrl0t42 2417276 2417274 2022-08-22T06:19:07Z U3183466 2947633 /* References */ modified Lesiuk hyperlink wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.86.1131&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650] Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006 Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ehmjqcu1888cr2f0mlggpsq7l0ny477 2417278 2417276 2022-08-22T06:20:42Z U3183466 2947633 /* References */ modified Pessoa hyperlink wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.86.1131&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650] Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309000461 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006] Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] e0e0ifu55m9v8f62xf76js77fbcmqx8 2417282 2417278 2022-08-22T06:33:17Z U3183466 2947633 /* References */ Added Kim Reference with hyperlink to pdf version of paper wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Kim, S. (2013). Neuroscientific model of motivational process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(1), 1-12. DOI: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586760/pdf/fpsyg-04-00098.pdf 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098] Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.86.1131&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650] Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309000461 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006] Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] hb1rtn8vpddxflzm514lyliwwppurmi 2417370 2417282 2022-08-22T11:28:09Z U3183466 2947633 /* Theory */ Added Music and Emotion to See Also section wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== (Critically analyse the research discussed) == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: [[wikipedia:Music_and_emotion|Music and Emotion]] ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Kim, S. (2013). Neuroscientific model of motivational process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(1), 1-12. DOI: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586760/pdf/fpsyg-04-00098.pdf 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098] Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.86.1131&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650] Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309000461 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006] Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5xw43q6o623inw4dcc4030o58e534ao 2417375 2417370 2022-08-22T11:56:04Z U3183466 2947633 /* Framework */ Expand on Research wikitext text/x-wiki ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Motivational music|Motivational music]] (Book chapter, 2013) {{title|Motivational Music & Exercise<br>How does music motivate and enhance exercise?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== (Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter) * Explain what the chapter is going to be about * Cover a brief summary of each sub-heading * Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Theory== How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Framework === (Theoretical framework for understanding the topic) * Parts of the brain that affect motivation, potentially including any connection between them and music. * What theories are associated with this? '''Music Theory''' * Examples of how this theory has been explored/utilised in the past. === Theory Depth === (Clearly explain and integrate the theory/ies) ==Research== ===Key Findings=== * Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem. * Current research being conducted into music and its effect on motivation. * Connect research to working out and exercising. [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ===Critical Thinking=== * Strengths of current research tasks. * Limitations and holes in current research. == Integration == (Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research) ==Conclusion== (Emphasise the key points and take-home messages) ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: [[wikipedia:Music_and_emotion|Music and Emotion]] ==References== (Place all used references below in APA 7th edition style) Hutchinson, J. C., Sherman, T., Davis, L., Cawthorn, D., Reeder, N. B., & Tenenbaum, G. (2011). The influence of asynchronous motivational music on a supramaximal exercise bout. ''International Journal of Sport Psychology, 42''(2), 135-148. DOI: Kim, S. (2013). Neuroscientific model of motivational process. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(1), 1-12. DOI: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586760/pdf/fpsyg-04-00098.pdf 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00098] Lesiuk, T. (2005). The effect of music listening on work performance. ''Psychology of Music, 33''(2), 173-191. DOI: [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.86.1131&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735605050650] Pessoa, L. (2009). How do motivation and emotion direct executive control? ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13''(4), 160-166. DOI: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661309000461 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.006] Priest, D. L., Karageorghis, C. I., & Sharp, N. C. (2004). The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance. ''The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 44''(1), 77-86. DOI: {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] h35tto1zef4wrhpou95npv9ii69r3nb 0 281095 2417354 2417016 2022-08-22T09:31:06Z Hamish84 1362807 /* Knowing. */ Added Media wikitext text/x-wiki = <ref>'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616</ref>A message. = What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages. No matter the language spoken the concepts of: Air - Food - Water are recognised. The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions. Reaching for the Stars might show us the way. Universal Language of Absolutes. "A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value" = Our history. = Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011. To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease. Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity. The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below. No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined. They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite. Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property! [[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]] = The Beginning. = "The road's half traveled when you know the way" [[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]] Oxford dictionary definitions: Principle: "A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning". Absolute: " Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure. These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience. We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable. The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute. Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template. There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality. Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it. The subject matter "Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago. Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole. We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood. Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.” [[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]] === Conceptual language. === My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence. We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection. <gallery> File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg </gallery>" ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us."'' ''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99'' Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality. That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute. Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist). The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms. In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state. Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct. It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute. Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda. Zen Koan recorded 1228: 'An instant realization sees endless time. Endless time is as one moment. When one comprehends the endless moment He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.' We do not own Space. We do not own Time We do not own Energy We do not own Matter [[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]] "What we call the beginning is often the end And to make an end is to make a beginning. The end is where we start from We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time" T.S Eliot = Everything is in scale. = The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure. There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality. There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences. The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom. Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional. === Try saying ‘we are not” === ‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be. ‘We are’ is self-evident Truth. We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located in a vast Universe. ‘twas a moment’s pause,- All that took place within me came and went As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells, And grateful memory, as a thing divine. Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111 We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise. It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest. Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are. We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise. It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest. == Lost Shadows == [[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]] The shadows move Lost in confusion Lost in despair Imagination shrouds the real Looking back Looking forward Is this the Centre? James Brines. = Basic Principles. = We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies. [[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]] Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning. All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma) If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!* That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!* Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law. The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete. However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above) <nowiki>*</nowiki>There is nothing else to experience.* When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them. We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading. How do we more reasonably completely know anything? The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.   It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.* Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’ There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems. [[File:FAIR data principles.jpg|center|thumb]] Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence. The principle of pure knowledge (Truth) could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality. Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials. A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate. Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves. The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them. Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity. Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience. = Leverage. = Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it. Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie. [[File:Archimedes'-Lever.png|center|thumb]] One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason. Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural. We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise. The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being. We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist. == Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. == We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being. It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed. Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent. Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent. Heraclitus: "No man steps in the same river twice " He believed in the "Unity of Opposites (Absolutes). He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind.. “Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality. The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life. Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute). In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior. When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are. The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced. Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on. The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart. To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality. The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from. The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available. = Responsibility. = Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome. To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships. Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. [[File:Togetherness - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-06 7666.JPG|center|thumb]] This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program. The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life. The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange. To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards. = Time. = In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being. What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional. It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence. Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event. From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify. It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad. The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome. [[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]] The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth. [[File:JUL Soul Iris.png|center|thumb]] Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it. The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232 == Create your own semantic template. == That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning. That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically. The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own! [[File:Knowledge belongs to all of us. 2030 Wikimedia.jpg|center|thumb]] That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility. “Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous. The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be. Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality. There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence. Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence. Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge. Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand. Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe. Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact. Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield. Example: Success = Securing facts through responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success. There are no dichotomies! Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book. Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied. Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning! When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’. Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality. Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness. Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation. Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality. To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are. True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication. The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge. Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment. How could there be Agreement? How could there be Intelligence? How could there be Understanding? How could there be Recognition? How could there be Love? How could there be Law? How could there be Reason? [[File:Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg|center|thumb]] All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use. We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation. There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials. The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation. Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension. To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available. To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason! Evolution is a constant dynamic process. The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent. The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation. [[File:Making Scholarly Articles Findable- Towards Ensuring F of FAIR Data Principles, John Samuel, WikidatCon 2021.pdf|center|thumb]] The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity. To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality. Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present. To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.” == Discovery == The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction. The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs. For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards. The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense. Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’. We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge. It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies! [[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]] Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness. Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”. He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available. He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure. A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension. Semantic description at this time may not have been available. This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist. [[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]] The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be. Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete. Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm. We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real. We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real. We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses. All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle. [[File:Brick house 09.jpg|center|thumb]] Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house. We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality. Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’. Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to. == Connectedness. == A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’. ‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality. We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die! [[File:Universal Theories.jpg|center|thumb]] To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience. Knowing or being and solipsistic theories advise that we cannot truly know each others experience, nor can we penetrate others experience, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship. The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is. = Relationship. = Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist. The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development. We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality. That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes. We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope! In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’. [[File:ParkStreetTraffic2.jpg|center|thumb]] Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors. It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species. We are here – we are present – we are communicating. We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence. That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted. It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process. == Natural Experience: == No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome. "No man is an island, entire of itself; Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main." - John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/40682518|title="No man is an island" John Donne.|last=1572-1631.|first=Donne, John,|date=(1999 [printing])|publisher=Souvenir|isbn=0-285-62874-7|oclc=40682518}}</ref> [[File:Uros people residence on floating island, Lake Titicaca Peru.jpg|center|thumb]] “We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship. Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage. We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate. To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language. The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial. We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance. To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language. The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities. There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity. [[File:The spray is beginning to hit now (27283410383).jpg|center|thumb]] Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, Positive we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process. When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality. To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it! [[File:Turtle togetherness.JPG|center|thumb]] These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety? Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law. When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity. Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings. We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’. We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality. It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives. Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation. The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships. === Knowing. === Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation. We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity. When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture. [[File:Ten Top Teaching Tips.pdf|center|thumb]] Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is. No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is. It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest. That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary. Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes. Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said). Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation. How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is? How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’? How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it? Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided. The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’. Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form. If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’? A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale. Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity. Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession. Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough! All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’. Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life. === Relativism: === Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge. What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality. Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy! Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy! The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy! The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy! The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy! How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies? Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time. The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process. We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable. It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities. All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life. Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment. We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists. Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality. When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process. True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward Any other interpretation is less than tangible. The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al. Truth can be found in the oddest places. (Archimedes bath image here please) Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement. === Truth. === Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be? All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity. All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things. ‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality. === Truth and Reason. === The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is. Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce. The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are". The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends. Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself. For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time. Network scale example. Truth Knowledge Common sense Responsibility Reason Understanding Intelligence All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes. No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality. All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice. Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’. All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination. Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are. There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state. Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is" there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent. Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments. The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal. Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage). When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve. The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state. Objectivity and Commonsense: Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens. We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality. The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now. A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity. Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid. All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly. There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage. The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning. All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share. = Human consciousness. = [[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|"The roads half travelled when you know the way"]] [[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]] === The Universe === ''<big>We do not own Space</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Time</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Energy</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Matter</big>'' The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history. With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence! Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it. That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture. So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe. Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend. Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide. A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth. Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored. Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving. That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists. Where there is consensus, everything is. The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion. Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies). Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source. The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties. = Availability. = The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use. The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been. Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist. Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.           If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence. Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise! Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality. Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever. To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist. It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms. Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight. To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute. The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality. Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything! = Basic Equation. = However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’. All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know? Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use. Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence. Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument. The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}</ref>) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia. In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”. Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning. Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly. To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’. We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions. This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence. Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are. True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone. That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction. A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness. To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity. That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems. To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion. All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in. Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”. = Pure Experience. = To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc. A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.   If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction. Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained. To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’. Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’. The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident. Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is. Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’. If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism. We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification. It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality. Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                   Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’ So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete. Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience. That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles. It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ . Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally. We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge. Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other.. Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole. Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be. To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence. So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to. When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence. All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent. The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact. Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle. The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.   Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself. Pure experience. The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability. There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent. = Expansion. = To address concerns on ‘negativity’. Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality. Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation. The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’. The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions. We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience. We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible. The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’. The Archimedes legacy. When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute. The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution. The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied. Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know. …………………………………………………………. '''Please note the date:''' '''Oct 2005.''' I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience. = Stepping Stones 1. = There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn. The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same. Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us. Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state. If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!! Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use. Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles. Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education. Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours. Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us. Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles. We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible. We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’ Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree. Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is. The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality. To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality. We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others. To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos). Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do. When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective. There is Mutual Agreement. There is Predictable Conformity. There is Common Ground. Each one complements the other. They are both right. One more remove: From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights. Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it? A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it. As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka! Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so. = Stepping stones 2. = Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination. For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness! ‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’.. Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul! Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain. There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used. Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value. The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience. When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are. When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition. To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system. The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity. The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’. Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed. It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality. Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness. Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held. The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts. Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life. It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’. My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge. The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly. It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed. It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission. The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant. When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how! The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification. A chair, is a chair, is a chair. = Stepping stones 3. = Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’. Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer. When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair. '''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.''' Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised. Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition. Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information. Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed. We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers. Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real. To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise! = Stepping stones 4. = There are no dichotomies. Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist. At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition. We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence. Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised. Experience is the criteria for knowledge. Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum. Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real. There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant. Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality. The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence. Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be. There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”. Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight. The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth! Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it. Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form. The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence. Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’. From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be. Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all. Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed. The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge. = Stepping stones 5. = The Art of making sense of everything. How to understand principles. # Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning. # All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite. # Each one is dependent on the other two. Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies. Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge. Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand. Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe. Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact. Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield. Example: Success = Securing facts                = Responsible co-operation               = Constructive knowledge So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly. All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition. ==== There are no dichotomies! ==== Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book. The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232 Amen to that! “One is not born, but rather becomes a woman” Simone de Beauvoir. “Time does not change us. It just unfolds us” Max Frisch. We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future. = Who we are. =   It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..   For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know! To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality. The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We cannot "have" the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real. Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality. Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality. ‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning. Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform. Within their structure is the meaning of reforms. Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’. Once realised it becomes embedded. That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning. True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality. So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete. That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief. There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles. Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized. We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time. Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.   Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth. To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition. Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it. That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available. We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence. For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle. The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist. ''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}</ref>'' = Limitations. = However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness. Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’. To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists. Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same. Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning. That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being. All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms. Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding. Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al). Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”. We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty. Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions. To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality. Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it. The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’. The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality. The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality. The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction. Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter. That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not. The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles. = Illusion. = Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth. We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify. Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!! To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind. Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself. We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates. The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics. Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence. Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true? All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point. From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things. The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.   = Human representation. When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true. Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical. Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real. The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs. Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so. m5oyxs1o13g4e5tucre8e9tzu3arkwr 2417356 2417354 2022-08-22T09:52:36Z Hamish84 1362807 /* Knowing. */ Added Media wikitext text/x-wiki = <ref>'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616</ref>A message. = What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages. No matter the language spoken the concepts of: Air - Food - Water are recognised. The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions. Reaching for the Stars might show us the way. Universal Language of Absolutes. "A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value" = Our history. = Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011. To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease. Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity. The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below. No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined. They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite. Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property! [[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]] = The Beginning. = "The road's half traveled when you know the way" [[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]] Oxford dictionary definitions: Principle: "A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning". Absolute: " Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure. These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience. We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable. The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute. Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template. There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality. Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it. The subject matter "Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago. Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole. We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood. Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.” [[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]] === Conceptual language. === My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence. We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection. <gallery> File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg </gallery>" ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us."'' ''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99'' Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality. That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute. Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist). The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms. In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state. Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct. It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute. Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda. Zen Koan recorded 1228: 'An instant realization sees endless time. Endless time is as one moment. When one comprehends the endless moment He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.' We do not own Space. We do not own Time We do not own Energy We do not own Matter [[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]] "What we call the beginning is often the end And to make an end is to make a beginning. The end is where we start from We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time" T.S Eliot = Everything is in scale. = The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure. There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality. There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences. The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom. Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional. === Try saying ‘we are not” === ‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be. ‘We are’ is self-evident Truth. We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located in a vast Universe. ‘twas a moment’s pause,- All that took place within me came and went As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells, And grateful memory, as a thing divine. Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111 We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise. It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest. Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are. We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise. It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest. == Lost Shadows == [[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]] The shadows move Lost in confusion Lost in despair Imagination shrouds the real Looking back Looking forward Is this the Centre? James Brines. = Basic Principles. = We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies. [[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]] Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning. All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma) If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!* That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!* Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law. The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete. However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above) <nowiki>*</nowiki>There is nothing else to experience.* When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them. We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading. How do we more reasonably completely know anything? The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.   It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.* Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’ There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems. [[File:FAIR data principles.jpg|center|thumb]] Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence. The principle of pure knowledge (Truth) could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality. Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials. A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate. Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves. The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them. Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity. Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience. = Leverage. = Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it. Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie. [[File:Archimedes'-Lever.png|center|thumb]] One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason. Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural. We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise. The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being. We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist. == Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. == We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being. It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed. Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent. Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent. Heraclitus: "No man steps in the same river twice " He believed in the "Unity of Opposites (Absolutes). He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind.. “Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality. The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life. Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute). In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior. When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are. The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced. Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on. The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart. To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality. The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from. The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available. = Responsibility. = Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome. To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships. Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. [[File:Togetherness - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-06 7666.JPG|center|thumb]] This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program. The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life. The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange. To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards. = Time. = In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being. What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional. It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}</ref> The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence. Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event. From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify. It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad. The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome. [[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]] The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth. [[File:JUL Soul Iris.png|center|thumb]] Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it. The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232 == Create your own semantic template. == That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning. That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically. The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own! [[File:Knowledge belongs to all of us. 2030 Wikimedia.jpg|center|thumb]] That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility. “Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous. The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be. Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality. There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence. Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence. Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge. Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand. Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe. Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact. Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield. Example: Success = Securing facts through responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success. There are no dichotomies! Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book. Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied. Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning! When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’. Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality. Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness. Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation. Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality. To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are. True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication. The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge. Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment. How could there be Agreement? How could there be Intelligence? How could there be Understanding? How could there be Recognition? How could there be Love? How could there be Law? How could there be Reason? [[File:Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg|center|thumb]] All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use. We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation. There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials. The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation. Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension. To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available. To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason! Evolution is a constant dynamic process. The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent. The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation. [[File:Making Scholarly Articles Findable- Towards Ensuring F of FAIR Data Principles, John Samuel, WikidatCon 2021.pdf|center|thumb]] The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity. To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality. Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present. To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.” == Discovery == The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction. The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs. For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards. The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense. Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’. We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge. It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies! [[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]] Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness. Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”. He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available. He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure. A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension. Semantic description at this time may not have been available. This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist. [[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]] The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be. Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete. Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm. We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real. We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real. We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses. All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle. [[File:Brick house 09.jpg|center|thumb]] Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house. We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality. Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’. Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to. == Connectedness. == A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’. ‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality. We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die! [[File:Universal Theories.jpg|center|thumb]] To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience. Knowing or being and solipsistic theories advise that we cannot truly know each others experience, nor can we penetrate others experience, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship. The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is. = Relationship. = Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist. The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development. We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality. That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes. We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope! In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’. [[File:ParkStreetTraffic2.jpg|center|thumb]] Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors. It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species. We are here – we are present – we are communicating. We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence. That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted. It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process. == Natural Experience: == No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome. "No man is an island, entire of itself; Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main." - John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/40682518|title="No man is an island" John Donne.|last=1572-1631.|first=Donne, John,|date=(1999 [printing])|publisher=Souvenir|isbn=0-285-62874-7|oclc=40682518}}</ref> [[File:Uros people residence on floating island, Lake Titicaca Peru.jpg|center|thumb]] “We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship. Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage. We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate. To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language. The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial. We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance. To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language. The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities. There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity. [[File:The spray is beginning to hit now (27283410383).jpg|center|thumb]] Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, Positive we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process. When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality. To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it! [[File:Turtle togetherness.JPG|center|thumb]] These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety? Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law. When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity. Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings. We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’. We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality. It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives. Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation. The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships. === Knowing. === Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation. We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity. When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture. [[File:Ten Top Teaching Tips.pdf|center|thumb]] Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is. No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is. It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest. That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary. Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes. Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said). Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation. How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is? How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’? How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it? Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided. The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’. Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form [[File:Balinese food @ The Uma.jpg|center|thumb]] If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’? A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale. Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity. Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession. Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough! All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’. Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life. === Relativism: === Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge. What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality. Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy! Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy! The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy! The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy! The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy! How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies? Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time. The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process. We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable. It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities. All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life. Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment. We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists. Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality. When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process. True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward Any other interpretation is less than tangible. The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al. Truth can be found in the oddest places. (Archimedes bath image here please) Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement. === Truth. === Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be? All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity. All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things. ‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality. === Truth and Reason. === The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is. Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce. The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are". The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends. Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself. For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time. Network scale example. Truth Knowledge Common sense Responsibility Reason Understanding Intelligence All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes. No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality. All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice. Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’. All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination. Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are. There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state. Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is" there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent. Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments. The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal. Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage). When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve. The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state. Objectivity and Commonsense: Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens. We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality. The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now. A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity. Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid. All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly. There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage. The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning. All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share. = Human consciousness. = [[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|"The roads half travelled when you know the way"]] [[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]] === The Universe === ''<big>We do not own Space</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Time</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Energy</big>'' ''<big>We do not own Matter</big>'' The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history. With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence! Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it. That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture. So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe. Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend. Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide. A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth. Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored. Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving. That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists. Where there is consensus, everything is. The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion. Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies). Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source. The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties. = Availability. = The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use. The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been. Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist. Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.           If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence. Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise! Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality. Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever. To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist. It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms. Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight. To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute. The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality. Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything! = Basic Equation. = However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’. All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know? Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use. Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence. Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument. The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}</ref>) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia. In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”. Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning. Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly. To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’. We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions. This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence. Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are. True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone. That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction. A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness. To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity. That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems. To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion. All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in. Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”. = Pure Experience. = To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc. A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.   If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction. Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained. To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’. Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’. The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident. Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is. Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’. If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism. We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification. It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality. Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                   Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’ So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete. Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience. That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles. It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ . Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally. We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge. Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other.. Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole. Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be. To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence. So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to. When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence. All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent. The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact. Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle. The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.   Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself. Pure experience. The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability. There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent. = Expansion. = To address concerns on ‘negativity’. Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality. Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation. The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’. The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions. We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience. We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible. The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’. The Archimedes legacy. When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute. The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution. The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied. Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know. …………………………………………………………. '''Please note the date:''' '''Oct 2005.''' I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience. = Stepping Stones 1. = There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn. The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same. Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us. Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state. If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!! Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use. Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles. Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods. Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education. Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours. Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us. Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles. We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible. We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’ Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree. Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is. The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality. To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality. We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others. To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos). Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do. When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective. There is Mutual Agreement. There is Predictable Conformity. There is Common Ground. Each one complements the other. They are both right. One more remove: From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights. Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it? A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it. As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka! Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so. = Stepping stones 2. = Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination. For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness! ‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’.. Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul! Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain. There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used. Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value. The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience. When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are. When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition. To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system. The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity. The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’. Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed. It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality. Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness. Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held. The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts. Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life. It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’. My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge. The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly. It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed. It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission. The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant. When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how! The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification. A chair, is a chair, is a chair. = Stepping stones 3. = Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’. Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer. When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair. '''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.''' Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised. Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition. Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information. Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed. We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers. Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real. To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise! = Stepping stones 4. = There are no dichotomies. Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist. At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition. We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence. Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised. Experience is the criteria for knowledge. Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum. Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real. There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant. Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality. The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence. Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be. There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”. Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight. The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth! Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it. Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form. The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence. Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’. From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be. Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all. Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed. The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge. = Stepping stones 5. = The Art of making sense of everything. How to understand principles. # Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning. # All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite. # Each one is dependent on the other two. Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies. Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge. Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand. Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe. Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact. Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield. Example: Success = Securing facts                = Responsible co-operation               = Constructive knowledge So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly. All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition. ==== There are no dichotomies! ==== Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book. The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232 Amen to that! “One is not born, but rather becomes a woman” Simone de Beauvoir. “Time does not change us. It just unfolds us” Max Frisch. We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future. = Who we are. =   It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..   For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know! To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality. The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We cannot "have" the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real. Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality. Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality. ‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning. Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform. Within their structure is the meaning of reforms. Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’. Once realised it becomes embedded. That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning. True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality. So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete. That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief. There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles. Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized. We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time. Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.   Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth. To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition. Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it. That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available. We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence. For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle. The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist. ''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}</ref>'' = Limitations. = However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness. Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’. To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists. Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same. Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning. That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being. All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms. Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding. Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al). Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”. We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty. Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions. To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality. Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it. The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’. The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality. The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality. The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction. Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter. That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not. The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles. = Illusion. = Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth. We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify. Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!! To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind. Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself. We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates. The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics. Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence. Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true? All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point. From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things. The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.   = Human representation. When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true. Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical. Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real. The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs. Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so. 6iw30m5aq4gudw0f4meap9byfvsd9g2 2 281930 2417129 2416575 2022-08-22T00:09:59Z WikiJournalBot 2938943 Automated Bot List Update wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJMed top menu}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} </noinclude> {{Issue header|year = 2022 |volume = 9 |issue = 1}} {{WikiJournalBotList |Volume=6 |Issue=1 |Journal=WikiJournal of Medicine }} {{Article info|Q=Q99522133|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg}} {{Article info|Q=Q99676829|image=Components of Parenting Stress.png}} {{Article info|Q=Q100400590|image=Signs and symptoms of leptospirosis.svg}} {{Article info|Q=Q105411509|image=DRC cases south and north kivu , ituri.jpg}} {{ListEnd}} <noinclude>{{col-break}} {{WikiJMed right menu}} {{col-end}} [[category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} issues]] </noinclude> gzhphuffzypxamc3asvtgb2u44lph6y 3 282276 2417139 2380530 2022-08-22T01:58:25Z MdsShakil 2913655 MdsShakil moved page [[User talk:Gustavo6046]] to [[User talk:Wallabra]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/Gustavo6046|Gustavo6046]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/Wallabra|Wallabra]]" wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Gustavo6046!''' 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See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:49, 5 March 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 8z7w09bkqkk7oqormltg8wkoqs6aepu 0 283085 2417128 2416906 2022-08-22T00:08:57Z WikiJournalBot 2938943 Automated Bot List Update wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{WikiJMed top menu}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} </noinclude> {{Issue header|year = 2022 |volume = 9 |issue = 1 |current = true}} {{WikiJournalBotList}} {{Article info|Q=Q99522133|image=Coronaviruses 004 lores.jpg}} {{Article info|Q=Q99676829|image=Components of Parenting Stress.png}} {{Article info|Q=Q100400590|image=Signs and symptoms of leptospirosis.svg}} {{Article info|Q=Q105411509|image=DRC cases south and north kivu , ituri.jpg}} {{ListEnd}} <noinclude>{{col-break}} {{WikiJMed right menu}} {{col-end}} [[category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} issues]] </noinclude> ihx5qviimnw1bqmwwg91sfe6rfdpyn1 0 283987 2417061 2414575 2022-08-21T14:00:05Z Richardkiwi 2020218 ([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph negative; 3x3.svg]] → [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph negative; matrix (conju).svg]] [[c:COM:FR#FR1|Criterion 1]] (original uploader’s request) wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 600 | image1 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; selection middle.svg | image2 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph; suits.svg | footer = Cluster of the neighbor graph, on the right the matrix sums and vertex types }} There are 25 transforms that look similar to the neutral position.<br> This is the case when the view from one or two axes remains the same or almost the same.<br> Almost the same means, that the original square is {{w|Shear mapping|sheared}} into a (simple) parallelogram. <div style="display: inline-block;"> <!--to avoid text floating up--> {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 600 | image1 = Right-handed coordinate system (y to back).png | image2 = Walsh permutation 124 JF.png | caption2 = 124 | image3 = Walsh permutation 125 JF as inverse.png | caption3 = 125 (as inverse) | image4 = Walsh permutation 136 JF.png | caption4 = 136 (binary) | footer = 125 and 136 look similar to the neutral position.<br>125 looks the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho square XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 0 YZ 1 0 0 1 AxisPos.png|from ''x'']] and almost the same from ''y'' <small>(here shown [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 2h MatInv XY 1 0 0 0 XZ 0 1 1 -1 YZ 0 -1 0 1 DetPos (AxisNeg).png|from −''y'']])</small>.<br>136 looks almost the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 1h MatBin XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 1 YZ 1 1 0 1 DetPos (AxisPos).png|from ''x'']]. }} </div> These are the 25 permutations in the middle cluster of the positive component of the neighbor graph.<br> <small>(There are only 18 transforms that do not look like a square or simple parallelogram from any side, namely those who's matrices have seven 1s.)</small> The big table below shows all 168 transforms in 28 rows and 6 columns.<br> <small>The shown transforms are those with binary matrices. For the transforms with matrices that have some negative entries see [[3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/inverses|'''here''']].</small> For the 25 rows with sums < 7 the position in the table corresponds with that in the neighbor graph: Left, middle or right cluster in the positive or negative component. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! the other 3 rows |- | For the 3 rows with sum 7 the positions in the table correspond like this<br>to the positions in the small 3×3 matrix in the corner of each graph image: {| style="width: 300px;" |style="padding-right: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; 3x3.svg|120px]] | {| class="wikitable" |+ positive | '''M''' || L || R |- | R || '''M''' || L |- | L || R || '''M''' |} |style="padding-left: 50px;"| {| class="wikitable" |+ negative | L || R || '''M''' |- | R || '''M''' || L |- | '''M''' || L || R |} |style="padding-left: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph negative; matrix (conju).svg|120px]] |} |}<!--collapsible end--> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! conjugacy class |rowspan="2"| [[3-bit Walsh permutation/arrow patterns#neutral|neut.]] |colspan="3" class="border"| 2+2 |colspan="2" class="border"| 2+4 |class="border"| 7a |- ! cycle shape |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Paris}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Rome}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Florence}} |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Buenos Aires}} 5 | ''Buenos Aires'' 6 |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Santiago}} + |- ! sum | 3 |class="border"| 4 |colspan="2"| 5a |class="border"| 5b | 6 |class="border"| 7 |- !rowspan="2"| quantity |rowspan="2"| 1 |class="border"| 6 | 3 | 3 |class="border"| 6 | 6 |rowspan="2" class="border"| 3 |- |colspan="3" class="border"| 12 |colspan="2" class="border"| 12 |} Permutations in the same row have the same [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; by complement pattern|complement pattern]], and each complement pattern corresponds to four rows. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! complement patterns to table rows |- | Each of the 28 table rows is identified by the vector (and corresponding matrix) in its main column. {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/comp pattern overview}} |} The big table can be sorted by some properties of the permutations in the main column: *'''cc''' conjugacy class * '''cs''' cycle shape: abbreviated (city) name of the cycle shape; below the sum (3...7)<small>, which corresponds to the position in the cluster (which is why 5a and 5b are distinguished)</small> * '''cp''' complement pattern: above the weight (1...3), below the value (1...7) * '''t''' triple of numbers used in the vectors in the row (number in ascending order) {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns}} [[Category:Walsh permutation]] 6u8j470d8iobyxfe7auu4qipz02ki46 2417062 2417061 2022-08-21T14:00:19Z Richardkiwi 2020218 ([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; 3x3.svg]] → [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; matrix (conju).svg]] [[c:COM:FR#FR1|Criterion 1]] (original uploader’s request) wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 600 | image1 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; selection middle.svg | image2 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph; suits.svg | footer = Cluster of the neighbor graph, on the right the matrix sums and vertex types }} There are 25 transforms that look similar to the neutral position.<br> This is the case when the view from one or two axes remains the same or almost the same.<br> Almost the same means, that the original square is {{w|Shear mapping|sheared}} into a (simple) parallelogram. <div style="display: inline-block;"> <!--to avoid text floating up--> {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 600 | image1 = Right-handed coordinate system (y to back).png | image2 = Walsh permutation 124 JF.png | caption2 = 124 | image3 = Walsh permutation 125 JF as inverse.png | caption3 = 125 (as inverse) | image4 = Walsh permutation 136 JF.png | caption4 = 136 (binary) | footer = 125 and 136 look similar to the neutral position.<br>125 looks the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho square XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 0 YZ 1 0 0 1 AxisPos.png|from ''x'']] and almost the same from ''y'' <small>(here shown [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 2h MatInv XY 1 0 0 0 XZ 0 1 1 -1 YZ 0 -1 0 1 DetPos (AxisNeg).png|from −''y'']])</small>.<br>136 looks almost the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 1h MatBin XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 1 YZ 1 1 0 1 DetPos (AxisPos).png|from ''x'']]. }} </div> These are the 25 permutations in the middle cluster of the positive component of the neighbor graph.<br> <small>(There are only 18 transforms that do not look like a square or simple parallelogram from any side, namely those who's matrices have seven 1s.)</small> The big table below shows all 168 transforms in 28 rows and 6 columns.<br> <small>The shown transforms are those with binary matrices. For the transforms with matrices that have some negative entries see [[3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/inverses|'''here''']].</small> For the 25 rows with sums < 7 the position in the table corresponds with that in the neighbor graph: Left, middle or right cluster in the positive or negative component. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! the other 3 rows |- | For the 3 rows with sum 7 the positions in the table correspond like this<br>to the positions in the small 3×3 matrix in the corner of each graph image: {| style="width: 300px;" |style="padding-right: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; matrix (conju).svg|120px]] | {| class="wikitable" |+ positive | '''M''' || L || R |- | R || '''M''' || L |- | L || R || '''M''' |} |style="padding-left: 50px;"| {| class="wikitable" |+ negative | L || R || '''M''' |- | R || '''M''' || L |- | '''M''' || L || R |} |style="padding-left: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph negative; 3x3.svg|120px]] |} |}<!--collapsible end--> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! conjugacy class |rowspan="2"| [[3-bit Walsh permutation/arrow patterns#neutral|neut.]] |colspan="3" class="border"| 2+2 |colspan="2" class="border"| 2+4 |class="border"| 7a |- ! cycle shape |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Paris}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Rome}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Florence}} |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Buenos Aires}} 5 | ''Buenos Aires'' 6 |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Santiago}} + |- ! sum | 3 |class="border"| 4 |colspan="2"| 5a |class="border"| 5b | 6 |class="border"| 7 |- !rowspan="2"| quantity |rowspan="2"| 1 |class="border"| 6 | 3 | 3 |class="border"| 6 | 6 |rowspan="2" class="border"| 3 |- |colspan="3" class="border"| 12 |colspan="2" class="border"| 12 |} Permutations in the same row have the same [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; by complement pattern|complement pattern]], and each complement pattern corresponds to four rows. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! complement patterns to table rows |- | Each of the 28 table rows is identified by the vector (and corresponding matrix) in its main column. {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/comp pattern overview}} |} The big table can be sorted by some properties of the permutations in the main column: *'''cc''' conjugacy class * '''cs''' cycle shape: abbreviated (city) name of the cycle shape; below the sum (3...7)<small>, which corresponds to the position in the cluster (which is why 5a and 5b are distinguished)</small> * '''cp''' complement pattern: above the weight (1...3), below the value (1...7) * '''t''' triple of numbers used in the vectors in the row (number in ascending order) {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns}} [[Category:Walsh permutation]] dp2ufixq4zca2kl1gy6a0fixov510ce 2417064 2417062 2022-08-21T14:04:14Z Watchduck 137431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 600 | image1 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; selection middle.svg | image2 = 3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph; suits.svg | footer = Cluster of the neighbor graph, on the right the matrix sums and vertex types }} There are 25 transforms that look similar to the neutral position.<br> This is the case when the view from one or two axes remains the same or almost the same.<br> Almost the same means, that the original square is {{w|Shear mapping|sheared}} into a (simple) parallelogram. <div style="display: inline-block;"> <!--to avoid text floating up--> {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 600 | image1 = Right-handed coordinate system (y to back).png | image2 = Walsh permutation 124 JF.png | caption2 = 124 | image3 = Walsh permutation 125 JF as inverse.png | caption3 = 125 (as inverse) | image4 = Walsh permutation 136 JF.png | caption4 = 136 (binary) | footer = 125 and 136 look similar to the neutral position.<br>125 looks the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho square XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 0 YZ 1 0 0 1 AxisPos.png|from ''x'']] and almost the same from ''y'' <small>(here shown [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 2h MatInv XY 1 0 0 0 XZ 0 1 1 -1 YZ 0 -1 0 1 DetPos (AxisNeg).png|from −''y'']])</small>.<br>136 looks almost the same [[c:File:WalshPerm3Ortho par simple 1h MatBin XY 0 1 0 0 XZ 0 1 0 1 YZ 1 1 0 1 DetPos (AxisPos).png|from ''x'']]. }} </div> These are the 25 permutations in the middle cluster of the positive component of the neighbor graph.<br> <small>(There are only 18 transforms that do not look like a square or simple parallelogram from any side, namely those who's matrices have seven 1s.)</small> The big table below shows all 168 transforms in 28 rows and 6 columns.<br> <small>The shown transforms are those with binary matrices. For the transforms with matrices that have some negative entries see [[3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/inverses|'''here''']].</small> For the 25 rows with sums < 7 the position in the table corresponds with that in the neighbor graph: Left, middle or right cluster in the positive or negative component. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! the other 3 rows |- | For the 3 rows with sum 7 the positions in the table correspond like this<br>to the positions in the small 3×3 matrix in the corner of each graph image: {| style="width: 300px;" |style="padding-right: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph positive; matrix (cluster small).svg|120px]] | {| class="wikitable" |+ positive | '''M''' || R || L |- | L || '''M''' || R |- | R || L || '''M''' |} |style="padding-left: 50px;"| {| class="wikitable" |+ negative | R || L || '''M''' |- | L || '''M''' || R |- | '''M''' || R || L |} |style="padding-left: 20px;"| [[File:3-bit Walsh permutations; neighbor graph negative; matrix (cluster small).svg|120px]] |} |}<!--collapsible end--> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! conjugacy class |rowspan="2"| [[3-bit Walsh permutation/arrow patterns#neutral|neut.]] |colspan="3" class="border"| 2+2 |colspan="2" class="border"| 2+4 |class="border"| 7a |- ! cycle shape |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Paris}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Rome}} | {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Florence}} |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Buenos Aires}} 5 | ''Buenos Aires'' 6 |class="border"| {{FanoCycleShapeLink|Santiago}} + |- ! sum | 3 |class="border"| 4 |colspan="2"| 5a |class="border"| 5b | 6 |class="border"| 7 |- !rowspan="2"| quantity |rowspan="2"| 1 |class="border"| 6 | 3 | 3 |class="border"| 6 | 6 |rowspan="2" class="border"| 3 |- |colspan="3" class="border"| 12 |colspan="2" class="border"| 12 |} Permutations in the same row have the same [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; by complement pattern|complement pattern]], and each complement pattern corresponds to four rows. {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! complement patterns to table rows |- | Each of the 28 table rows is identified by the vector (and corresponding matrix) in its main column. {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/comp pattern overview}} |} The big table can be sorted by some properties of the permutations in the main column: *'''cc''' conjugacy class * '''cs''' cycle shape: abbreviated (city) name of the cycle shape; below the sum (3...7)<small>, which corresponds to the position in the cluster (which is why 5a and 5b are distinguished)</small> * '''cp''' complement pattern: above the weight (1...3), below the value (1...7) * '''t''' triple of numbers used in the vectors in the row (number in ascending order) {{3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns}} [[Category:Walsh permutation]] jeu9wm9109lq35heedfxxg5e8kvblmh 2 284518 2417090 2400697 2022-08-21T17:02:58Z Hope Holloway 2931290 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hopeholloway.jpg|left|thumb]] {{Insert HGAPS User Box|Country=United States|Happy|Diversity|Open Research|Wiki Age}} <div class="center">'''<u><big>About Me</big></u>'''</div> Hi! My name is Hope Holloway and I'm a senior at The Mount Vernon School in Atlanta, Georgia. I am a member of the UNC-Chapel Hill chapter of HGAPS, and I enjoy studying psychology. Because I am passionate about helping others, I am interested in clinical psychology and becoming a therapist. I am currently working on applying to colleges, auditing Wikiversity pages with the 997 HGAPS group, and getting through my summer reading list! {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/4template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/7template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/13template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/14template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/15template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/1template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/3template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/5template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/6template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/7template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/8template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/9template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/10template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/11template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/12template}} flk0y98wnvzbhsht29hliv46umdtuvk 2417091 2417090 2022-08-21T17:03:09Z Hope Holloway 2931290 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hopeholloway.jpg|left|thumb]] {{Insert HGAPS User Box|Country=United States|Happy|Diversity|Open Research|Wiki Age}} <div class="center">'''<u><big>About Me</big></u>'''</div> Hi! My name is Hope Holloway and I'm a senior at The Mount Vernon School in Atlanta, Georgia. I am a member of the UNC-Chapel Hill chapter of HGAPS, and I enjoy studying psychology. Because I am passionate about helping others, I am interested in clinical psychology and becoming a therapist. I am currently working on applying to colleges, auditing Wikiversity pages with the 997 HGAPS group, and getting through my summer reading list! {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/4template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/7template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/13template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/14template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/15template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/1template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/3template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/5template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/6template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/7template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/8template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/9template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/10template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/11template}} {{Wikipedia:TWA/Badge/12template}} 08iyb8lilv5boxmdbio9s82lwx6qjo3 2417092 2417091 2022-08-21T17:08:30Z Hope Holloway 2931290 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hopeholloway.jpg|left|thumb]] {{Insert HGAPS User Box|Country=United States|Happy|Diversity|Open Research|Wiki Age}} <div class="center">'''<u><big>About Me</big></u>'''</div> Hi! My name is Hope Holloway and I'm a senior at The Mount Vernon School in Atlanta, Georgia. I am a member of the UNC-Chapel Hill chapter of HGAPS, and I enjoy studying psychology. Because I am passionate about helping others, I am interested in clinical psychology and becoming a therapist. I am currently working on applying to colleges, auditing Wikiversity pages with the 997 HGAPS group, and getting through my summer reading list! pszvz4dxlxmhf3ex8c0wamsge8rz26e 2 285347 2417188 2415942 2022-08-22T04:21:36Z U943292 2946502 Added Mahara Portfolio Link wikitext text/x-wiki == Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter == Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page == About me == Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' == Social contributions == Stay Tuned == My (Mahara) Portfolio == [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=55346 Kate Carloff Portfolio] 3udwngit43h4wrrulspnpubagsx2nqe 2417280 2417188 2022-08-22T06:26:13Z U943292 2946502 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter == Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page == About me == Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' Topic Development (locked draft) == Social contributions == Stay Tuned == My (Mahara) Portfolio == [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=55346 Kate Carloff Portfolio] 7hiti2nw8pa0281r9rc0c07c0h5l51n 2417283 2417280 2022-08-22T06:33:55Z U943292 2946502 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter == Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page == About me == Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and academic achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' [['''/'''Topic Development'''/''']] == Social contributions == Stay Tuned == My (Mahara) Portfolio == [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=55346 Kate Carloff Portfolio] qa71hu2v72oe6tw0fdgqgv2hv43fadx 2 285352 2417261 2406738 2022-08-22T05:40:25Z U3213549 2946564 /* About me */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi there! My name is Georgie, I am in the third year of my Bachelor of Science (Psychology) degree, majoring in Counselling Studies at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ The University of Canberra]! I am currently creating a book chapter about the role motivations and emotions play in hostage negotiation. == Hobbies == * Baking * Going out for brunch * Dancing * Listening to Harry styles == Book chapter == I am currently working on a book chapter for my unit Motivation and Emotion. My chapter focuses on the role that motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation. Social contributions are more than welcome, my chapter can be found here; [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion|Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' == Social contributions == eep2yy57mdigxmdjxpd6xjv8lrejapm 0 285353 2417170 2416657 2022-08-22T04:01:39Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] l82axycxbz528aravzldttiov0d4vlk 2417173 2417170 2022-08-22T04:06:04Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] qodphwmixtqsudz4cfyrupfd8k3b6g7 2417179 2417173 2022-08-22T04:11:22Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] d8a90hzywy5mtgcpwxqbrfibkjqyha7 2417181 2417179 2022-08-22T04:12:12Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] c7hfeqfj42kiek814sk4lmtvr4uxj1l 2417184 2417181 2022-08-22T04:13:25Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] myr4ei6ywt26tdqe15pneeugf5tg5s4 2417197 2417184 2022-08-22T04:29:16Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. ( == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5z9ti6qq5ggpeyat1yh4wy1ii7ytpa6 2417198 2417197 2022-08-22T04:32:36Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Hasselt et al., 2008) * == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] q9ytfmyh3kt5x9tpox1081zfs5pe7bv 2417199 2417198 2022-08-22T04:33:48Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Hasselt et al., 2008) * == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] qrgc5i0v4minfgn0vz9nyhejtrtx746 2417209 2417199 2022-08-22T04:47:34Z U3213549 2946564 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Hasselt et al., 2008) * == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8wpqkn052tyg0hffkwwpllupl9s7va5 2417211 2417209 2022-08-22T04:48:55Z U3213549 2946564 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Hasselt et al., 2008) * == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) 547tg9o2e219uv6ffj40d1qkmx3x2ga 2417213 2417211 2022-08-22T04:50:25Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Hasselt et al., 2008) * == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) 1uk07axypeya8jkekrdk7f4wkspq39h 2417225 2417213 2022-08-22T05:06:26Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations (Faure, 2003) *Negotiation theory plays a major role (Brett, == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) d5mmk5kravdb8frfb9w9i2uwz0448fj 2417226 2417225 2022-08-22T05:07:10Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations (Faure, 2003) *Negotiation theory plays a major role (Brett, == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) 0t22k9wx88zejzu8awyflbc4xc8wyag 2417241 2417226 2022-08-22T05:21:34Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2003) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) nmf327hj5d0y6vjucifskx9gfsyo84x 2417243 2417241 2022-08-22T05:22:47Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2003) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf Faure, G. O. (2011). Negotiating with political, ideological, and criminal terrorists. In Jornadas secuestros y toma de rehenes por parte de grupos terroristas: prevención y respuestas (pp. 1-28). Fundación Manuel Giménez Abad de Estudios Parlamentarios y del Estado Autonómico. Retrieved from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5733963.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) oynexyvidn4sishk4xl7sa3fbb7h8bg 2417244 2417243 2022-08-22T05:23:03Z U3213549 2946564 /* Hostage Negotiation */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2011) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf Faure, G. O. (2011). Negotiating with political, ideological, and criminal terrorists. In Jornadas secuestros y toma de rehenes por parte de grupos terroristas: prevención y respuestas (pp. 1-28). Fundación Manuel Giménez Abad de Estudios Parlamentarios y del Estado Autonómico. Retrieved from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5733963.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) gtuvfgh4lxb949fj4ikxqlaa51t3lte 2417246 2417244 2022-08-22T05:24:09Z U3213549 2946564 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2011) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:List_of_hostage_crises|List of hostage crises]](Wikipedia ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf Faure, G. O. (2011). Negotiating with political, ideological, and criminal terrorists. In Jornadas secuestros y toma de rehenes por parte de grupos terroristas: prevención y respuestas (pp. 1-28). Fundación Manuel Giménez Abad de Estudios Parlamentarios y del Estado Autonómico. Retrieved from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5733963.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) aje8w25p5kiwyuojqb7m0aappta1kz3 2417247 2417246 2022-08-22T05:24:54Z U3213549 2946564 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. ** Hostage situations in the entertainment industry. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2011) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) <br /> ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:List_of_hostage_crises|List of hostage crises]](Wikipedia ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf Faure, G. O. (2011). Negotiating with political, ideological, and criminal terrorists. In Jornadas secuestros y toma de rehenes por parte de grupos terroristas: prevención y respuestas (pp. 1-28). Fundación Manuel Giménez Abad de Estudios Parlamentarios y del Estado Autonómico. Retrieved from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5733963.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) 2476me139d38da8pcwdvd10vsq605gn 2417257 2417247 2022-08-22T05:30:01Z U3213549 2946564 /* The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * What is hostage negotiation? ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The role of the negotiator. ** History of hostage negotiation. ** The different types of hostage negotiation/situations. ** Hostage situations in the entertainment industry. * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** Definition of motivation. ** What motivates hostage negotiators? ** What motivates hostage takers? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? ** definition of emotions. ** what emotions are involved in hostage negotiation/situations? ** how do these emotions affect the situation? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ==Focus Questions== * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Hostage Negotiation == [[File:Hostage exercise.jpeg|thumb|211x211px|Police conducting a hostage exercise.]] * Hostage negotiation is a relatively new task force in the police. ** But hostage incidents are as old as recorded time. (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Developed by Harvey Schlossberg, ** for the NYPD when he noticed there was a need for a dedicated trained professional in crisis intervention. (Murillo, 2022) * It is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in hostage situations to ensure a positive and safe outcome is achieved in the eyes of the law. (Van Hasselt et al., 2008) *There are many different types of hostage situations e.g., **Barricade hostage taking (Fishbowl theory) **Kidnapping (Faure, 2011) *Negotiation theory plays a major role in achieving a positive outcome(Brett & Gelfand, 2005) == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == [[File:(1)Lindt Cafe siege 008.jpg|thumb|People signing condolences books after Lindt Café siege, Martin Place, Sydn ]] * Hostage situations can have many underlying motivations: ** Money - taking banks hostage or taking hostages in return for ransom money (Fuselier, 1988) ** Political/extremism - taking the hostage (Scott, 2020) ** Situations involving mentally ill individuals - Individuals with illnesses such as but not limited to psychopathy, paranoid schizophrenia, depression can be motivated by their disorders to release anxiety or satisfying a perceived need by taking hostages (Faure, 2003)<br /> == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al., 1998) * Captives are held by subjects who are high emotional. These emotions can consist of jealously, anger, sadness or frustration. (Vecchi et al., 2005) * This can be shown through situations such as: ** One person holding a spouse captive as a result or rejection or conflict. (Vecchi et al., 2005) ** a politically motivated or a case of extremism. (Scott, 2020) ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Summarise the key points * Answer the focus questions ** What is hostage negotiation? ** What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? ** What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? * Final message about topic: As a hostage negotiator, it is important to understand the motivations and emotions involved in these high intensity situations to achieve the greatest outcome ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:List_of_hostage_crises|List of hostage crises]](Wikipedia ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz Vecchi, G. M., Van Hasselt, V. B., & Romano, S. J. (2005). Crisis (hostage) negotiation: Current strategies and issues in high-risk conflict resolution. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(5), 533-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2004.10.001 Scott, R. (2020). The Sydney Lindt café siege: The role of the consultant psychiatrist. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(3), 244-258.https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419853886 Faure, G. O. (2003). Negotiating with terrorists: The hostage case. International Negotiation, 8(3), 469-494. Retrieved from: https://web.archive.org/web/20160108105535id_/https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/5178-faurenegotiating-w-terrorist--the-hostage-casepdf Fuselier, G. D. (1988). Hostage negotiation consultant: Emerging role for the clinical psychologist. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19(2), 175. Retrieved from: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.788&rep=rep1&type=pdf Murillo, L. (2022). Harvey Schlossberg (1936–2021). American Psychologist, 77(5), 718. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000997 Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G Stokes, T., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Book Review: Crisis Negotiations: Managing Critical Incidents and Hostage Situations in Law Enforcement and Corrections. Criminal Justice Review, 30(2), 246-248. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016805284513 Van Hasselt, V. B., Romano, S. J., & Vecchi, G. M. (2008). Role playing: Applications in hostage and crisis negotiation skills training. Behavior modification, 32(2), 248-263. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0145445507308281 Brett, J. M., & Gelfand, M. J. (2006). A cultural analysis of the underlying assumptions of negotiation theory. Negotiation theory and research, 173-201. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michele-Gelfand/publication/242306114_A_Cultural_Analysis_of_the_Underlying_Assumptions_of_Negotiation_Theory/links/53e56ec10cf25d674e9c2711/A-Cultural-Analysis-of-the-Underlying-Assumptions-of-Negotiation-Theory.pdf Faure, G. O. (2011). Negotiating with political, ideological, and criminal terrorists. In Jornadas secuestros y toma de rehenes por parte de grupos terroristas: prevención y respuestas (pp. 1-28). Fundación Manuel Giménez Abad de Estudios Parlamentarios y del Estado Autonómico. Retrieved from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5733963.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CNRmhleJmk The Secrets of Hostage Negotiators] (Youtube) *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60486726 Amsterdam Apple store: Man arrested over hostage standoff dies] (BBC News) i2x5lqzdyfspzv4elyv1ihku111zibu 0 285385 2417275 2416816 2022-08-22T06:18:41Z Young1lim 21186 /* Object Files */ wikitext text/x-wiki === Executable and Linkable Format === ==== Object Files ==== * Introduction * ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]]) * Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]]) * String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]]) * Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220822.pdf |pdf]]) * Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ==== * Introduction * Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) * Program Loading * Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]]) ==== C Library ==== * C Library === ELF Study === ==== ELF Relocations ==== * Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]]) * PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]]) * Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]]) ==== Relocation Examples ==== * Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) * Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]]) * Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]]) * Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]]) * Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]]) * Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]]) * Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]]) * Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]]) </br> go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming]] 3ikvi4yrkab8ojrqyl7dbnyeqvljb4h 0 285727 2417346 2410724 2022-08-22T08:52:10Z U3203655 2946488 /* Figures */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Physiological needs:<br>How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs2.svg|thumb|400x400px|''Figure 1''. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]] 0zmf9cjcxu0ebotyzt1i3jm54zq0e3z 2417348 2417346 2022-08-22T08:56:53Z U3203655 2946488 /* Main headings */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Physiological needs:<br>How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Maslows hierarchy of needs== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs2.svg|thumb|400x400px|''Figure 1''. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]] b869skjd0xac6fvpqtoe6i8zkwaovux 2417350 2417348 2022-08-22T09:02:03Z U3203655 2946488 /* Maslows hierarchy of needs */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Physiological needs:<br>How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Maslows hierarchy of needs== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === What is Maslows hierarchy of needs? === === What are Physiological needs? === ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs2.svg|thumb|400x400px|''Figure 1''. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]] erw8ndjrulc7ypzlbnnmdma8ca8ye9l 2 285907 2417344 2413671 2022-08-22T08:42:20Z Sebastian Armstrong 2947157 /* Social contributions */ Updated "Social contributions" and "Hobbies" wikitext text/x-wiki = About me = I am a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the University of Canberra = Book chapter = I will be working on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fully functioning person|'''Fully functioning person''']] - ''What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed?'' = Social contributions = [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Self-actualisation and motivation]] Added " , " and " . " to intext citation. And added "Fully functioning person" to "see also" = Hobbies = * I play [[wikipedia:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons & Dragons]] and other [[wikipedia:Tabletop_role-playing_game|Tabletop role-playing games]] with friends. * I like to go on bike rides * I am also part of the kung fu and Chinese dance club at UC 1ofzxz3xpnv1kkrxe9sft52l1puw86v 2417366 2417344 2022-08-22T11:12:21Z Sebastian Armstrong 2947157 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki = About me = I am a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the University of Canberra = Book chapter = I will be working on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fully functioning person|'''Fully functioning person''']] - ''What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed?'' = Social contributions = 08:28, 22 August 2022 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Self-actualisation_and_motivation&diff=prev&oldid=2417342 diff] hist  +114‎  [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Self-actualisation and motivation]] ‎ [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Self-actualisation and motivation#See%20also|→‎See also]]: Added , and . to intext citation. And added 'Fully functioning person' to 'see also' current = Hobbies = * I play [[wikipedia:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons & Dragons]] and other [[wikipedia:Tabletop_role-playing_game|Tabletop role-playing games]] with friends. * I like to go on bike rides * I am also part of the kung fu and Chinese dance club at UC 7lmi1egi2ucypoosyf9ga51c5w3ocwa 0 285934 2417150 2416153 2022-08-22T02:49:54Z Ajeofula22 2947179 /* Boxes */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == The fact that emotions innate in all species according to evolutional theory, its critical to be aware of our emotions. Emotions play major roles in regulating behaviour and stimuli in the environment.  Although BZD provide calming effects, it also has devasting physiological effects when prolong the used and these includes dizziness, irritability, fatigue, lethargy, slurred speech, memory impairment and impaired motor- coordination. === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" 3gq9a1gu7uhljk2h3n2shb29baqi8oc 2417165 2417150 2022-08-22T03:46:13Z 137.92.210.209 /* What is emotion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == Emotion is very complex patterns of reaction which involved behavioural, psychological, biological, physiological and environmental elements. It's the way people response to their environment or stimuli based on their experiences, perceptions or cultural understanding.  Although BZD provide calming effects, it also has devasting physiological effects when prolong the used and these includes dizziness, irritability, fatigue, lethargy, slurred speech, memory impairment and impaired motor- coordination. === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" b3yuyrqulhoaw0ivo5j0qczfl28jxsd 2417166 2417165 2022-08-22T03:55:01Z 137.92.210.209 /* What is emotion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == Emotion is very complex patterns of reaction which involved behavioural, psychological, biological, physiological and environmental elements. It's the way people response to their environment or stimuli based on their experiences, perceptions or cultural understanding. According Charles Darwin, emotion is innate in all species, humans and animals all have emotions, for example a baby cry when their mother living and happy when she come back or dog back when show stranger. Benzodiazepines are prescribed to help patients that struggles with negatives emotions and its purpose is to calm and relax patients especially anxiety, panic disorder and insomnia ( difficulty sleeping). === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" ooiiuno2mft2zpgpujypim1qwugssek 2417168 2417166 2022-08-22T04:00:12Z 137.92.210.209 /* What are benzodiazepines? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- The purpose of BZD is to calm down the body and firing activities in the brain. Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == Emotion is very complex patterns of reaction which involved behavioural, psychological, biological, physiological and environmental elements. It's the way people response to their environment or stimuli based on their experiences, perceptions or cultural understanding. According Charles Darwin, emotion is innate in all species, humans and animals all have emotions, for example a baby cry when their mother living and happy when she come back or dog back when show stranger. Benzodiazepines are prescribed to help patients that struggles with negatives emotions and its purpose is to calm and relax patients especially anxiety, panic disorder and insomnia ( difficulty sleeping). === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" d5nyujt9xb7rg3stzc45evba48qlzpu 2417174 2417168 2022-08-22T04:07:23Z 137.92.210.209 /* What are benzodiazepines? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- The purpose of BZD is to calm down the body and firing activities in the brain. Originally, the drugs are advised for short-term use due to its effectiveness. Moreover, Physicians quickly released that BZD have negative side effects but also risk of dependences, tolerances and withdrawal effects. Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == Emotion is very complex patterns of reaction which involved behavioural, psychological, biological, physiological and environmental elements. It's the way people response to their environment or stimuli based on their experiences, perceptions or cultural understanding. According Charles Darwin, emotion is innate in all species, humans and animals all have emotions, for example a baby cry when their mother living and happy when she come back or dog back when show stranger. Benzodiazepines are prescribed to help patients that struggles with negatives emotions and its purpose is to calm and relax patients especially anxiety, panic disorder and insomnia ( difficulty sleeping). === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" 0h88kjv5qzonbxjfv72hqqhegpnc3pd 2417175 2417174 2022-08-22T04:08:25Z 137.92.210.209 /* Pharmacological aspect of BZD */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:<br> What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BZD) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of BZD on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BZD. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are benzodiazepines use for? * What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? * Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]] ==What are benzodiazepines?== [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] (BZD) also known as CNS depressants- The purpose of BZD is to calm down the body and firing activities in the brain. Originally, the drugs are advised for short-term use due to its effectiveness. Moreover, Physicians quickly released that BZD have negative side effects but also risk of dependences, tolerances and withdrawal effects. Table 1. summarising the effects, commonly prescribed BZD, roles of BZD in clinical aspects and form BZD are administered. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="4" | |- | === Effects of benzodiazepines === | === Benzodiazepines commonly prescribed === | === Clinical aspect of benzodiazepines === | === Routes === |- | * Sedative effects * Hypnotic effects * Anxiolytic effects | * Alprazolam * Lorazepam * Temazepam * Diazepam * Midazolam and more | * Anxiety * Seizure * Insomnia * Panic attack * Before procedure (surgery) * Alcohol withdrawal | * IV - intravenous * IM - intramuscular * Rectal - through anus * Oral - through mouth |} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == What is emotion? == Emotion is very complex patterns of reaction which involved behavioural, psychological, biological, physiological and environmental elements. It's the way people response to their environment or stimuli based on their experiences, perceptions or cultural understanding. According Charles Darwin, emotion is innate in all species, humans and animals all have emotions, for example a baby cry when their mother living and happy when she come back or dog back when show stranger. Benzodiazepines are prescribed to help patients that struggles with negatives emotions and its purpose is to calm and relax patients especially anxiety, panic disorder and insomnia ( difficulty sleeping). === Pharmacological aspect of BZD === Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) also known as neurotransmitters is the primary inhibitory in the brain (central nervous system). Benzodiazepines amplifies GABA effects by inhibitory neurotransmitter (Lydiard, 2003). == What is the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions == * Impaired threat processing * Generalised fear of threat * Reduce total alertness response * Lack of ability to recognised facial expressions ==== Effects of benzodiazepines on behavioural and neurophysiological aspects ==== * Impaired psychomotor activities and motor control * Impaired memory functions especially working and verbal memory * Decreased alertness on environmental threat * Increased reaction times as well as decrease reaction time when for BNZ * Driving impairments ( Stone, Corea, Brown, Spurgin, Stikic, Johnson, & Berka, 2015) ===== Effects of BZD on social cognition ===== * Activities in amygdala reduce - this part of the brain is responsible in guiding behaviour and processes knowledge about vital stimuli for survival. Amygdala also contributes to area of cognitive processing such as attention, memory, decision making, and research found this part of the brain critical in facial expression especially negative emotions such as fear (Adolphs, 1999). Studies also found that patients with damaged amygdala are unlikely to recognized emotions associated with fear and anger. However, benzodiazepines play critical roles by producing calming effects during endless though in the brain which are mostly negative emotions (Zald,2003). * Reduction in emotional processing ability - * Affect motivation and emotion * Deficit in social cognition due to emotional suppression * Alleviate anxiety symptoms and improve social cognitions impairment (Haime, Watson, Crellin, Marston, Joyce, & Moncrieff, 2021). === Issues related with dependence, withdrawal and tolerance from benzodiazepines: === * Increased level of anxiety * Insomnia- difficulty with sleep or falling a sleep * Lack of appetite - lack of motivation to seek for food or eat food * Weight lose - losing weight without trying * Perception disturbance * Tremor * Irritability * Nausea * Panic attacks * Headache * Sweating * Problem with concentration (Petursson,1994). == Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders == == Theories == * Darwin biological and genetic theory on emotion * Psychological cognitive theory == Recommendation for interventions == * Cognitive therapy * Behavioural therapy * Psychological therapy * Life styles == conclusion == The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== # [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepine]] (Wikipedia) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine and emotion|Methamphetamine and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020) # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|Opioid system and human emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == '''References''' == Stewart, S.A. (2005). The effects of benzodiazepines on cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(2), 9-13 Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. ''Brain Research Reviews'', ''41''(1), 88-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00224 ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]" cfdjkgb0zncm34flvo2sirb7gfss43m 0 286001 2417230 2416486 2022-08-22T05:09:21Z U3210264 2947526 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Humour, leadership, and work:<br>How does Humour influence workplace motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action? * Humour is a fundamental part of existing, laughing being able lighten the stress of even the most cynical person, doing the most mundane of tasks. * However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields * in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) * As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How are Humour and motivation linked? * How does Humour interact with motivation in different contexts. * What larger affect does management reliant on humour bring? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Relief Theory: == == What is leadership humour how does it affect workplace morale? == * Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. === Workplace Culture: === === Job Satisfaction/Motivation: === <blockquote>"Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers" (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014) </blockquote> === Types of humour used: === == Effects on different forms of motivation == == Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. == * Studies showcase the importance of using the correct type of humour- Affirmative vs negative. * Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees- A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour * Humour needs to be appropriate for an individuals contexts == What == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Akyol, M. E., & Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182 Davis, A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii. Pundt, A., & Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081 Jin Yoon, H., & Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740 Daman, Stuart Jenkins, "The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation" (2008). ETD Archive. 585. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __FORCETOC__ 1bayj83x3lmwezoqojib94wx6gmgsz2 2417253 2417230 2022-08-22T05:28:59Z U3210264 2947526 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Humour, leadership, and work:<br>How does Humour influence workplace motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action? * Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress * However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields * in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) * As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How are Humour and motivation linked? * How does Humour interact with motivation in different contexts. * What larger affect does management reliant on humour bring? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Relief Theory: == == What is leadership humour how does it affect workplace morale? == * Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. === Workplace Culture: === === Job Satisfaction/Motivation: === <blockquote>"Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers" (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014) </blockquote> === Types of humour used: === == Effects on different forms of motivation == == Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. == * Studies showcase the importance of using the correct type of humour- Affirmative vs negative. * Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees- A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour * Humour needs to be appropriate for an individuals contexts == What == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Akyol, M. E., & Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182 Davis, A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii. Pundt, A., & Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081 Jin Yoon, H., & Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740 Daman, Stuart Jenkins, "The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation" (2008). ETD Archive. 585. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __FORCETOC__ 8d9x4o7csr6cpi2weo87jeyrg9a4ag6 2417255 2417253 2022-08-22T05:29:36Z U3210264 2947526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Humour, leadership, and work:<br>How does Humour influence workplace motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action? * Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress * However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields * in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) * As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How are Humour and motivation linked? * How does Humour interact with motivation in different contexts. * What larger affect does management reliant on humour bring? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Relief Theory: == == What is leadership humour how does it affect workplace morale? == * Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. === Workplace Culture: === === Job Satisfaction/Motivation: === <blockquote>"Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers" (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014) </blockquote> === Types of humour used: === == Effects on different forms of motivation == == Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. == * Studies showcase the importance of using the correct type of humour- Affirmative vs negative. * Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees- A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour * Humour needs to be appropriate for an individuals contexts == What == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Akyol, M. E., & Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182 Davis, A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii. Pundt, A., & Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081 Jin Yoon, H., & Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740 Daman, Stuart Jenkins, "The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation" (2008). ETD Archive. 585. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __FORCETOC__ 1x8r5dpx360ra295x4u97ou5fsheeu8 2417258 2417255 2022-08-22T05:30:57Z U3210264 2947526 /* What */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Humour, leadership, and work:<br>How does Humour influence workplace motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action? * Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress * However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields * in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) * As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How are Humour and motivation linked? * How does Humour interact with motivation in different contexts. * What larger affect does management reliant on humour bring? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Relief Theory: == == What is leadership humour how does it affect workplace morale? == * Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. === Workplace Culture: === === Job Satisfaction/Motivation: === <blockquote>"Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers" (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014) </blockquote> === Types of humour used: === == Effects on different forms of motivation == == Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. == * Studies showcase the importance of using the correct type of humour- Affirmative vs negative. * Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees- A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour * Humour needs to be appropriate for an individuals contexts == Future Research == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Akyol, M. E., & Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182 Davis, A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii. Pundt, A., & Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081 Jin Yoon, H., & Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740 Daman, Stuart Jenkins, "The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation" (2008). ETD Archive. 585. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __FORCETOC__ tqd31kwe5f9s7h7gaw7tze91cos6qds 2417260 2417258 2022-08-22T05:34:58Z U3210264 2947526 /* Relief Theory: */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Humour, leadership, and work:<br>How does Humour influence workplace motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. Why do we laugh and how and why does this laughter often move us to action? * Humour is an essential part of living for many living creatures, being a pro-socially evolved behaviour that reduces stress * However why we laugh and why it motivates us continues to largely be studied by philosophical fields * in comparison Humour is a relatively small field of research ( comparatively to Motivation studies) * As we will discuss further humour is used as an appeal to increase (and sometimes decrease) motivation for many types of behaviours {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How are Humour and motivation linked? * How does Humour interact with motivation in different contexts. * What larger affect does management reliant on humour bring? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Humour and Motivation: Background == == leadership humour and workplace morale == * Humour plays a critical part in the functioning of a workplace environment and in leadership to guide employees. === Workplace Culture: === === Job Satisfaction/Motivation: === <blockquote>"Leader humour has been found to help establish high-quality relationships between leaders and followers" (Pundt and Herrmann, 2014) </blockquote> == Effects on different forms of motivation == == Criticism of Humour as a form of motivation. == * Studies showcase the importance of using the correct type of humour- Affirmative vs negative. * Sincerity plays a key role in developing trust with employees- A humourless boss should not attempt to force humour * Humour needs to be appropriate for an individuals contexts == Future Research == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humor_research {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Akyol, M. E., & Gündüz, H. B. (2014). The Motivation Level of the Teachers According to the School Managers’ Senses of Humour. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.182 Davis, A., & Kleiner, B. H. (1989). The value of humour in effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 10(1), i–iii. Pundt, A., & Herrmann, F. (2014). Affiliative and aggressive humour in leadership and their relationship to leader-member exchange. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12081 Jin Yoon, H., & Mark Mayer, J. (2014). Do humour and threat work well together? International Journal of Advertising, 33(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.2501/ija-33-4-725-740 Daman, Stuart Jenkins, "The Influence of Humor on Approach and Avoidance Motivation" (2008). ETD Archive. 585. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/585 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __FORCETOC__ qpex3bmfgmmot3fl34smyg1uvuluwt7 0 286014 2417311 2416671 2022-08-22T07:40:05Z Sebastian Armstrong 2947157 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Fully functioning person <br>What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Plan == === Overview === ''What is a FFP and How can full functioning be developed?''<blockquote> # <u>A growing openness to experience</u> # <u>An increasingly existential lifestyle</u> # <u>Increasing organismic trust</u> # <u>Freedom of choice</u> # <u>Creativity</u> # <u>Reliability and constructiveness</u> # <u>A rich full life</u> #* Rogers, Carl (1961). ''On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy''. London: Constable. ISBN <bdi>978-1-84529-057-3</bdi>. </blockquote> == [[Caregiving and dementia/Topics/Person centred care|person-centered theory of personality]] == == History == <u>Both Plato and Aristotle proposed theories about goodness in which functioning worked as the most central concept. Arguments about goodness and functioning keep developing in contemporary work on human goodness. The work of Sen, Staudinger, and Tomasello serves as renowned examples. (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1469)</u><blockquote>Client-centered therapy, also called the person-centered approach, describes Carl R. Rogers’ way of working with persons experiencing all types of personal disturbances or problems in living (Rogers, 1959; 1961; 1969; 1970; 1972; 1980a; 1986a). As early as 1939, Rogers developed his theory of psychotherapy with troubled children, and went on to expand his theoretical approach to include work with couples, families, and groups. His most comprehensive theoretical statement was published as a chapter in Sigmund Koch’s Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. III) in 1959, and includes his theory of motivation and personality development, as well as theory of group interaction and interpersonal relationships (Koch, 1959, 184–256). Over his long career, Rogers extrapolated client-centered values to the education, marriage, group encounter, personal power, and conflict resolution (Rogers, 1969, 1970, 1972). Today, the person-centered approach is practiced in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Greece, Portugal, Demark, Poland, Hungary, The Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, and South Africa, as well as here in the United States and Canada. A world association, which can be contacted online, was founded in Lisbon in 1997 that reflects the growth and vitality of the approach entitled the World Association for Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy and Counseling (WAPCEPC). Another international organization comprised of a diverse membership—lay persons, educators, business consultants, therapists, artists, psychologists—the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach (ADPCA), is also accessible on the internet. Witty, M. C. (2007). Client-centered therapy. In ''Handbook of homework assignments in psychotherapy'' (pp. 35-50). Springer, Boston, MA.</blockquote><blockquote>According to Rogers, when fully functioning, the individual lives in close and confident relationship to the organismic valuing process, trusting that inner direction. Congruence is a constant companion. Furthermore, the fully functioning individual spontaneously communicates inner impulses both verbally and nonverbally. They are open to experience, accepts experiences as they are, and expresses those experiences in an unedited manner. The fully functioning individual is authentic. To characterize the moment-to-moment experience of the fully functioning individual, Figure 15.4 illustrates the sequential process of a motive’s emergence, acceptance, and unedited expression. The congruent, fully functioning individual lives in close proximity to the actualizing tendency and therefore experiences a marked sense of autonomy, openness to experience,and personal growth. Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley & Sons.</blockquote><blockquote>The actualizing tendency was a theoretical construct proposed by the great holistic neurologist Kurt Goldstein (Goldstein, 1939; 1940, 1963). Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3</nowiki></blockquote> === [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] === <blockquote>A second criticism is that humanistic theorists use a number of vague and ill-defined constructs. It is difficult to pinpoint precisely what an “organismic valuing process” and a “fully functioning individual” are, for example. Any theoretical construct that evades a precise operational definition must remain scientifically dubious. For this reason, humanistic views on motivation have been harshly criticized (Daniels,1988; Neher, 1991), and these criticisms were instrumental to the rise and eventual popularity of the more empirically driven (evidence-based) positive psychology. Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley & Sons.</blockquote> === [[Talk:Carl Rogers]] === <blockquote></blockquote> === [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Self-actualisation|Self-actualisation]] === === [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] === [[File:Carl Rogers.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Carl Rogers|alt=Artist rendition of Carl Rogers]] == Clinical uses == <blockquote>This book explores, in depth, the link between modern psychiatric practice and the person-centred approach. It promotes an open dialogue between traditional rivals – counsellors and psychiatrists within the NHS – to assist greater understanding and improve practice. Easy to read and comprehend, it explains complex issues in a clear and accessible manner. The author is a full-time psychiatrist and qualified counsellor who offers a unique perspective drawing on personal experience. Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care will be of significant interest and help to all mental health professionals including psychiatrists and psychiatric nurses, social care workers, occupational therapists, psychologists, person-centred counsellors and therapists. Health and social care policy makers and shapers, including patient groups, will also find it helpful and informative. Freeth, R., Thorne, B., & Shooter, M. (2007). Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care: The challenge of the person-centred approach (1st ed.). CRC Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315385051</nowiki></blockquote> == Other uses == == Conclusion == === Marking rubric === ==== Overview ==== Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter. ==== Breadth ==== Theoretical framework for understanding the topic.<blockquote>theoretical model of the person who emerges from therapy—a person functioning freely in all the fullness of his organismic potentialities; a person who is dependable in being realistic, self-enhancing, socialized and appropriate in his behavior; a creative person, whose specific formings of behavior are not easily predictable; a person who is ever-changing, ever developing, always discovering himself and the newness in himself in each succeeding moment of time. This is the person who in an imperfect way actually emerges from the experience of safety and freedom in a therapeutic experience, and this is the person whom I have tried to describe for you in "pure" form. Rogers, C. R. (1963). The concept of the fully functioning person. ''Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 1''(1), 17–26. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088567</nowiki></blockquote><blockquote>The actualizing tendency functions as an axiom in Rogers’ theory. To the extent that the therapist holds the hypothesis that the client possesses the capacity for selfdetermination he or she is more likely to perceive the client’s ideas, feelings, and actions as aspects of growth instead of pathology. It should be stated that the actualizing tendency does not mean that Rogers believed that people are “good,” simply that organisms realize their potentials limited only by internal and external environmental constraints (Rogers, 1951, 1959, 1961; Brodley, 1998). Rogers recommended that novice therapists attempt to hold the hypothesis that clients have the inner resources to meet life’s difficulties, recognizing that to discard that hypothesis would open the way for the therapist’s exerting influence over the supposedly less competent client. This hypothesis, he acknowledged, was most difficult to embrace in the face of self-destructive, self-defeating behavior on the part of the client (Rogers, 1951, pp. 20–25). Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3</nowiki></blockquote> ==== Depth ==== Clearly explain and integrate the theory(ies).<blockquote>Fully-functioning person. If people are able to operate their valuing processes fully, they will certainly begin to experience self movement and growth toward realization of their potentials. This shows that the person who are able be self-actualize, are called fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961). According to Roger`s terminology, they will be moving toward becoming fully functioning persons. Fully functioning person, for Rogers, are well balanced, well adjusted and interesting to know (Mcleod, 2007). Rogers, in his later writings, extended and amplified his view of the fully functioning person (1961) to emerging person (1975) Ismail, N. A. H., & Tekke, M. (2015). Rediscovering Rogers’s self theory and personality. ''Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology'', ''4''(3), 28-36.</blockquote> ==== Key findings ==== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem.<blockquote>Findings of this study suggested that people have intrinsic motivation to use their strengths, which results in increased authenticity, vitality, and well-being. These findings provide support for the Rogerian perspective in which autonomous individuals will show greater openness to experience and a more genuine and less defensive perception of experience (Patterson & Joseph, 2007). Overall, findings of this study suggest that the fully functioning person from the positive psychology perspective is a “person-in-process,” a person who is characterized as being in touch with their organismic valuing process (OVP) and hence experiences increased happiness and life satisfaction, who feels competent, autonomous, and relates well with others and they with them. Moreover, the fully functioning person is open, authentic, and uses their strengths, experiencing the well-being associated with doing so. When compared with other people, this person less frequently experiences feelings of anxiety or alienation from themselves. Proctor C, Tweed R, Morris D. The Rogerian Fully Functioning Person: A Positive Psychology Perspective. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 2016;56(5):503-529. doi:10.1177/0022167815605936</blockquote> ==== Critical thinking ==== Critically analyse the research discussed. ==== Integration ==== Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research. ==== Conclusion ==== Emphasise the key points and take-home messages. ==== Written expression - Style ==== Readable for a layperson interested in psychological science. ==== Written expression - Learning features ==== Invite interactivity through features such as case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quizzes. ==== Social contribution ==== Editing which enhances the quality of other book chapters. --- Add an image == Overview == You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] khvilgabyqxdhowv1jwl961mxrmpz4l 2417347 2417311 2022-08-22T08:54:18Z Sebastian Armstrong 2947157 /* Plan */ Formatting wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Fully functioning person <br>What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ == Overview == === What it is? === === How it is developed? === === Whose theory is it? === === How it is used === == History == === Pre Rogers === ==== Who covered similer theiries before him ==== === Carl Rogers === ==== Explore 7 points of FFP ==== ==== FFP - What is it/why it exists ==== ==== How do you develop FFP ==== == Clinical Use == === What is it used for? === === How? === === Case study === == Non-Clinical Use == === What areas could benifit from FFP === === Case study === == Challenges == === Western perspective === === Enviromental influences === == Related Theories == === Self actualisation === === Humanistic Psychology === === Cliant Centered Psychology === == Conclution == == Overview == ''What is a FFP and How can full functioning be developed?''<blockquote> # <u>A growing openness to experience</u> # <u>An increasingly existential lifestyle</u> # <u>Increasing organismic trust</u> # <u>Freedom of choice</u> # <u>Creativity</u> # <u>Reliability and constructiveness</u> # <u>A rich full life</u> #* Rogers, Carl (1961). ''On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy''. London: Constable. ISBN <bdi>978-1-84529-057-3</bdi>. </blockquote> == [[Caregiving and dementia/Topics/Person centred care|person-centered theory of personality]] == == History == <u>Both Plato and Aristotle proposed theories about goodness in which functioning worked as the most central concept. Arguments about goodness and functioning keep developing in contemporary work on human goodness. The work of Sen, Staudinger, and Tomasello serves as renowned examples. (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1469)</u><blockquote>Client-centered therapy, also called the person-centered approach, describes Carl R. Rogers’ way of working with persons experiencing all types of personal disturbances or problems in living (Rogers, 1959; 1961; 1969; 1970; 1972; 1980a; 1986a). As early as 1939, Rogers developed his theory of psychotherapy with troubled children, and went on to expand his theoretical approach to include work with couples, families, and groups. His most comprehensive theoretical statement was published as a chapter in Sigmund Koch’s Psychology: A Study of a Science (Vol. III) in 1959, and includes his theory of motivation and personality development, as well as theory of group interaction and interpersonal relationships (Koch, 1959, 184–256). Over his long career, Rogers extrapolated client-centered values to the education, marriage, group encounter, personal power, and conflict resolution (Rogers, 1969, 1970, 1972). Today, the person-centered approach is practiced in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Greece, Portugal, Demark, Poland, Hungary, The Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, and South Africa, as well as here in the United States and Canada. A world association, which can be contacted online, was founded in Lisbon in 1997 that reflects the growth and vitality of the approach entitled the World Association for Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy and Counseling (WAPCEPC). Another international organization comprised of a diverse membership—lay persons, educators, business consultants, therapists, artists, psychologists—the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach (ADPCA), is also accessible on the internet. Witty, M. C. (2007). Client-centered therapy. In ''Handbook of homework assignments in psychotherapy'' (pp. 35-50). Springer, Boston, MA.</blockquote><blockquote>According to Rogers, when fully functioning, the individual lives in close and confident relationship to the organismic valuing process, trusting that inner direction. Congruence is a constant companion. Furthermore, the fully functioning individual spontaneously communicates inner impulses both verbally and nonverbally. They are open to experience, accepts experiences as they are, and expresses those experiences in an unedited manner. The fully functioning individual is authentic. To characterize the moment-to-moment experience of the fully functioning individual, Figure 15.4 illustrates the sequential process of a motive’s emergence, acceptance, and unedited expression. The congruent, fully functioning individual lives in close proximity to the actualizing tendency and therefore experiences a marked sense of autonomy, openness to experience,and personal growth. Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley & Sons.</blockquote><blockquote>The actualizing tendency was a theoretical construct proposed by the great holistic neurologist Kurt Goldstein (Goldstein, 1939; 1940, 1963). Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3</nowiki></blockquote> === [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Growth psychology|Growth psychology]] === <blockquote>A second criticism is that humanistic theorists use a number of vague and ill-defined constructs. It is difficult to pinpoint precisely what an “organismic valuing process” and a “fully functioning individual” are, for example. Any theoretical construct that evades a precise operational definition must remain scientifically dubious. For this reason, humanistic views on motivation have been harshly criticized (Daniels,1988; Neher, 1991), and these criticisms were instrumental to the rise and eventual popularity of the more empirically driven (evidence-based) positive psychology. Reeve, J. (2018). Understanding motivation and emotion. John Wiley & Sons.</blockquote> === [[Talk:Carl Rogers]] === <blockquote></blockquote> === [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Self-actualisation|Self-actualisation]] === === [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] === [[File:Carl Rogers.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Carl Rogers|alt=Artist rendition of Carl Rogers]] == Clinical uses == <blockquote>This book explores, in depth, the link between modern psychiatric practice and the person-centred approach. It promotes an open dialogue between traditional rivals – counsellors and psychiatrists within the NHS – to assist greater understanding and improve practice. Easy to read and comprehend, it explains complex issues in a clear and accessible manner. The author is a full-time psychiatrist and qualified counsellor who offers a unique perspective drawing on personal experience. Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care will be of significant interest and help to all mental health professionals including psychiatrists and psychiatric nurses, social care workers, occupational therapists, psychologists, person-centred counsellors and therapists. Health and social care policy makers and shapers, including patient groups, will also find it helpful and informative. Freeth, R., Thorne, B., & Shooter, M. (2007). Humanising Psychiatry and Mental Health Care: The challenge of the person-centred approach (1st ed.). CRC Press. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315385051</nowiki></blockquote> == Other uses == == Conclusion == === Marking rubric === ==== Overview ==== Easy to read and understand overview of the chapter. ==== Breadth ==== Theoretical framework for understanding the topic.<blockquote>theoretical model of the person who emerges from therapy—a person functioning freely in all the fullness of his organismic potentialities; a person who is dependable in being realistic, self-enhancing, socialized and appropriate in his behavior; a creative person, whose specific formings of behavior are not easily predictable; a person who is ever-changing, ever developing, always discovering himself and the newness in himself in each succeeding moment of time. This is the person who in an imperfect way actually emerges from the experience of safety and freedom in a therapeutic experience, and this is the person whom I have tried to describe for you in "pure" form. Rogers, C. R. (1963). The concept of the fully functioning person. ''Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 1''(1), 17–26. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/h0088567</nowiki></blockquote><blockquote>The actualizing tendency functions as an axiom in Rogers’ theory. To the extent that the therapist holds the hypothesis that the client possesses the capacity for selfdetermination he or she is more likely to perceive the client’s ideas, feelings, and actions as aspects of growth instead of pathology. It should be stated that the actualizing tendency does not mean that Rogers believed that people are “good,” simply that organisms realize their potentials limited only by internal and external environmental constraints (Rogers, 1951, 1959, 1961; Brodley, 1998). Rogers recommended that novice therapists attempt to hold the hypothesis that clients have the inner resources to meet life’s difficulties, recognizing that to discard that hypothesis would open the way for the therapist’s exerting influence over the supposedly less competent client. This hypothesis, he acknowledged, was most difficult to embrace in the face of self-destructive, self-defeating behavior on the part of the client (Rogers, 1951, pp. 20–25). Witty, M.C. (2007). Client-Centered Therapy. In: Kazantzis, N., LĽAbate, L. (eds) Handbook of Homework Assignments in Psychotherapy. Springer, Boston, MA . <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29681-4_3</nowiki></blockquote> ==== Depth ==== Clearly explain and integrate the theory(ies).<blockquote>Fully-functioning person. If people are able to operate their valuing processes fully, they will certainly begin to experience self movement and growth toward realization of their potentials. This shows that the person who are able be self-actualize, are called fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961). According to Roger`s terminology, they will be moving toward becoming fully functioning persons. Fully functioning person, for Rogers, are well balanced, well adjusted and interesting to know (Mcleod, 2007). Rogers, in his later writings, extended and amplified his view of the fully functioning person (1961) to emerging person (1975) Ismail, N. A. H., & Tekke, M. (2015). Rediscovering Rogers’s self theory and personality. ''Journal of Educational, Health and Community Psychology'', ''4''(3), 28-36.</blockquote> ==== Key findings ==== Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem.<blockquote>Findings of this study suggested that people have intrinsic motivation to use their strengths, which results in increased authenticity, vitality, and well-being. These findings provide support for the Rogerian perspective in which autonomous individuals will show greater openness to experience and a more genuine and less defensive perception of experience (Patterson & Joseph, 2007). Overall, findings of this study suggest that the fully functioning person from the positive psychology perspective is a “person-in-process,” a person who is characterized as being in touch with their organismic valuing process (OVP) and hence experiences increased happiness and life satisfaction, who feels competent, autonomous, and relates well with others and they with them. Moreover, the fully functioning person is open, authentic, and uses their strengths, experiencing the well-being associated with doing so. When compared with other people, this person less frequently experiences feelings of anxiety or alienation from themselves. Proctor C, Tweed R, Morris D. The Rogerian Fully Functioning Person: A Positive Psychology Perspective. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 2016;56(5):503-529. doi:10.1177/0022167815605936</blockquote> ==== Critical thinking ==== Critically analyse the research discussed. ==== Integration ==== Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research. ==== Conclusion ==== Emphasise the key points and take-home messages. ==== Written expression - Style ==== Readable for a layperson interested in psychological science. ==== Written expression - Learning features ==== Invite interactivity through features such as case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quizzes. ==== Social contribution ==== Editing which enhances the quality of other book chapters. --- Add an image == Overview == You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8vy3tl5q2lcd9jud90u81d5jdctjayg 0 286021 2417207 2416644 2022-08-22T04:46:17Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * How can we best spend our breaks ? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] mey4c1ikuegfnp3uthoxdkdkgw7x1ze 2417219 2417207 2022-08-22T04:59:50Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * How can we best spend our breaks ? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness [citations] === ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] qmdyxz9c7h07uujnh3ltw7jm5n42hab 2417223 2417219 2022-08-22T05:05:07Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * How can we best spend our breaks ? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === [citations] === Effective Micro-Breaking === ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] fr4nv3z5qghxxx9omu7zce118nz84z1 2417227 2417223 2022-08-22T05:07:35Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * How can we best spend our breaks ? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === [citations] === Effective Micro-Breaking === ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] hgpl8ahod720cljja99001it7gnx2nz 2417232 2417227 2022-08-22T05:11:20Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * How can we best spend our breaks ? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === [citations] === Effective Micro-Breaking === ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ry31ywio81b8d2il25w5h7erynfde5g 2417259 2417232 2022-08-22T05:31:30Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) * Include on burnout What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === Research suggest that meditation can be an effective tool to boost wellbeing and productivity (Pagliaro et al., 2020) === Effective Micro-Breaking === *How can we best spend our micro-breaks? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to micro-break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect ==Conclusion== * Work breaks are essential to well-being and can boost productivity when done correctly. * Much emphasis should be placed on workplaces to ensure that their employees are having sufficient break time both inside and outside the workplace. * Areas for further research ... {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Pagliaro, G., Pelati, R., Signorini, D., Parenti, G., & Roversi, F. (2020). The effects of meditation on the performance and well-being of a company: A pilot study. EXPLORE, 16(1), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.07.014 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] q2nqpwhvfi8yon0reetgv2y3e3v7aaj 2417262 2417259 2022-08-22T05:41:12Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) * Include on burnout What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === Research suggest that meditation can be an effective tool to boost wellbeing and productivity (Pagliaro et al., 2020) === Effective Micro-Breaking === *How can we best spend our micro-breaks? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to micro-break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect ==Conclusion== * Work breaks are essential to well-being and can boost productivity when done correctly. * Much emphasis should be placed on workplaces to ensure that their employees are having sufficient break time both inside and outside the workplace. * Areas for further research ... {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Pagliaro, G., Pelati, R., Signorini, D., Parenti, G., & Roversi, F. (2020). The effects of meditation on the performance and well-being of a company: A pilot study. EXPLORE, 16(1), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.07.014 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_OMWEEf1E4 Micro-Breaking] Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] a5wu5kficad1u68cy5mbe6c3tvh5kex 2417266 2417262 2022-08-22T05:46:18Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) * Include on burnout What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === Research suggest that meditation can be an effective tool to boost wellbeing and productivity (Pagliaro et al., 2020) === Effective Micro-Breaking === *How can we best spend our micro-breaks? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to micro-break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect ==Conclusion== * Work breaks are essential to well-being and can boost productivity when done correctly. * Much emphasis should be placed on workplaces to ensure that their employees are having sufficient break time both inside and outside the workplace. * Areas for further research ... {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Pagliaro, G., Pelati, R., Signorini, D., Parenti, G., & Roversi, F. (2020). The effects of meditation on the performance and well-being of a company: A pilot study. EXPLORE, 16(1), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.07.014 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_OMWEEf1E4 Micro-Breaking] Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] e6uezgx09mhq2vvg2jwgpboecxie2sw 2417268 2417266 2022-08-22T05:53:39Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) * Include on burnout What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === Research suggest that meditation can be an effective tool to boost wellbeing and productivity (Pagliaro et al., 2020) === Effective Micro-Breaking === *How can we best spend our micro-breaks? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to micro-break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect ==Conclusion== * Work breaks are essential to well-being and can boost productivity when done correctly. * Much emphasis should be placed on workplaces to ensure that their employees are having sufficient break time both inside and outside the workplace. * Areas for further research ... {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Pagliaro, G., Pelati, R., Signorini, D., Parenti, G., & Roversi, F. (2020). The effects of meditation on the performance and well-being of a company: A pilot study. EXPLORE, 16(1), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.07.014 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_OMWEEf1E4 Micro-Breaking] Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] lvll4010wvut11w6bsha5nzhp0tlw5h 2417270 2417268 2022-08-22T05:56:09Z U3215603 2947641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Work Breaks, Well-being and Productivity:<br>How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Fun, men, happiness, drinking, posture, gesture, garden, hat Fortepan 2357.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Men taking a break from work ]] Work breaks, well being and productivity … In the modern world, trying to find a balance between work and play can be an incredibly difficult challenge. ... This chapter outlines ... This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? * How can we maximize the benefits of taking a break? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are work breaks?== Work breaks can come in a variety of forms. Common forms found in the scientific literature include: === Micro-Breaks === * Non-work activates in-between work tasks during the work day. * Common examples include, drinking coffee/tea, chatting to colleagues, snacking, briefly checking news/social media * Often viewed as counterproductive * Research suggest that micro-breaks can be beneficial in certain contexts (Kim et al., 2016) [[File:Bertrand Russell photo (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 2: Philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that the modern world was obsessed with productivity and instead we should spend more time on activities that were enjoyable in themselves]] === Free Time === * "Discretionary time" where one engages in activities that are intrinsically enjoyable but do not necessary have to be productive * Common examples include reading, watching tv/movies, going out for dinner. * Research suggest that too much free time and be just as detrimental as too little (Sharif et al., 2021) * Sharif et al (2021) suggest that a goldilocks zone of between 2-5 hr/per day (average 3.5hr/day) of free time is optimal for well-being === Weekends === *1-2 days spend away from work *Psychological effect of weekends seem to vary drastically between individuals *Some moderating variable include: 1. Relationship with supervisor (i.e. boss or friend) *2. Work environment (i.e. Workplace toxicity) *3. Type of work (i.e. full time vs shift work) (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) *Generally, individuals report higher subjective well being on weekends that work days (Helliwell & Wang, 2013) === Holidays === How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==How do breaks affect well-being and productivity?== * Both casual and correlation relationships between breaks, well being and productivity have been established [citations] * A lack of spare time has been related to lower subjective happiness (Masuda et al., 2020) * Include on burnout What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. '''Case studies''' Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. '''Boxes''' Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}}'''Figures'''[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). '''Links''' Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). '''Tables''' Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. '''Quizzes''' Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. == How can we optimize our breaks? == * What is the optimal amount of breaking for to maximize well-being and productivity? - Sharif et al (2021) has suggest 3.5hr/day of free time optimal for subjective well being. === Meditation/mindfulness === Research suggest that meditation can be an effective tool to boost wellbeing and productivity (Pagliaro et al., 2020) === Effective Micro-Breaking === *How can we best spend our micro-breaks? - research has suggested that stretching's exercise's on micro-breaks improved overall wellbeing and productivity (Henning et al., 1997) as well as caffeinated beverages (Kim et al., 2016). * What may be impleading our ability to micro-break effectively? - Kim et al.,( 2016) have found that engaging in cognitive intense activities (i.e. reading a book) on micro-breaks increased thee effects of work demands on negative affect ==Conclusion== * Work breaks are essential to well-being and can boost productivity when done correctly. * Much emphasis should be placed on workplaces to ensure that their employees are having sufficient break time both inside and outside the workplace. * Areas for further research ... {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[w:Meditation|Meditation<br />]] Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Helliwell, J., & Wang, S. (2013). Weekends and Subjective Well-Being. Social Indicators Research, 116(2), 389-407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0306-y HENNING, R., JACQUES, P., KISSEL, G., SULLIVAN, A., & ALTERAS-WEBB, S. (1997). Frequent short rest breaks from computer work: effects on productivity and well-being at two field sites. Ergonomics, 40(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397188396 Pagliaro, G., Pelati, R., Signorini, D., Parenti, G., & Roversi, F. (2020). The effects of meditation on the performance and well-being of a company: A pilot study. EXPLORE, 16(1), 56-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.07.014 Kim, S., Park, Y., & Niu, Q. (2016). Micro-break activities at work to recover from daily work demands. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 38(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2109 Sharif, M., Mogilner, C., & Hershfield, H. (2021). Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 121(4), 933-947. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000391 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_OMWEEf1E4 Micro-Breaking] Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] cdl3r9802tyrsq029l8iptu58bkcldq 2 286027 2417187 2411769 2022-08-22T04:19:22Z U3207458 2947626 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == [[File:Me holding up the Tower of Pisa.jpg|thumb|285x285px|Just me being a tourist :)]] I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=KeEuUGXnsvIpAqtVSlm7 Maddison Miller] and I am currently studying a double degree (Bachelor of Business/Bachelor of Science in Psychology) at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].'' This semester I am undertaking the unit ''Motivation and Emotion'' and contributing to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|book]]. === Hobbies and Interests === == Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/To-do lists|To-do lists]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? == Social Contributions == nephouad2k0itvebnkmbzwcz6izrrwl 118 286028 2417284 2416935 2022-08-22T06:34:31Z Guy vandegrift 813252 Guy vandegrift moved page [[The physics of music]] to [[Draft:The physics of music]]: this is taking far longer than I thought wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_L=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> CHANGE EITHER <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- a0ul6vjtmufcgbtlejgz8ts10fq2lnh 2417287 2417284 2022-08-22T06:35:26Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> CHANGE EITHER <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- lnq1418h7panxsnvmsvzkplxs2eyd9j 2417291 2417287 2022-08-22T06:47:58Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\goesto</math> Define <math>\Delta T_p</math> to be a positive change in <math>T_p</math>. If Increase <math>T_p</math> in such a way that the phases match after <math>N-1</math> cycles of <math>T_x<math> matches <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 8gfeu5sbdy38hlgg4pcn6g8fzf7wkag 2417292 2417291 2022-08-22T06:48:17Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to</math> Define <math>\Delta T_p</math> to be a positive change in <math>T_p</math>. If Increase <math>T_p</math> in such a way that the phases match after <math>N-1</math> cycles of <math>T_x<math> matches <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- rypnou6rt2s0itxdunbnzlp0x4sbsmx 2417293 2417292 2022-08-22T06:53:00Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\toT_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p= (N+1)q(T_p-\Delta T_p)</math> Define <math>\Delta T_p</math> to be a positive change in <math>T_p</math>. If Increase <math>T_p</math> in such a way that the phases match after <math>N-1</math> cycles of <math>T_x<math> matches <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- ky2c08pwlwocza8n4ltlq1zshh147cc 2417294 2417293 2022-08-22T06:53:52Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p= (N+1)q(T_p-\Delta T_p)</math> Define <math>\Delta T_p</math> to be a positive change in <math>T_p</math>. If Increase <math>T_p</math> in such a way that the phases match after <math>N-1</math> cycles of <math>T_x<math> matches <math>T_p\rightarrow T_p+\Delta T_p</math> or <math>T_q\rightarrow T_q+\Delta T_q</math> to change number of long periods by one: <math>(N+1)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 8ua5mp2elo9n50i04g9he9hklt9a4fz 2417295 2417294 2022-08-22T06:54:46Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p= (N+1)q(T_p-\Delta T_p)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 76qspopsdoya8l2z9zon976d1g527if 2417296 2417295 2022-08-22T06:56:21Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- jrxrt0im517l3ayhqtsx5zyh8xahqip 2417298 2417296 2022-08-22T06:57:26Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 533r5gs5vkf0eztcbtmj48mlz2dszps 2417299 2417298 2022-08-22T06:59:32Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :qT_p=N\Delta T_p</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 1fe3mh0gp65cuszjsq6eefyonom2u0q 2417300 2417299 2022-08-22T06:59:50Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>qT_p=N\Delta T_p</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- ngvo9v0gelmeijxdv2xjq59nk1o3oxy 2417301 2417300 2022-08-22T07:01:23Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>qT_p=N\Delta T_p</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- q3dpj5ety25qwkaccy2fbowel8gxmt6 2417303 2417301 2022-08-22T07:07:31Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>qT_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_x</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- ow4nxzkwz82do338cdxjpj5ltxkr99i 2417304 2417303 2022-08-22T07:09:15Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_x</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_x=NqT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>qT_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_x</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- cm52n9h00mm4f1nbp7mcve97qyj1xy7 2417305 2417304 2022-08-22T07:20:25Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_x</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 71pykarskktawvsi7memayb5vv2ggmd 2417306 2417305 2022-08-22T07:22:47Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Helmholtz argument */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q = q\Delta f_p</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_x</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- pwm0ni2oho9b6v0lrv686aqsij8rpg2 2417307 2417306 2022-08-22T07:23:31Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Helmholtz argument */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q \text{ or } q\Delta f_p</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_x</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- bi7sjm8g0riffnnskeplf2wyhgr9shd 2417308 2417307 2022-08-22T07:30:28Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q \text{ or } q\Delta f_p</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- p1teftlintl8ydfgxmhg7v4x89h31jx 2417309 2417308 2022-08-22T07:35:17Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = p\Delta f_q \text{ or } q\Delta f_p</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of p=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- sgdw2z9eph2sphy131v56pcugisx3x0 2417310 2417309 2022-08-22T07:39:27Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Discussion */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of the p-wave=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>NT_p=(N-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 6a2vy95m0i0nqd5it1oa7mwhrjth4ld 2417312 2417310 2022-08-22T07:41:52Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Changing the period of the p-wave */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of the p-wave=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 3i08ady5vd0cncyjsmr5dvhn3ovlway 2417313 2417312 2022-08-22T07:42:21Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Changing the period of the p-wave */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of the p-wave=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)q(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- dmgw0au6seb3ewquqaxfiaj1p7euxmh 2417314 2417313 2022-08-22T07:44:17Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Changing the period of the p-wave */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of the p-wave=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=NT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- o8j8u9tto5txq3pc8h9em7bpceimqmb 2417315 2417314 2022-08-22T07:46:56Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Changing the period of the p-wave */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===Changing the period of the p-wave=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- if0wcw3xx95r4a3bitb91z09such42g 2417317 2417315 2022-08-22T07:55:06Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* Changing the period of the p-wave */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===way out of darkness=== Recall that pT_q ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- qp2qcm4zabmqrg7xehver7uca5elsew 2417320 2417317 2022-08-22T08:01:55Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* way out of darkness */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===way out of darkness=== Recall that pT_p=qT_q. Suppose T_p changes. We need to fit one less period of the p-wave into a length of time equal to, :T_b=N_pT_p Hence, : ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 3t86ftaq01369runblph0q7mtjwywyz 2417321 2417320 2022-08-22T08:03:10Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* way out of darkness */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===way out of darkness=== Recall that pT_p=qT_q. Suppose T_p changes. We need to fit one less period of the p-wave into a length of time equal to, :T_b=N_pT_p Hence, :\Delta T_p=\fracT_p}{N_p} ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 70sj9u69m5yiwmrt27rw9y31t1b7xtr 2417322 2417321 2022-08-22T08:03:23Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* way out of darkness */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===way out of darkness=== Recall that pT_p=qT_q. Suppose T_p changes. We need to fit one less period of the p-wave into a length of time equal to, :T_b=N_pT_p Hence, :\Delta T_p=\frac T_p}{N_p} ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- shf7q86fko3boeedpzor9i51x02dqdp 2417323 2417322 2022-08-22T08:03:39Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* way out of darkness */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===way out of darkness=== Recall that pT_p=qT_q. Suppose T_p changes. We need to fit one less period of the p-wave into a length of time equal to, :T_b=N_pT_p Hence, :\Delta T_p=\frac{T_p}{N_p} ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 2k1wig0eoz2nrfm4vd3u8l92f149ybt 2417325 2417323 2022-08-22T08:14:52Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* way out of darkness */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===confused=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- j4xt9y65s6mf1o40bqmrzn7y8a83sgh 2417326 2417325 2022-08-22T08:15:16Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* confused */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 4c13h380yillnn53punvu4itjpdtrx4 2417328 2417326 2022-08-22T08:17:11Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p} ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- ies8su9mn32fw6xkgkopi17xu2vgsr7 2417329 2417328 2022-08-22T08:17:21Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- ewyn24upxt7nmj4h7qw9sisue3kbiid 2417331 2417329 2022-08-22T08:19:33Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- hx33mkdzyh5ad0mngvnkaq39x55iz4a 2417332 2417331 2022-08-22T08:20:17Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-1)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- qz25fo1srcjcr0vpkvhy6cj23xmgelq 2417334 2417332 2022-08-22T08:24:59Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=(N_p-\frac 1 q)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 3kv1etm4yturhwdyp7tiftquf1fc7o2 2417335 2417334 2022-08-22T08:25:19Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that one less cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- efmdav54wwyipd31su8kibsotp3kq5j 2417336 2417335 2022-08-22T08:25:53Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that <s>one less</s> cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=N_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 8603methzjfnqf4vuw31cqbvpz82tiz 2417337 2417336 2022-08-22T08:26:22Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that <s>one less</s> cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- moe7d8c17fjvm6l2ezkp7a7zz42cyjp 2417338 2417337 2022-08-22T08:27:28Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that <s>one less</s> cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- atkc9nl9adejzyp3x1fsepurn1isdoi 2417339 2417338 2022-08-22T08:27:48Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===CONFUSED=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that <s>one less</s> cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p</math> THIS IS WRONG OFF BY A FACTOR q ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- 1mcvg74xoq1022dsr575w2gj1mphdi3 2417340 2417339 2022-08-22T08:28:12Z Guy vandegrift 813252 /* CONFUSED */ wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ ==Consonance and musical intervals== {{center|''The reader should know that this section is poorly understood. Look elsewhere if you want simple answers or a full discussion. <br>The intent here is to create an excuse for [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ "messing around"] with mathematical and computational methods.''}} [[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|275px|Beat frequency for two notes of nearly the same pitch.]] [[File:Characteristic frequencies tritone versus fifth.svg|thumb|275px|Characteristic frequencies associated with just musical intervals: tritone and perfect fifth]] [[w:special:permalink/1102305761|Wikipedia has defined]] a '''beat''' as an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies. [[w:Special:Permalink/1102305761#Mathematics_and_physics_of_beat_tones|The mathematics of beating]] can be summarized by the figure to the left, which leads to the following: ::<math> f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{T_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}</math> ::where, ::<math>fT =1</math>, and <math>\omega T = 2\pi,</math> ::are easy ways to remember the relation between frequency <math>f</math>, period <math>T</math>, and angular frequency, <math>\omega</math>. ===Helmholtz argument=== Footnote.<ref>Let <math>f(t)=T^{-1}</math>, and take the derivative to get, <math>df/dt=-T^{-2}</math>, which leads to: <math>df/f=-dT/T</math></ref> [[w:special:permalink/1101504020#Consonant_and_dissonant|Helmholtz]] proposed that beats produced by the consonant musical intervals are caused by beating between pairs of harmonics of the two pitches which have nearly the same frequency. The the {{math|q}}-th harmonic of <math>f_p</math> and the {{math|p}}-harmonic of <math>f_q</math> both equal <math>pqf_0</math>. Using the formula for beats between signals of the same frequency: <math>f_\text{beat} = pq\Delta f_0 = q\Delta f_p \text{ or } p\Delta f_q</math> CONFUSING ==Phase-shift beating== ===Notation=== {| class="wikitable floatleft |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>f_p=pf_0</math> || <math>f_q=qf_0</math> ||<math>qf_p=pf_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" | <math>pT_p=T_0</math> || <math>qT_q=T_0</math> ||<math>pT_p=qT_q</math> |-style="background-color:white; " |colspan=3 style=text-align:center|<math>T_\text{x}= pqT_0 \quad\quad\quad pqf_0=f_\text{x}</math> |} {| class="wikitable floatleft style=text-align:center |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>1<q<p<2</math> |-style="background-color:white; text-align:center" | <math>f_0<f_q<f_p<f_{pq}</math> |-style="background-color:white; style=text-align:center" |<math>T_\text{x}<T_p<T_q<T_0</math> |} Let <math>p</math> and <math>q</math> be relative prime numbers that establish a musical interval between frequencies <math>f_q</math> and <math>f_p</math> that are less than one octave apart. It helps to also define a low frequency <math>f_0</math> and a high frequency <math>f_\text{x}</math>. All these frequencies (and associated periods) are shown in the table to the left. The table to the right might help reader sort out these frequencies and periods. ===Images=== {{wide image|Beat pattern for fifth.svg|1600px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} {{wide image|File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|2400px|Beat pattern for a 3:2 ratio (perfect fifth) that is out of tune by 57 cents.}} [[File:Beat pattern for tritone.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]] <!--[[File:Perfect fifth phase shift.svg|thumb|220px|Range of phase shifts for a just perfect fifth musical interval]]--> ===Discussion=== Consider a just interval between the two periods, <math>T_p=pT_0</math>, and <math>T_q=qT_0</math>, where <math>p=3</math> and <math>q=2</math> as shown in the figure. Because <math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math> make an exactly just interval, we have: :<math>q T_p =p T_q</math> ( <math>3 T_p = 2T_q</math> for a P5<ref>P5 denotes a perfect fifth, a 3:2 frequency ratio.</ref>) ALSO DEFINE A LONG PERIOD :<math>T_x=pqT_0=qT_p=pT_q</math> ===I think this is right but need diagram=== Note that <math>q</math> cycles of <math>T_p</math> equals <math>p</math> cycles of <math>T_q</math>. Now, increase <math>T_p\to T_p+\Delta T_p</math> in such a way that <s>one less</s> cycle of <math>T_p</math> is achieved: :<math>N_pT_p=\left(N_p-\frac 1 q\right)(T_p+\Delta T_p)</math> For large <math>N_p</math> this leads to, :<math>T_p=qN_p\Delta T_p</math> This value of <math>\Delta T_p</math> restores the match between the two periods (<math>T_p</math> and <math>T_q</math>). This allows us to define the beat period to be: :<math>T_{beat}=N_pT_p</math> Combine the previous two equations to obtain: <math>T_{beat}=\frac{T_p^2}{q\Delta T_p}</math> <math>f_{beat}=q\Delta f_p</math> ===Code=== ‎<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> triton=True if tritone: p , q = 7, 4 f_0=50 Df_p=2 else: p , q = 3, 2 f_0=100 Df_p=2 Df_q=0 f_p= p*f_0 f_q= q*f_0 Df_q=0 f_b=abs(p*Df_q - q*Df_p)#--------------------Helmholtz (checked) f_c=p*f_b/q#new T_c=1/f_c#new cents=1200*(np.log2(1+Df_p/f_p)-np.log2(1+Df_q/f_q))#error (cents) tbeat=1/f_b#-----------------------------------calculate beat period topi=2*np.pi om_p,om_q=(f_p+Df_p)*topi,(f_q+Df_q)*topi#-----define two omegas yp=Amplitude*np.cos(om_p*t)/2 yq=Amplitude*np.cos(om_q*t)/2 y=yp+yq </syntaxhighlight> ==Fourier analysis== {{cot|Not yet needed}} ''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]] <math> \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - i \pi \delta(X)</math> <math>\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2} - \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}</math> <math>\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)</math> {{cob}} ==Links== '''Basic''' * <u>[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]</u>: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}</ref><ref>Note the inserted footnote templates regarding "verification" and "original research?" at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. </ref> * <u>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]</u> parallels the Wikipedia article. * [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency <u>Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration</u>] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music. '''Advanced (or otherwise different)''' * <u>[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]</u> discussion on using beats to tune a violin ----- cabud1cthnzrelx81qwyhbq5k3fvogn 0 286109 2417281 2416106 2022-08-22T06:31:55Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Brief introduction on unemployment. * Brief introduction on mental health. * State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. * Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? *The relationship between unemployment and mental health. * The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are the main causes of unemployment? == === What is unemployment? === * What is unemployment? ** Define. ** Provide statistics. === Mental health === * Define. * Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. === Lack of knowledge === * Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities. === Burnout === * Define burnout. * Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. ==== Honeymoon phase ==== ==== Onset of stress phase ==== ==== Chronic stress phase ==== ==== Burnout phase ==== ==== Habitual burnout phase ==== * Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) === Discrimination === ==== Gender discrimination ==== ==== Age discrimination ==== ==== Racial discrimination ==== === Health problems and complications === * Discuss impact/s on work performance. ==== Physical health problems ==== ==== Chronic illness ==== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health? == === What is mental health? === * Define. * How is it caused? * Provide Australian statistics. Main causes (sub-headings): # Trauma # drug and alcohol abuse/addiction # family history # abuse # up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement) === Trauma === === Drug and alcohol abuse === === Family history === === Abuse === === Household up-brining === == The relationship between unemployment and mental health == * Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed: * Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment. * Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment. * Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment. * Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == * Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear) * Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses. * Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses. * Discuss how job loss has affected and/or increase mental health. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __TOC__ 2tq44saob7wsn1yey17a4gkopgwwyjw 2417288 2417281 2022-08-22T06:43:55Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 /* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Brief introduction on unemployment. * Brief introduction on mental health. * State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. * Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? *The relationship between unemployment and mental health. * The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are the main causes of unemployment? == === What is unemployment? === * What is unemployment? ** Define. ** Provide statistics. === Mental health === * Define. * Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. === Lack of knowledge === * Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities. === Burnout === * Define burnout. * Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. ==== Honeymoon phase ==== ==== Onset of stress phase ==== ==== Chronic stress phase ==== ==== Burnout phase ==== ==== Habitual burnout phase ==== * Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) === Discrimination === ==== Gender discrimination ==== ==== Age discrimination ==== ==== Racial discrimination ==== === Health problems and complications === * Discuss impact/s on work performance. ==== Physical health problems ==== ==== Chronic illness ==== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health? == === What is mental health? === * Define. * How is it caused? * Provide Australian statistics. Main causes (sub-headings): # Trauma # drug and alcohol abuse/addiction # family history # abuse # up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement) === Trauma === === Drug and alcohol abuse === === Family history === === Abuse === === Household up-brining === == The relationship between unemployment and mental health == * Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed: * Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment. * Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment. * Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment. * Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == === Increased mental health === * The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear) * Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health. ==== Essential workers ==== * Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses. === Job loss and shortages === * Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __TOC__ er4jr65kzvti1ubem8rjvbob8av3hxj 2417290 2417288 2022-08-22T06:47:52Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 /* The relationship between unemployment and mental health */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Brief introduction on unemployment. * Brief introduction on mental health. * State how there is a relationship between unemployment and mental health. * Touch on how COVID-19 plays a huge role since the beginning of the pandemic, unemployment and mental health have risen. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? *The relationship between unemployment and mental health. * The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What are the main causes of unemployment? == === What is unemployment? === * What is unemployment? ** Define. ** Provide statistics. === Mental health === * Define. * Explain the mental and physical implications/impact on an individual mental health can have, and how this causes unemployment. === Lack of knowledge === * Explain how lack of knowledge in specific areas/job requirements creates a smaller chance of employment and fewer job opportunities. === Burnout === * Define burnout. * Talk about the 5 stages of burnout in each sub-heading 2. ==== Honeymoon phase ==== ==== Onset of stress phase ==== ==== Chronic stress phase ==== ==== Burnout phase ==== ==== Habitual burnout phase ==== * Discuss how burnout can cause strain, stress, and poor work performance = unemployment (this can be done either by quitting or being fired) === Discrimination === ==== Gender discrimination ==== ==== Age discrimination ==== ==== Racial discrimination ==== === Health problems and complications === * Discuss impact/s on work performance. ==== Physical health problems ==== ==== Chronic illness ==== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health? == === What is mental health? === * Define. * How is it caused? * Provide Australian statistics. Main causes (sub-headings): # Trauma # drug and alcohol abuse/addiction # family history # abuse # up-bringing (government care, foster home, home placement) === Trauma === === Drug and alcohol abuse === === Family history === === Abuse === === Household up-brining === == The relationship between unemployment and mental health == === The affects of mental health on employment === * Discuss how mental health can lead to/makes an individual unemployed: ==== Depression ==== * Define Depression - And touch on Low self worth, low self esteem, no motivation, anxiety, feeling unwell. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates unemployment. ==== Motivation ==== * Lack of motivation, hygiene, time management skills. Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that leads/creates to unemployment. ==== Anxiety ==== * Define Anxiety - Discuss its impact on person physical and mental health and how that creates unemployment. === The affects of unemployment on mental health === * Discuss how unemployment spikes/increases mental health. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == === Increased mental health === * The affect of COVID-19 on mental health. Discuss how mental health and suicide attempts has increased since the pandemic has started (isolation, stuck with abuser, increase fear) * Discuss how job loss due to COVID-19 has affected and/or increase mental health. ==== Essential workers ==== * Discuss the increase of mental health and strain of essential workers. Provide a case. Example = nurses. === Job loss and shortages === * Discuss how COVID-19 has affected unemployment (job-loss, shortage) Example = flight attendants, family businesses. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] __TOC__ 0xreici2fh0px3knlg2x9ycihwawnil 0 286145 2417135 2415502 2022-08-22T01:33:03Z U3211603 2947419 Added External Links wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Causes Zoom Fatigue == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} == Consequences of Zoom Fatigue == == Beating Zoom Fatigue == What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://news.stanford.edu/2021/02/23/four-causes-zoom-fatigue-solutions/ Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes] ( Stanford University ) * [https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20200421-why-zoom-video-chats-are-so-exhausting The reason Zoom calls drain your energy] (BBC.com) * [https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2021/04/videoconferences-fatigue Videoconferences more exhausting when participants don’t feel group belonging] (APA.org) * [https://www.verywellmind.com/what-science-tells-us-about-zoom-fatigue-5114577 What Science Tells Us About Zoom Fatigue] (verywellmind.com) * [[wikipedia:Zoom_fatigue|Zoom fatigue]] (Wikipedia) * [https://www.ucumberlands.edu/blog/zoom-fatigue Zoom fatigue and why it matters: know the facts] (University of the Cumberlands) * [[doi:10.5590/JSWGC.2022.07.1.01|Zoom Fatigue in the Age of COVID-19]] (Bullock et al., 2022) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 0qiy4qa0pkh17zc6jy3ebedgokx3kx1 2 286188 2417251 2416404 2022-08-22T05:28:00Z 203.221.102.162 /* Book Chapter in progress */ wikitext text/x-wiki Hello, I am a student of '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/?ef_id=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!589066594450!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!12340014388!118571458020&gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE University of Canberra]''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study. I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. == About me: == I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies. == Book Chapter in progress == [[w: The Social Cure|The Social Cure]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? U3215976 == Social Contributions == Book Chapter Edit - Social Cure 19/08/2022 == Hobbies == [[File:Klammer Franz 049.jpg|alt=Skiing|thumb|Figure 1. Downhill ski racing]] * [[wikipedia:Skiing|Skiing]] * Snowboarding * Downhill * Soccer rbdl2oonmv78jq0tkbcuyp8qkxg8d0j 2417254 2417251 2022-08-22T05:29:31Z 203.221.102.162 /* Book Chapter in progress */ wikitext text/x-wiki Hello, I am a student of '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/?ef_id=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!589066594450!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!12340014388!118571458020&gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE University of Canberra]''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study. I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. == About me: == I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies. == Book Chapter in progress == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Social cure|The Social Cure]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? U3215976 == Social Contributions == Book Chapter Edit - Social Cure 19/08/2022 == Hobbies == [[File:Klammer Franz 049.jpg|alt=Skiing|thumb|Figure 1. Downhill ski racing]] * [[wikipedia:Skiing|Skiing]] * Snowboarding * Downhill * Soccer nnv55wspv851q10evckom983lrwwrwn 2 286190 2417256 2417000 2022-08-22T05:29:46Z Ana028 2947571 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am studying for two undergraduate degrees, a Bachelor of science in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and a Bachelor of arts, specialising in global studies. [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] is one of my current classes, and I am contributing to the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|2022 Motivation and Emotion Book]]. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life and hope to use my two degrees to help people. == Hobbies == [[File:Jigsaw puzzle 01 by Scouten.jpg|alt=One of my hobbies.|thumb|200x200px|Figure 1. Jigsaw puzzle]] * Reading * Listening to music and podcasts * Jigsaw puzzles * Colouring * Bingeing movies/TV shows == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on a chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nature therapy|nature therapy]], also known as ecotherapy, and its applications. == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Climate_change_helplessness&diff=prev&oldid=2416968 Fixed minor capitlisation error in Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Climate change helplessness] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&diff=prev&oldid=2416970 Fixed minor grammar error in Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy and sexual motivation] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Gratitude&diff=prev&oldid=2416973 Fixed minor error with Wikiversity link in Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Gratitude] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Gamification_and_work_motivation&diff=prev&oldid=2416998 Sourced two images and captioned them appropriately in Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Gamification and work motivation] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2015/Stolen_Generations_and_emotion&diff=prev&oldid=2417252 Added external link to Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Stolen Generations and emotion] ecancl6q0lmq12q335z3nxhpxio3jxf 0 286195 2417118 2412994 2022-08-21T23:02:49Z Brookewin 2947702 Titles wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Suffering as an Emotion What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC) 8od2jrbzbsz9qhhiksenr7vtxjb1i8a 2417122 2417118 2022-08-21T23:07:08Z Brookewin 2947702 Title's wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Suffering as an Emotion:}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC) fywlscp5b1yegz7jf8sk81hbwiefkrj 2417125 2417122 2022-08-21T23:16:40Z Brookewin 2947702 Title editing wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Suffering as an Emotion: }}{{Title|What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering?}}{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC) aqfxqkms3z8u5zig5z6wnpyi8q30j94 2 286205 2417038 2417037 2022-08-21T12:02:44Z U3211603 2947419 wikitext text/x-wiki == <u>About Me</u> :- == === Something about myself === G'day! [[File:Profile Picture U3211603.jpg|thumb|I am what I am. I am my own special creation.]] Parvaz here.I'm a third year, part-time '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra]. Aspiring Psychologist and [https://vikingagilist.com/agilist-definition Agilist] with a positive attitude who contributes to a routine that provides a good structure for achieving goals. I have extensive industry experience in information technology, with a track record of converting projects into profitable engagements by delivering cost-cutting solutions and improving process and implementation in the Australian Public Service, Retail Banking & Financial Services, Transportation and Logistics, and Telecommunications. Seeking a rewarding career in a challenging and highly regulated environment where I can improve someone's quality of life and give others hope for a better and brighter future. So far, my time at the University of Canberra has allowed me to broaden my understanding as well as develop many skills such as communication, presentation, and problem-solving abilities, all while improving my ability to work as part of a team. === Hobbies === * Gardening * Binge watching * Cooking & eating good food == Book Chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Zoom fatigue|Zoom Fatigue]] == Social Contribution == === Wikiversity === == Future Interest == === Plan for next 1 Year === I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program . === Plan for next 2 Year === Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology. === Plan for next 5 Year === Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist] == External links == 1qkg8mbt63s50wz0jd4rj2mytcjxh78 2 286210 2417111 2416999 2022-08-21T22:40:35Z U962051 2947541 image wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Ucsign.JPG|thumb|''Figure 1.'' University of Canberra]] My Name is [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=67278 Emily Foster]. I am a second year '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at the <u>[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]</u>. I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] in semester one 2022, and am contributing to the Motivation and Emotion book for 2022. == Hobbies == * I'm passionate about travel, and have lived and travelled overseas extensively. * I have a lively [[wikipedia:Cockapoo|Spoodle]] named Harvey. * I love hiking and exploring the great walks and [[wikipedia:Canberra_Nature_Park|national parks]] around [[wikipedia:Canberra|Canberra]]. == The Book Chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism: What motivates volunteer tourism?]] == Social Contributions == 0us0xaif8scz2vgxknmo30xgkk8vcqc 2417115 2417111 2022-08-21T22:56:18Z U962051 2947541 /* Social Contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Ucsign.JPG|thumb|''Figure 1.'' University of Canberra]] My Name is [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=67278 Emily Foster]. I am a second year '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at the <u>[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]</u>. I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] in semester one 2022, and am contributing to the Motivation and Emotion book for 2022. == Hobbies == * I'm passionate about travel, and have lived and travelled overseas extensively. * I have a lively [[wikipedia:Cockapoo|Spoodle]] named Harvey. * I love hiking and exploring the great walks and [[wikipedia:Canberra_Nature_Park|national parks]] around [[wikipedia:Canberra|Canberra]]. == The Book Chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer tourism: What motivates volunteer tourism?]] == Social Contributions == # 22/08/2022 - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2019%2FVolunteer_tourism_motivation&type=revision&diff=2417113&oldid=2243186 Corrected grammar errors on Motivation and Emotion/Book/2019/Volunteer tourism: What motivates volunteer tourism?] p5nflwnswpmh7vdxevvpd3capnohpn6 2 286211 2417146 2413239 2022-08-22T02:28:38Z U3190353 2947650 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].''' == Book Chapter I am Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Embarrassment|Embarrassment]] == Social Contributions == jh9a91nycfu1eulubs6ro9yxqatz038 2417147 2417146 2022-08-22T02:30:38Z U3190353 2947650 /* Social Contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].''' == Book Chapter I am Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Embarrassment|Embarrassment]] md5wcvc6y261jh0lkzenf8sobx7oz9j 2 286212 2417194 2415986 2022-08-22T04:27:10Z U3216389 2947531 /* Social Contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == ''About Me:'' == [[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|Joy]] Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.[https://www.canberra.edu.au/]''' == Hobbies == I like to participate in sports such as Soccer and Basketball and I also enjoy playing video games and hanging out with my friends. == Book Chapter == The book chapter that I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Resentment|Resentment]] and I will be answering the questions What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences? as well as other things, as I will attempt to look at resentment through a number of different perspectives. == What am I studying == I am currently studying studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a breadth major in counselling and I am in my third and final year, however, I am hoping to further my studies. == Social Contributions == [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FChapter%2FSummarising_social_contributions&type=revision&diff=2417190&oldid=2324070]2:23pm, 22 August 2022: Fixed a grammatical error within the Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions: Revision history page 0qvqaj2xmjoeueqvgvambps4h88d40o 2417196 2417194 2022-08-22T04:28:14Z U3216389 2947531 wikitext text/x-wiki == ''About Me:'' == [[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|Joy]] Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.[https://www.canberra.edu.au/]''' == Hobbies == I like to participate in sports such as Soccer and Basketball and I also enjoy playing video games and hanging out with my friends. == Book Chapter == The book chapter that I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Resentment|Resentment]] and I will be answering the questions What is Resentment, what causes it, and what are it's consequences? as well as other things, as I will attempt to look at resentment through a number of different perspectives. == What am I studying == I am currently studying studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a breadth major in counselling and I am in my third and final year, however, I am hoping to further my studies. == Social Contributions == [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FAssessment%2FChapter%2FSummarising_social_contributions&type=revision&diff=2417190&oldid=2324070 2:23pm, 22 August 2022: Fixed a grammatical error within the Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions: Revision history page] 8uksvcmafmcqb02sngfv179bhh2b56x 2 286216 2417164 2413132 2022-08-22T03:43:40Z 210.50.97.127 details wikitext text/x-wiki Name: Braedy Muir Studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra Email: braedymuir1@gmail.com, U3210264@uni.canberra.edu.au Mobile: 0498194415 p1wd0wy2wb7thn8k9n0ym8ordgptuv1 2417212 2417164 2022-08-22T04:49:13Z U3210264 2947526 wikitext text/x-wiki <br /> Name: Braedy Muir Studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra Email: braedymuir1@gmail.com, U3210264@uni.canberra.edu.au Mobile: 0498194415 __FORCETOC__ 39pun6899hcciyepgkc0fd4xl39ngoo 2417221 2417212 2022-08-22T05:00:35Z U3210264 2947526 wikitext text/x-wiki About me: Studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra Email: braedymuir1@gmail.com, U3210264@uni.canberra.edu.au Mobile: 0498194415 __FORCETOC__ ey4ililvf1s6icg2u1p3akkewaq8akh 2417228 2417221 2022-08-22T05:08:24Z U3210264 2947526 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == Studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra Email: braedymuir1@gmail.com, U3210264@uni.canberra.edu.au Mobile: 0498194415 == Hobbies == == What chapter I am working on == == Social Contributions == __FORCETOC__ 14o3w3t1qnck13wldq7auuot96i0nkc 2417235 2417228 2022-08-22T05:15:26Z U3210264 2947526 about me/ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == My name is Braedy Muir. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra, and am in my third year. I am currently contributing to the 2022 motivation and emotion book. I am passionate about providing a humanistic perspective on wellbeing and in providing emotional support and wellbeing services in Canberra. I was born in Canberra but hope to travel the country and world, both professionally and for my own interests and growth as i am very open to all new and interesting experiences. == Hobbies == == What chapter I am working on == == Social Contributions == __FORCETOC__ 8gtw1uyombqosd17s5f4raj3ldcj1kz 2417242 2417235 2022-08-22T05:21:54Z U3210264 2947526 /* Hobbies */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == My name is Braedy Muir. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra, and am in my third year. I am currently contributing to the 2022 motivation and emotion book. I am passionate about providing a humanistic perspective on wellbeing and in providing emotional support and wellbeing services in Canberra. I was born in Canberra but hope to travel the country and world, both professionally and for my own interests and growth as i am very open to all new and interesting experiences. == Hobbies == * Skateboarding * Video Games * Reading * Camping * Water sports and boating activities (wakeboarding, water-skiing) I also am a creative person who enjoys drawing and making edits and art projects, as well as hanging out with my friends, family and pets, of which i have a bird and two turtles. == What chapter I am working on == I am working on motivation chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Humour, leadership, and work#Overview|Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Humour, leadership, and work]] == Social Contributions == __FORCETOC__ e486n51ayxrr594nix5pveo94kntv1j 2 286217 2417180 2413260 2022-08-22T04:12:03Z U3205429 2947697 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ wikitext text/x-wiki == ''About me:'' == Hi, I'm Mary. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|'''Psychology''']] and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the <u>[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]</u>. I am currently enrolled in a unit called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]], and my book chapter will be discussing what ''motivates kindness''. ==== Hobbies ==== * Reading * Embroidery * Walking == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Kindness motivation|Kindness motivation]] - What motivates kindness? == Social contributions == eo4czdofog0ge3zw0ov186peqwpa46i 2417186 2417180 2022-08-22T04:19:20Z U3205429 2947697 wikitext text/x-wiki == ''About me:'' == Hi, I'm [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=9frlWnp2XFbehPG6RdDs Mary]. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|'''Psychology''']] and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the <u>[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]</u>. I am currently enrolled in a unit called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]], and my book chapter will be discussing what ''motivates kindness''. ==== Hobbies ==== * Reading * Embroidery * Walking == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Kindness motivation|Kindness motivation]] - What motivates kindness? == Social contributions == hekltppmgdf78ptw7wvzkw4dejq8xou 0 286220 2417141 2413258 2022-08-22T02:01:42Z U3141987 2947041 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Behavioural economics and emotion: What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 9wkyectw6su9ukirgs02ed9m8sou9qk 2417143 2417141 2022-08-22T02:23:13Z U3141987 2947041 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Behavioural economics and motivation: What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Classical economics assumes that human decision-making is perfectly rational and self-interested. Significant evidence contradicts this premise, and behavioural economics examines the consistently or predictably "irrational" choices made by people. These behaviours are inexplicable through a classical economical lens of rational self-interest. Motivation theory, driven to answer why people do what they do, can help to explain the underlying processes that lead to various phenomena observed by behavioural economics. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ik8xtw0rtihfbvgcldi2ilfwmc389jb 2417151 2417143 2022-08-22T02:59:35Z U3141987 2947041 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Behavioural economics and motivation: What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Classical economics assumes that human decision-making is perfectly rational and self-interested. Significant evidence contradicts this premise, leading behavioural economists to examine the consistently or predictably "irrational" choices made by people. These behaviours are inexplicable through a classical economical lens of rational self-interest. Motivation theory, driven to answer why people do what they do, can help to explain the underlying processes that lead to various phenomena observed by behavioural economics. Behavioural economics finds a pattern of irrationality; motivational theories explain why this pattern has emerged. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] i7uvk6gjtal9wxk8wrm346kt54lv1is 2 286260 2417358 2413780 2022-08-22T10:18:38Z GabbieUC 2947746 /* About me */ update wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] This semester I am working on a book project for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. I am passionate about mental health and hope to conduct therapeutic work for children and young adults once I graduate. I am a local and could show you all the great sights here in [[w:Canberra|Canberra]]. Some of my favourites include the [[w:National Arboretum Canberra|National Arboretum]], the [[w:National Museum of Australia|National Museum]], and the [[w:National Library of Australia|National Library]]. === Book chapter I'm working on === [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|alt=A visual representation of different types of emotions|thumb|Figure 1: [[w:Robert Plutchik|Robert Plutchik's]] wheel of emotions|264x264px]] This semester I will be contributing a chapter to a class [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|book]] focusing on motivation and emotion. My chapter is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Emotion knowledge|Emotion knowledge: What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed?]] === Hobbies === * Reading * Video games * Cooking * Puzzles == Social contribution == 3zbhztogaw7xaqblgi3pei5kv8f24nq 2 286264 2417142 2413521 2022-08-22T02:02:21Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Fiola Kicmari and I am a 22 year old student at the University of Canberra. I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology majoring in Counselling studies. My career interests lie in pursuing clinical psychology with a specific focus in post-traumatic stress disorder. I am fascinated by human behaviour and mental processes and have found a passion in learning about how humans think, act and feel. I am a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Throughout this semester I am studying ''[[motivation and emotion]]'' === Hobbies === * Playing the piano * Hiking === Book chapter I am working on === Throughout this unit, I will be working on a book chapter on ==== Social contributions ==== 8hht726v9sp6k3wmut0zuau823taa02 2417153 2417142 2022-08-22T03:09:36Z U3210431 2947391 /* About me */ Interesting fact about me added wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Fiola Kicmari and I am a 22-year-old student at the University of Canberra. I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology majoring in Counselling studies. My career interests lie in pursuing clinical psychology with a specific focus in post-traumatic stress disorder. I am fascinated by human behaviour and mental processes and have found a passion in learning about how humans think, act and feel. I am a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Throughout this semester I am studying ''[[motivation and emotion]]'' === Hobbies === * Playing the piano * Hiking === Interesting fact about me === An interesting fact about me is that I am a German citizen of Kosovan heritage studying in Australia on a student visa. I am well-travelled and have lived among many different cultures as I am the daughter of a diplomatic family. Although I have a tendency to move from one place to another regularly, I have found my constant in the field of Psychology. === Book chapter I am working on === Throughout this unit, I will be working on a book chapter focusing on psychological trauma and subsequent drug use ==== Social contributions ==== 2hpp8om601kdoiy52ise73bforx3giu 2417156 2417153 2022-08-22T03:20:13Z U3210431 2947391 /* Interesting fact about me */ eportfolio wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Fiola Kicmari and I am a 22-year-old student at the University of Canberra. I am currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology majoring in Counselling studies. My career interests lie in pursuing clinical psychology with a specific focus in post-traumatic stress disorder. I am fascinated by human behaviour and mental processes and have found a passion in learning about how humans think, act and feel. I am a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Throughout this semester I am studying ''[[motivation and emotion]]'' === Hobbies === * Playing the piano * Hiking === Interesting fact about me === An interesting fact about me is that I am a German citizen of Kosovan heritage studying in Australia on a student visa. I am well-travelled and have lived among many different cultures as I am the daughter of a diplomatic family. Although I have a tendency to move from one place to another regularly, I have found my constant in the field of Psychology. ==== Professional Profile ==== [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/user/view.php?id=49464 Professional ePortfolio] === Book chapter I am working on === Throughout this unit, I will be working on a book chapter focusing on psychological trauma and subsequent drug use ==== Social contributions ==== rmidk3u86mats5703k4ir6tbatobomw 2 286276 2417145 2416008 2022-08-22T02:26:54Z U3183466 2947633 /* Social Contributions */ Added contribution information I made regarding the Learned helplessness topic wikitext text/x-wiki == '''About Me''' == I am a university student studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Gaming * Listening to Music * Construction * Interior Design === Qualifications === * Student of a '''Bachelor of Science''' in ''[[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]]''. * Have an '''Advanced Diploma''' in ''Game Design and Development''. * '''President''' of ''[https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/UCREC UCREC].'' * '''Vice-President''' of ''[https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/SAC SAC].'' === Book Chapter I'm working on === [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Motivational music and exercise|Motivational Music and Exercise]]'' ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=motivational+music&title=Special:MediaSearch&go=Go&type=image use this for images]) == Social Contributions == ([[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|use this for social contributions]]) * 02:24, 22 August 2022 diff hist  −12‎  <abbr>m</abbr> [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Overcoming learned helplessness]] ‎ [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Overcoming learned helplessness#Health%20Implications|→‎Health Implications]]: Removed text that said "Provide more information" current [[Special:Tags|Tag]]: [[Wikiversity:VisualEditor|Visual edit]] au3ew03tvjix12jnbvkciztpcwmujvr 2417368 2417145 2022-08-22T11:21:30Z U3183466 2947633 /* Social Contributions */ Added hyperlink to my first social contribution wikitext text/x-wiki == '''About Me''' == I am a university student studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Gaming * Listening to Music * Construction * Interior Design === Qualifications === * Student of a '''Bachelor of Science''' in ''[[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]]''. * Have an '''Advanced Diploma''' in ''Game Design and Development''. * '''President''' of ''[https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/UCREC UCREC].'' * '''Vice-President''' of ''[https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/SAC SAC].'' === Book Chapter I'm working on === [[File:Cartoon Woman Listening To Music Post-Workout.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Music can help one keep to a rhythm during their exercise as well as help calm down and relax them after exercise.]] ''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Motivational music and exercise|Motivational Music and Exercise]]'' ([https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=motivational+music&title=Special:MediaSearch&go=Go&type=image use this for images]) == Social Contributions == ([[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|use this for social contributions]]) * 02:24, 22 August 2022 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2015/Overcoming_learned_helplessness&diff=prev&oldid=2417144 diff] hist  −12‎  <abbr>m</abbr> [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Overcoming learned helplessness]] ‎ [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Overcoming learned helplessness#Health%20Implications|→‎Health Implications]]: Removed text that said "Provide more information" current [[Special:Tags|Tag]]: [[Wikiversity:VisualEditor|Visual edit]] 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|}<noinclude> [[Category:Walsh permutation; templates]]</noinclude> bp2ndxhpg7p2lkdj4w9suwgo3nrc46o 0 286397 2417136 2416101 2022-08-22T01:55:15Z U3210431 2947391 Changed title and subtitle wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j9kwsioikwasuk27gctnwc6t39pdaa5 2417158 2417136 2022-08-22T03:27:27Z U3210431 2947391 test headings wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] nav12pgeuxbb5w9os9qd8qdhq540jhv 2417160 2417158 2022-08-22T03:32:57Z U3210431 2947391 Testing headings wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === === What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug us === ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] fkbdjiik4zi1qccghqtdcwahufeeesb 2417191 2417160 2022-08-22T04:22:56Z U3210431 2947391 Overview DRAFT wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === === What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug us === ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] kmhuzz133dv24vfb7w9zeggxfwcw1mx 2417192 2417191 2022-08-22T04:24:54Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What ? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === === What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug us === ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] jffb5ahtvx2alrowjmpjwkz5ehllg1r 2417193 2417192 2022-08-22T04:26:03Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What ? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] jxop5a9v3nsa2k8wplrdowtput8jmy3 2417195 2417193 2022-08-22T04:27:18Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] hkohee4qjjnu0y1dlltghhq2y4rrtfv 2417250 2417195 2022-08-22T05:27:45Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== The Australian Psychological Association (APA) defines psychological trauma as: <blockquote>"An emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer tern reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea." '''()'''</blockquote>Psychological trauma refers to negative, intense events that threaten or cause harm to an individual's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Psychological trauma is most commonly the result of an individual perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation. Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] osk17y4bjmgkvp7fvzzmfkc8sniiaoe 2417267 2417250 2022-08-22T05:48:25Z U3210431 2947391 Types of psychological trauma wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== The Australian Psychological Association (APA) defines psychological trauma as: <blockquote>"An emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer tern reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea." '''()'''</blockquote>Psychological trauma refers to negative, intense events that threaten or cause harm to an individual's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Psychological trauma is most commonly the result of an individual perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation. Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === Terr (1991) introduced two types of psychological trauma: * '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. ** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. * '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse ** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. === Trauma models? === ==What constitutes drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 813jq1vyswikyyno6fftzccnhwqdtc0 2417269 2417267 2022-08-22T05:56:00Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to drug consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to social norms. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma?== The Australian Psychological Association (APA) defines psychological trauma as: <blockquote>"An emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer tern reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea." '''()'''</blockquote>Psychological trauma refers to negative, intense events that threaten or cause harm to an individual's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Psychological trauma is most commonly the result of an individual perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation. Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === Terr (1991) introduced two types of psychological trauma: * '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. ** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. * '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse ** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. === What constitutes drug use? === ==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === === Trauma theories === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] tq3tuk2etxzj6nkaioxumskwmebmdfx 2417353 2417269 2022-08-22T09:29:31Z U3210431 2947391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use:<br>How does psychological trauma motivate drug use?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== The use of drugs has jumped from the romanticisation of the “love drug” (MDMA) and hallucinogenic drugs in the 1980s, to the rumination of them and their lethal and detrimental nature across time. When it comes to [[Drug misuse|drug]] consumption, we see those individuals who search for a deeper meaning, those who try to find an escape and those who conform to [[social norms]]. Yet, humans are aware of the detrimental consequences of drug consumption. From a young age we are taught about drugs and their lethal consequences. Why do individuals partake in drug consumption when they are aware of what might happen? Imagine an individual who has consistently used drugs for years, developed an addiction and is therefore unemployed. This behaviour has caused family members and friends to detach themselves, leaving this individual lonely. Family members constantly asking why they have done this to themselves and the blame being pointed at the individual for ruining their life. Although it is not out of the picture, we tend to believe that people are responsible for using drugs and that it is their responsibility to not become addicted. Why do we tend to believe that? Is it truly the individuals fault or can drug use be influenced by previous traumatic experiences? This chapter focuses on how psychological trauma can motivate drug use. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is psychological trauma? * What are theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use? * What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is psychological trauma and drug use?== The [https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma Australian Psychological Association] (APA) defines psychological trauma as: <blockquote>"An emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, rape, or natural disaster. immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks, strained relationships, and even physical symptoms like headaches to nausea." '''()'''</blockquote>Psychological trauma refers to negative, intense events that threaten or cause harm to an individual's emotional and/or physical wellbeing. Psychological trauma is most commonly the result of an individual perceiving themselves to be in a life-threatening situation. Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Types of psychological trauma === Terr (1991) introduced two types of psychological trauma: * '''Type I''' - results from a single event such as an accident, witnessing a crime or rape. ** Individuals affected by Type I trauma especially if the incident occurred after the age of 3, are thought to remember the incident and experience perceptual symptoms such as visual hallucinations as a consequence of the trauma. * '''Type II -''' results from repeated exposure of extreme traumatising events such as re-occurring abuse ** Individuals affected by Type II trauma, are proposed to repress the event using denial and dissociation methods to avoid the trauma exposure. === What constitutes drug use? === ==What are the theoretical underpinnings of trauma induced drug use?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be throughout the chapter. === Motivational theory/ theories for drug use === === Trauma theories === == How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? == It comes as no surprise that individuals turn to drug misuse to self-medicate against the unbearable pain and distress caused by unresolved and unprocessed traumatic experiences (). === Trauma types most relevant to drug use === === Consequences of trauma induced drug use === == What are the strategies for treating trauma induced drug use? == ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] mczsgcmdrb5t2nz7sii1g81g46utia4 0 286438 2417169 2415488 2022-08-22T04:00:57Z Btarmstrong24 2947552 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title: Functional imagery training<br>Subtitle: What is Functional Imagery training, how has it impacted psychology, and can it be effectively implemented?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! [[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=A girl smiling, not relevant to content|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image|150x150px]] This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 2''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Daniel Amen Ted x Talk - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esPRsT-lmw8&ab_channel=TEDxTalks Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] gio881dcijaquso91xz0r4wijadkg0d 0 286453 2417185 2415645 2022-08-22T04:16:18Z U3205429 2947697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) agchck2rck8ui8qem4pck0zgpiqh6pp 2417200 2417185 2022-08-22T04:37:28Z U3205429 2947697 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) kzc2bcxqicvkrrzgtnuvrnyp2xdj806 2417203 2417200 2022-08-22T04:38:52Z U3205429 2947697 /* What is kindness? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) anqp7ky13tf9dfx4qv6l2tq1wdg8m0h 2417208 2417203 2022-08-22T04:47:23Z U3205429 2947697 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) oy7anwwbbbafmzeibj8ew2w399lpk2e 2417214 2417208 2022-08-22T04:52:36Z U3205429 2947697 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[wikipedia:Kindness|Kindness]] {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) ocm7f0ayr85de169vd0ngir7soq0ope 2417215 2417214 2022-08-22T04:52:55Z U3205429 2947697 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[wikipedia:Kindness|Kindness]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) ap51ehu0b02fswa1fu4v05ntbz5aec5 2417216 2417215 2022-08-22T04:53:28Z U3205429 2947697 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[wikipedia:Kindness|Kindness]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) 75d629xcespt2clz7evhcgrarbnibjy 2417229 2417216 2022-08-22T05:09:19Z U3205429 2947697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Kindness Motivation<br>What motivates kindness?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Kindness is everything! -WomensMarch -WomensMarch2018 -SenecaFalls -NY (24937353927).jpg|alt=A person holding a kindness is everything sign. |thumb|Figure 1: A person holding a kindness is everything sign. ]] You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==What is motivation?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What is kindness?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How does motivation affect kindness? == ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[wikipedia:Kindness|Kindness]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGgnyj8Oyvo How one act of kindness can change your life]. (Youtube) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) ttn08otxh3z3gz8wfnsp4lkd0me8d42 0 286508 2417279 2415943 2022-08-22T06:23:26Z U943292 2946502 Entered title wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement. What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 9u4aso02w0bvi0wculisdjy5svhr0v5 0 286548 2417210 2416403 2022-08-22T04:48:36Z 203.221.102.162 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing. {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5ztfpo3qfvs8435or53knexk1n1ewtd 2417222 2417210 2022-08-22T05:03:53Z 203.221.102.162 /* Main headings */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing. {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 9uvuwrvbhpwdid7om7yjf9eg4ho0s7g 2417233 2417222 2022-08-22T05:12:44Z 203.221.102.162 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing. {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., & Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., & Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full<nowiki/>{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 3byteqehk4quabmb26ti9acob8whequ 2417240 2417233 2022-08-22T05:21:25Z 203.221.102.162 /* External links */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing. {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) * [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., & Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., & Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full<nowiki/>{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] dfr0117n00b5655ef4mqvjtpnxdzywt 2417245 2417240 2022-08-22T05:23:25Z 203.221.102.162 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing. [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Group of Friends]] {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) * [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., & Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., & Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full<nowiki/>{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5cbqog2av5k5632c0jn2i87fcesap73 2417248 2417245 2022-08-22T05:25:00Z 203.221.102.162 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|Figure 1 Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) * [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., & Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., & Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full<nowiki/>{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 3u37w73h7gaanbwigm1s4o223cmh8ws 2417249 2417248 2022-08-22T05:25:31Z 203.221.102.162 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social cure - What is the social cure and how can it be applied?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ =='''Overview'''== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}}In today's modern society, many factors are present that can affect our physical and mental health. Factors include bullying, [[File:-Friends Forever -Life Long -Friends 4 life -Together -Friends -Reunion -Memories.jpg|thumb|''Figure'' 1. Group of Friends]]low-socioeconomic status leading to poor health choices such as smoking and drinking, psychological determinants such as anxiety and depression and many more. ''Social Cure'' seeks to alleviate many of these potential problems by illustrating the usefulness and effectiveness of social support for individuals. This book chapter seeks to identify the ways in which social cure can be an effective way of bolstering physical and mental health and wellbeing.{{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == '''Social Cure''' == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. === Dynamic of Social Cure === * Increased social activity positively effecting mental health and wellbeing - Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). * === '''Importance of Groups''' === === '''Social Networking''' === {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) * [[Mental health|Mental Health]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }}Currie, C., Zanotti, C., Morgan, A., Currie, D., De Looze, M., Roberts, C., Samdal, O., Smith, O. R., & Barnekow, V. (2009). Social determinants of health and well-being among young people. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the, 2010, 271. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39900069/Social_determinants_of_health_and_well-b20151111-27604-w42wjb-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1661148517&Signature=hG-B6MV1OU2j9Et0tU2yTeQ4ye1~FfSbJF783dpZC5v3CjDVVrlzLGXWKFOw58R6Lwt~4mfP3l3D5ixHOKRz5zVIv1DG5GLFpRBy0-fvyab90PhRaZ97Mi-0z0kQxZ9yl5AVpFHxpcrw2-u-R~DnPpkXg2nt4LBUatVcQcvNOClO6lSmUroQ2PASg9FNmHDBR03JNNlIGhqr62KoBjPyyZSUS~DXZE~D69dnFLqLRWvGCoMP1c0pJRM0DW3QmmNI1tZzrdY1HrllFK-Yky2YLn8TkS5KRcWLRYfqYrKg5od5vQqUKO6xg4IRAJk7Sw~A3iOohm6blOGoMnSNWKopyQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA] Jetten, J., Haslam, S. A., Cruwys, T., Greenaway, K. H., Haslam, C., & Steffens, N. K. (2017). Advancing the social identity approach to health and well‐being: Progressing the social cure research agenda. European journal of social psychology, 47(7), 789-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2333 Hajak, V. L., Sardana, S., Verdeli, H., & Grimm, S. (2021). A systematic review of factors affecting mental health and well-being of asylum seekers and refugees in Germany. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 643704. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.643704/full<nowiki/>{{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) * [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jolanda-Jetten/publication/247446655_The_Social_Cure/links/58d0b571a6fdcc344b0c1364/The-Social-Cure.pdf The Social Cure] (Book by Jolanda Jetten) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 2pifi67eftotetlgjy18cvydzfg6niu 3 286617 2417054 2417021 2022-08-21T13:08:29Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Yadhu Krishna BP!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:08, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} Hai, my name is Yadhu. 9nybu43xw1nfjrsp7zjm1yv5ludqf0l 3 286618 2417048 2022-08-21T13:06:06Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3025906!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:06, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 40h4qnru2ycouke9adgt123qoxxn02z 3 286619 2417050 2022-08-21T13:07:30Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3214260!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} awps3movewovjp5d1c5k56mvqe3uj3l 3 286620 2417051 2022-08-21T13:07:37Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3213568!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} riiy0e9i3ks1uxrvjpxfcqen18yjeli 3 286621 2417052 2022-08-21T13:07:46Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3195332!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 3lqhnjlaycb8sw548wy0eji69mxx98f 2 286622 2417059 2022-08-21T13:55:43Z Somer Gellatly 2948643 New resource with "{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" |+ !Contents |- |1. About me |- |2. Book chapter |- |3. Social contribution |- |4. Hobbies |} == About me == I am a student at the University of Canberra studying the Bachelor of Psychological Science with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. == Book Chapter == I will be developing my chapter on [[Environmental volunteering motivation]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? == Social contributions == == Hobbies ==" wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" |+ !Contents |- |1. About me |- |2. Book chapter |- |3. Social contribution |- |4. Hobbies |} == About me == I am a student at the University of Canberra studying the Bachelor of Psychological Science with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. == Book Chapter == I will be developing my chapter on [[Environmental volunteering motivation]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? == Social contributions == == Hobbies == tjjea53w0j8w4eyo2nn2n0lw2trwtvo 2417060 2417059 2022-08-21T13:56:13Z Somer Gellatly 2948643 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student at the University of Canberra studying the Bachelor of Psychological Science with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. == Book Chapter == I will be developing my chapter on [[Environmental volunteering motivation]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? == Social contributions == == Hobbies == slcu8koc1r38zwu2sfzzkgmrx5zcgey 6 286623 2417066 2022-08-21T14:36:45Z Ncharamut 2824970 {{subst:InformationQ|Q99522133 |Description= history of corononviruses WikiJournal of Medicine article |Source= https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Medicine/A_history_of_coronaviruses |Date= 05-08-2022 |Author= Kholhring Lalchhandama |Permission= CC BY 4.0 }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |description = PDF copy of the article: ''{{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P1476|fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}}'' |date = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P577 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} |source = {{cite_Q|Q99522133 }} |author = {{#invoke:Authors_Q|getAuthors|qid=Q99522133 }} |Permission = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P275 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} (see below) }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-4.0}} 9yqg1msej98eb51h0kr2c77brj2qmhw 2417067 2417066 2022-08-21T15:00:12Z Ncharamut 2824970 fixed licensing wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |description = PDF copy of the article: ''{{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P1476|fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}}'' |date = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P577 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} |source = {{cite_Q|Q99522133 }} |author = {{#invoke:Authors_Q|getAuthors|qid=Q99522133 }} |Permission = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P275 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} (see below) }} == Licensing == {{self|2=cc-by-4.0}} k5j0bfhzr6ucbp3mqz0e1wo3xlsk9o3 2417104 2417067 2022-08-21T21:51:35Z Ncharamut 2824970 Ncharamut uploaded a new version of [[File:A history of coronaviruses WJM.pdf]] wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |description = PDF copy of the article: ''{{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P1476|fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}}'' |date = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P577 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} |source = {{cite_Q|Q99522133 }} |author = {{#invoke:Authors_Q|getAuthors|qid=Q99522133 }} |Permission = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99522133 |P275 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} (see below) }} == Licensing == {{self|2=cc-by-4.0}} k5j0bfhzr6ucbp3mqz0e1wo3xlsk9o3 0 286624 2417069 2022-08-21T15:06:25Z Nym1977 2948644 Just give the definition of IMRaD wikitext text/x-wiki '''IMRaD''' stands for '''''I'''ntroduction, '''M'''ethods, '''Re'''sults and '''D'''iscussion and is a standard way to report scientific finding.'' * ''Introduction:'' A clarification about the context of the scientific work and a summary of existing research relevant to the topic of interest. * ''Method'': explains the set of techniques that the authors used for arriving at the findings in the paper * ''Results'': explains what the authors found following the method previously suggested. * ''Discussion'': evaluate method and results from a bird eye view and try to generalize the findings discussing possible future works iq3m8qxw4w7iayepualitcnip1u35mp 3 286625 2417082 2022-08-21T16:06:09Z 2409:4050:2E8D:4156:9E2:B9E7:6279:E62A New resource with "Hai, my name is Yadhu." wikitext text/x-wiki Hai, my name is Yadhu. 6wsoj16n8ig13g5fkzxo8ph8obzz7vl 3 286626 2417083 2022-08-21T16:11:10Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Nym1977!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:11, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 23q6f4sa4vvrdr1eeaqvl4lmrdotrkc 3 286627 2417084 2022-08-21T16:11:57Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Somer Gellatly!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:11, 21 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} gr4fbq3x3q4filyhzfv92b5z4xij5kl 6 286628 2417098 2022-08-21T21:04:04Z Ncharamut 2824970 {{subst:InformationQ|Q99676829 }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |description = PDF copy of the article: ''{{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P1476|fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}}'' |date = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P577 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} |source = {{cite_Q|Q99676829 }} |author = {{#invoke:Authors_Q|getAuthors|qid=Q99676829 }} |Permission = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P275 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} (see below) }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-4.0}} hszg6a7ejvx09m174xqux38v25d959b 2417099 2417098 2022-08-21T21:05:09Z Ncharamut 2824970 fixed licensing wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |description = PDF copy of the article: ''{{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P1476|fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}}'' |date = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P577 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} |source = {{cite_Q|Q99676829 }} |author = {{#invoke:Authors_Q|getAuthors|qid=Q99676829 }} |Permission = {{#invoke:WikidataIB|getValue|qid=Q99676829 |P275 |fetchwikidata=ALL|onlysourced=no|noicon=true}} (see below) }} == Licensing == {{self|2=cc-by-4.0}} hoq4xjsbguqr1v0g35xg2hw2eymxqqz 0 286629 2417106 2022-08-21T22:00:03Z U3189442 - K.Ryan 2924719 {{subst:ME/BCS}}, wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 2417107 2417106 2022-08-21T22:01:20Z U3189442 - K.Ryan 2924719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]], g822y33nkuo6i9yntczjvyhmil797ii 3 286630 2417140 2022-08-22T01:58:25Z MdsShakil 2913655 MdsShakil moved page [[User talk:Gustavo6046]] to [[User talk:Wallabra]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/Gustavo6046|Gustavo6046]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/Wallabra|Wallabra]]" wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[User talk:Wallabra]] 45cgl4rt4zry9d5sdyb88m6ryxsxxm3 6 286631 2417182 2022-08-22T04:12:16Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 8ce7bfoop5v37oszskrbfaazkwarotb 6 286632 2417206 2022-08-22T04:40:56Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 7ulza6a38j1alu3uunendm4gz6sqei5 6 286633 2417273 2022-08-22T05:59:36Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 4lhj3es1r7qy8iiiab7l7nqyqnrac5m 6 286634 2417277 2022-08-22T06:19:48Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220822 - 20220820) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-22 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} afci3rwwvk3h2pdv2f3od79m1p2lkey 0 286635 2417285 2022-08-22T06:34:31Z Guy vandegrift 813252 Guy vandegrift moved page [[The physics of music]] to [[Draft:The physics of music]]: this is taking far longer than I thought wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Draft:The physics of music]] 0da6zzx6bc6yorp77psec13xjiy0kkc 0 286636 2417286 2022-08-22T06:34:57Z U943292 2946502 New resource with "{{subst:ME/BCS}}" wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy 2 286637 2417289 2022-08-22T06:46:10Z Kate Carloff 2948680 Creating a Dummy Topic Development Page to work on wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy 2417363 2417289 2022-08-22T11:04:43Z Kate Carloff 2948680 Adding skeleton to topic development task wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement. What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Hierarchy (To-Do: Create a Map / Diagram) == === [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] > comprised of 6 constructs > self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations === === Social-Cognitive Theory > [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] > Motivational Factor > Influences behaviour === === Self-Efficacy > Psychological Construct > Belief System === === Self-Efficacy > sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory & self regulation > Motivational factor(s) > Feed into academic success === == Theory == === Self-efficacy is..... === * Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory * Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences) * Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings) === Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... === * Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory) * Self-efficacy versus Self-concept. === Structure of Self-Efficacy === * Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion) * Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality) == Academic Self-Efficacy == === As a direct positive effector on academic achievement === === As a moderating effector on academic achievement === * i.e., moderates grade goals & effort regulation (as factors / predictors) === As a mediating effector on academic achievement === * alongside goal setting Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 16tem5h71zftf1czsexv6si0bre2rbx 2417367 2417363 2022-08-22T11:17:21Z Kate Carloff 2948680 Added References wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement. What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Hierarchy (To-Do: Create a Map / Diagram) == === [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] > comprised of 6 constructs > self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations === === Social-Cognitive Theory > [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] > Motivational Factor > Influences behaviour === === Self-Efficacy > Psychological Construct > Belief System === === Self-Efficacy > sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory & self regulation > Motivational factor(s) > Feed into academic success === == Theory == === Self-efficacy is..... === * Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory * Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences) * Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings) === Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... === * Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory) * Self-efficacy versus Self-concept. === Structure of Self-Efficacy === * Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion) * Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality) == Academic Self-Efficacy == === As a direct positive effector on academic achievement === === As a moderating effector on academic achievement === * i.e., moderates grade goals & effort regulation (as factors / predictors) === As a mediating effector on academic achievement === * alongside goal setting Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== Alhadabi, A., & Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 519-535. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202</nowiki> Caviglia-Harris, J., & Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702</nowiki> Delaney, L., Harmon, C., & Ryan, M. (2013). The role of noncognitive traits in undergraduate study behaviours. Economics of Education Review (32), 181-195. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.07.009</nowiki> Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., & Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research & Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460</nowiki> Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The relation of academic self-efficacy to university stu-dent academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63-84. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002</nowiki> Maddux, J. E., & Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. <nowiki>https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&docID=4513033</nowiki> Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university stu-dents’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838</nowiki> {{Hanging indent|1= }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] qgd4psp9ib2jtfw8670bn6wluct07nx 2417369 2417367 2022-08-22T11:26:45Z Kate Carloff 2948680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-efficacy and academic achievement. What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == Hierarchy (To-Do: Create a Map / Diagram) == === [[wikipedia:Social_cognitive_theory|Social-Cognitive Theory]] > comprised of 6 constructs > self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, and expectations === === Social-Cognitive Theory > [[wikipedia:Self-efficacy|Self-Efficacy]] > Motivational Factor > Influences behaviour === === Self-Efficacy > Psychological Construct > Belief System === === Self-Efficacy > sites alongside other (non-cognitive characteristic) constructs: grit, locus of control, mindset theory & self regulation > Motivational factor(s) > Feed into academic success === == Theory == === Self-efficacy is..... === * Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory * Performance self-efficacy (expectations of future performance derive from familiar past experiences) * Academic self-efficacy (performance expectations are rendered from generalised competencies in unfamiliar settings) === Self-efficacy is '''not'''..... === * Self-efficacy versus Implicit Theory of Intelligence ( Mindset Theory) * Self-efficacy versus Self-concept. === Structure of Self-Efficacy === * Sources (mastery experience, social modelling, physiological state, verbal persuasion) * Effects of Self-efficacy (approach and avoidance; effort and persistence; thinking and decision making; emotionality) == Academic Self-Efficacy == === A direct positive effect on academic achievement === * Discuss relevant studies === As a moderating effector on academic achievement === * i.e., moderates grade goals & effort regulation (as predictors) === As a mediating effector on academic achievement === * alongside goal setting Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== Alhadabi, A., & Karpinski, A.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 519-535. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1679202</nowiki> Caviglia-Harris, J., & Maier, K. (2020). It's not all in their heads: the differing role of cognitive factors and non-cognitive traits in undergraduate success. Education Economics, 28(3), 245-262. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09645292.2020.1729702</nowiki> Delaney, L., Harmon, C., & Ryan, M. (2013). The role of noncognitive traits in undergraduate study behaviours. Economics of Education Review (32), 181-195. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.07.009</nowiki> Han, C.W., Farruggia, S.P., & Solomon, B.J. (2018). Latent profiling university students’ learning strategies use and effects on academic performance and retention, Higher Edu-cation Research & Development, 37(7), 1409-1423. <nowiki>https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/07294360.2018.1498460</nowiki> Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The relation of academic self-efficacy to university stu-dent academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63-84. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002</nowiki> Maddux, J. E., & Kleiman, E. (2017). Self-efficacy. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. <nowiki>https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/detail.action?pq-origsite=primo&docID=4513033</nowiki> Palos, R., Magurean, S., & Petrovici, M. (2019). Self-regulated learning and academic performance - the mediating role of students’ achievement goals. ''Revista de cercetare și intervenție socială, 67'', 234-249. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.33788/rcis.67.15</nowiki> Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university stu-dents’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0026838</nowiki> {{Hanging indent|1= }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] cofov1ds5orro2cq7x4av0hhkuk6sb8 2 286638 2417297 2022-08-22T06:57:00Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 New resource with "Hi there, My name is Tiarna. I am a 3rd year psychology student! I love learning new content, its fascinating." wikitext text/x-wiki Hi there, My name is Tiarna. I am a 3rd year psychology student! I love learning new content, its fascinating. 2aafmep0g57rdg0czm944zxxed13xib 0 286639 2417374 2022-08-22T11:56:00Z Cizreligenç 2948697 New resource with "'''''Dengê Evînê: Asîk Selîmê Cîzîrî''''' ([[Turkey|Türkçe]]: ''Aşkın Sesi: Aşık Selime Ciziri'', [[Kürtçe]]'de "Aşkın Sesi" anlamına gelir), Abdulaziz Bilge'nin yönetmenliğini üstlendiği 2022 yapımı [[belgesel]] filmdir. Belgesel, Cizre'de dengbejlik geleneğinden sonra kasidevanlık geleneğini de sürdürmesi yönüyle ozanlık ve kasidevanlığa çok büyük katkılar sunarak Cizre'nin edebiyat geleneğinin sürdürülmesine ve bu geleneği..." wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Dengê Evînê: Asîk Selîmê Cîzîrî''''' ([[Turkey|Türkçe]]: ''Aşkın Sesi: Aşık Selime Ciziri'', [[Kürtçe]]'de "Aşkın Sesi" anlamına gelir), Abdulaziz Bilge'nin yönetmenliğini üstlendiği 2022 yapımı [[belgesel]] filmdir. Belgesel, Cizre'de dengbejlik geleneğinden sonra kasidevanlık geleneğini de sürdürmesi yönüyle ozanlık ve kasidevanlığa çok büyük katkılar sunarak Cizre'nin edebiyat geleneğinin sürdürülmesine ve bu geleneğin yaşatılmasında katkıları olan Âşık Selime Ciziri’nin hayatı, tanık ve akrabaların diliyle belgesele dönüştürüldü.<ref>{{Web kaynağı|url=http://film.iksv.org/tr/film/2438|başlık=Cizreli Dengbej ve Kasidevan Âşık Selim’in hayatı belgesel oldu|yayımcı=ilkha.com|erişimtarihi=12 Nisan 2022|arşivurl=https://ilkha.com/yasam/cizreli-dengbej-ve-kasidevan-asik-selim-in-hayati-belgesel-oldu-192867|arşivtarihi=22 Ağustos 2022|ölüurl=evet}}</ref> == Film ekibi == * Yönetmen: Abdulaziz Bilge * Yapımcı: Abdulaziz Bilge * Müzik: Aşık Selime Ciziri, Orhan Arsu * Kamera: Mesut Sevimli, Edip Ataç * Işık: Sidar Sevimli * Kurgu: Abdulaziz Bilge, Sidar Sevimli * Afiş: Sidar Sevimli * Kürtçe-Türkçe Çeviri: Abdulaziz Bilge == Oyuncular == * Sidar Sevimli * Abdulhakim Sevimli * Heme Guri Ciziri * Ramazan İmrağ * Mesut Ciziri * Edip Ataç * Cahfer Ebret * Mustafa Cavıldak * Fettah Cavıldak * Bünyamin Ataç == Dış bağlantılar == afil3p26gj9i0byui30jzibsjbdu5uw